Cell Nucleus and

Chromosomes
Cell Nucleus: is a organelle found in a center
of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a
single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as
mammalian red blood cells, have no nuclei, and a
few others including osteoclasts have many.

Red blood cells (RBC) are cells that have function of

delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues—via blood
flow through the circulatory system.
In humans, mature red blood cells are flexible and oval
biconcave disks. They lack a cell nucleus and most
organelles, in order to accommodate maximum space
for hemoglobin.
 Osteoclast
An osteoclast (from Ancient Greek osteon, meaning
'bone', and clastos, meaning 'broken') is a type of
bone cell that breaks down bone tissue. Osteoclasts
contain more than one nucleus. They are large
cells produced by the fusion of several smaller
ones.
The cell nucleus contains all of the cell's genome,
multiple long linear DNA molecules in a complex with a
large variety of proteins, such as histones, to
form chromosomes.

A chromosome is a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

molecule which are genetic material of an organism.
Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-
based structure than eukaryotes.

In biology, a gene is a sequence of nucleotides in

DNA or RNA that codes for a molecule that has a
specific function, ie: protein or RNA.
A gene is the basic physical and functional unit
of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA.
Some genes act as instructions to make
molecules called proteins.
However, many genes do not code for
proteins.
 Genes are molecules that play a role in
inheritance
 Contains genetic codes that play a role in
phenotypic appearance and biological
activities
 Segment of DNA that has the information (the
code) for a protein or RNA.
 A single molecule of DNA has thousands of
genes on the molecule.
 Remember the mantra:
DNA → RNA → Protein
 - Correct Protein -

- Incorrect Protein -
 Basic Question… TASK HOMEWORK

 What is the structure of genes?

 How do genes inherit trait from parent to
child?
 How can genes play a role in regulating
bodily functions?
 How can genes play a role in regulating
bodily functions?
 Is it the same between humans and
animals genes?
 etc
 CHROMOSOME
Chromosomes are important molecules as they
contain DNA and the genetic instructions for
the direction of all cell activity.
They also carry genes that determine
individual traits.
 Chromosomes are packets of DNA and proteins
(histones) that are inside the cell nucleus.
 Histone proteins help DNA coil up and form its
shape.
Chromosomes are divided into 2 types:
1. The body of chromosome (autosome) is a
chromosome that encodes the proteins
needed for the body's phenotypic and
functional properties.
2. Example: autosomes of humans have a diploid
genome that contains 22 pairs of autosomes.
3. Sex chromosome (sex chromosome) is a
chromosome that encodes the sex of an
individual.
 Human chromosome
 Consisting of 46 chromosomes (22 pairs
of body chromosomes/autosome and 1
pairs of sex chromosomes)
 Male genital chromosome: XY
 Female genital chromosome: XX
 Compilation of human chromosomes based
on their sequence is called karyotype
Human Chromosome
Human Karyotype
 Karyotyping: Chromosome Analysis
❑ Todetect chromosome abnormalities disorder, in
order to help diagnose genetic diseases.
❑Achromosome disorder results from a change in the
number or structure of chromosomes.
Syndrome Abnormality Incidence
Down’s Trisomy 21 15 in 10,000
Edwards’ Trisomy 18 3 in 10,000
Patau’s Trisomy 13 2 in 10,000
Turner Monosomy X 2 in 10,000 (female births)
Klinefelter’s XXY 10 in 10,000 (male births)
XXX XXX 10 in 10,000 (female births)
XYY XYY 10 in 10,000 (male births)
Normal vs Edward’s Syndrome
Patau’s vs Klinefelter Syndrome
 The chromosomes in the body/somatic cells
are pairs of → diploid
 The chromosomes in gamete cells are half of
the body cells → haploid
 Homologous chromosomes are a pairs of
chromosomes originating from mother and
father
 Homologous chromosomes have the same
gene at the same locus, the genes may
contain different alleles.
Homologous Chromosomes
▪ Chromosomes
containing the same
type of genetic
information
▪ one comes from
male parent, one
comes from female
parent
Homologous Chromosomes
 Structure of DNA, RNA and
Organization of Chromosomes in
Organism
 History of DNA Discovery
 1860 – Johann Friedriech
Miescher
◦ Isolating proteins from white
blood cells
◦ Get a different molecule with
protein
◦ This molecule is called
"nuclein" → believed to
originate from the nucleus
◦ This nuclein is actually DNA
 Sejarah Penemuan DNA

 1885-1901 – Albrecht Kossel

◦ Examining the chemical
structure of "nuclein"
◦ "Nuclein" consists of 5
nitrogen bases: adenine,
guanine, cytosine, thymine
and uracil
◦ Albrecht Kossel was awarded
the Nobel Prize in 1910
 1940s – Avery Oswald
o In collaboration with Colin
MacLeod and Maclyn
McCarty found a molecule
that can be transformed
o Research on changes in the
nature of non-pathogenic
bacteria becomes
pathogenic when mixed with
pathogenic bacteria
o There is material
transformed in this event
 1950 – Erwin Chargaff
◦ Find the amount of nitrogen
bases in the structure of DNA
◦ Amount of G = C and A = T
◦ The composition of these
nitrogen bases varies in
various species
◦ The invention was called the
Chargaff law
 1951- 1953 → Rosalind Franklin
o Conducted research
collaboration with
Maurice Wilkins and
Raymond Gosling
o Successfully
photographed the
structure of DNA
with X-ray diffraction
o Find out that the phosphate group is in the
structure of DNA
o Almost found a double strand structure
1953- James Watson and Francis Crick
o Find the structure of
DNA double strand
o Awarded the Nobel
Prize in 1962 in
Physiology or
Medicine
DNA structure ?

