INTRODUCTION TO IOT

CHAPTER 1

Basics of Networking
1.1 DEFINITION: Networking refers to the linking of computers and communication network
devices (also referred to as hosts), which interconnect through a network (Internet or Intranet)
and are separated by unique device identifiers (Internet protocol, IP addresses and media access
control, MAC addresses).
1.2 Network Types
Computer networks are classified according to various parameters:
1) Type of connection
2) Physical Topology
3) Reach of the Network.
1.2.1 Connection Types
Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer networks are of two
types Point-to-point and Point-to-multipoint.
i. Point-To-Point
➢ Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct connections between two
hosts.
➢ These networks were designed to work over duplex links and are functional for
both synchronous as well as asynchronous systems.
➢ Point to point connections find usage for specific purposes such as in optical
networks.
Advantages:
➢ This is faster and highly reliable than other types of connections since there is a direct
connection.
➢ No need for a network operating system
➢ Does not need an expensive server as individual workstations are used to access the
files
➢ No need for any dedicated network technicians because each user sets their permissions
Disadvantages:
➢ The biggest drawback is that it only be used for small areas where computers are in
close proximity.
➢ You cannot back up files and folders centrally

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➢ There is no security besides the permissions. Users often do not require to log onto their
workstations.

ii. Point-To-Multipoint
➢ In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two hosts share the same link.
➢ Point-to-multipoint connections find popular use in wireless networks and IP
telephony.
➢ The channel is shared between the various hosts either spatially or temporally.
➢ One common scheme of spatial sharing of the channel is frequency division
multiple access (FDMA).
➢ Temporal sharing of channels include approaches such as time division multiple
access (TDMA).
Advantage:
➢ Easily deployed when compared to the deployment of a point-to-point network because
the equipment must be deployed only at the new subscriber's site.
Disadvantage:
➢ All the remote sites must come within the visibility and range of the base station.

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1.2.2 Physical Topology

Computer networks can have the following four broad topologies
1. Star
2. Mesh
3. Bus
4. Ring.
i. Star
➢ Every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller or hub.
➢ The hosts cannot communicate with one another directly, they can only do so
through the central hub.
➢ The hub acts as the network traffic exchange.
Advantages:
➢ Easy to troubleshoot, set up and modify.
➢ Only those nodes are affected, that has failed. Other nodes still work.
➢ Fast performance with few nodes and very low network traffic.
➢ Addition, deletion and moving of the devices are easy.
Disadvantages:
➢ If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are disabled.
➢ Cost of installation of star topology is costly.
➢ Heavy network traffic can sometimes slow the bus considerably.
➢ Performance depends on the hub’s capacity
➢ A damaged cable or lack of proper termination may bring the network down.

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ii. Mesh
➢ The mesh topology has a unique network design in which each computer on the network
connects to every other.
➢ It is develops a P2P (point-to-point) connection between all the devices of the network.
➢ This implies that for n hosts in a mesh, there are a total of n(n−1)/2 dedicated full duplex
links between the hosts
Advantages:
➢ The network can be expanded without disrupting current users.
➢ Need extra capable compared with other LAN topologies.
➢ No traffic problem as nodes has dedicated links.
➢ Dedicated links help you to eliminate the traffic problem.
➢ A mesh topology is robust.
➢ It has multiple links, so if any single route is blocked, then other routes should be used
for data communication.
➢ P2P links make the fault identification isolation