RNA structure?
 DNA=Deoxyribonucleic acid
▪ DNA: a polymer of deoxyribo-nucleotides.
▪ Usually double stranded and double-helix
structure.
▪ Found in chromosomes, mitochondrias,
Plasmids and chloroplasts.
▪ It acts as the genetic material in most of
the organisms.
▪ Carries the genetic information
DNA Structure
DNA structure is often divided into four
different levels primary, secondary, tertiary
and quaternary.

DNA has three main components:

1. Deoxyribose (a pentose sugar)
2. Base (there are four different ones)
3. Phosphate

2
1
 A, G, C or T A, G, C or U

O Base O Base
O P O CH2 O P O CH2
5′ O 5′ O
O– 4′ 1′ O– 4′ 1′
H H H H
H H H H
Phosphate 3′ 2′
Phosphate 3′ 2′
OH H OH OH
Deoxyribose Ribose

DNA Nucleotide RNA Nucleotide

DNA and RNA Structures
DNA RNA
 DNA:
Double Helix
RNA strand is
almost same
as DNA
What is RNA?
RNA is a nucleic acid called Ribonucleic
Acid
Functions of RNA:
▪ RNA transfers genetic information from the
nucleus (DNA) to the cell (proteins) for use.
▪ Makes up ribosomes (Ribosomes are
approximately 60% rRNA and 40% protein by weight.
A ribosome contains two subunits, the large ribosomal
subunit and small ribosomal subunit).
▪ Helps assemble (biosynthesis) proteins
 The Structure of RNA
(Similar to DNA with several key differences)

❖ Made up of a repeating strand

of nucleotides, contains all 3
parts similar to DNA (sugar,
phosphate, nitrogen base)
❖ The sugar in RNA is called Ribose
❖ Contains the nitrogen base Uracil
instead of Thymine. Uracil will
bind to Adenine (like thymine did)
❖ RNA is single strand
Types of RNA :
There are 3 types of RNA, each with a
different job
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Each type of RNA has a different
structure that is related to its function.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
❖ mRNA- single strand that carries messages
from the DNA to the cytosol, so that it can
be used make proteins.
 Transfer RNA (tRNA)
❖ tRNA- is a cloverleaf
shaped single strand that
matches the amino acid
to the correct sequence
of mRNA
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
❖ rRNA-is a single strand in globular form, rRNA
binds with proteins to make up ribosomes
which are then used to make the proteins
 Chromosomes & Genomes
 Chromosomes
◦ complexes of DNA and proteins – chromatin
◦ Viral – linear, circular; DNA or RNA
◦ Bacteria – single, circular
◦ Eukaryotes – multiple, linear
 Genome
◦ The genetic material that an organism possesses
◦ Nuclear genome
◦ Mitochondrial & chloroplasts genome
 Bacterial Chromosomes
❖ Ina region called the
nucleoid*)
❖ DNA in direct contact
with cytoplasm
Bacterial Chromosomes

*) The nucleoid (meaning nucleus-like) is

an irregularly-shaped region within the
cell of a prokaryote that contains all or
most of the genetic material. In contrast
to the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, it is not
surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
 Bacterial Chromosomes

Chromosomal DNA is compacted ~ 1000 fold to fit

within cell
 Bacterial Chromosomes
Size
❖ Escherichia coli
~ 4.6 million bp
❖ Haemophilus influenzae
~ 1.8 million bp
Composition
❖E coli ~6000 genes
❖ Genes encoding proteins for
related functions arranged in
operons
❖ Intergenic regions
nontranscribed DNA
❖ Single origin of replication (Ori)
 Extra Chromosomal (Plasmids)

In addition to the chromosome, some bacteria (and plants) have

plasmids
– Smaller circular DNA molecules that can replicate
independently of the bacterial chromosome
– Extra chromosomal DNA
– Does not code for genes that aid in cell replication
– Has special functions: allow for conjugation,
convey resistance to a variety of different antibiotics.. etc.
 Viruses
❖ Viralgenome is Infectious particles containing
nucleic acid surrounded by a protein capsid
❖ Rely on host cell for replication, transcription,
translation
❖ Exhibit a limited host range (types of organisms
infected)
❖ Genomes vary from a few thousand to a
hundred thousand nucleotides
 Some Virus Structures
Phage

Capsid
protein

Tobacco Mosaic Virus

(TMV)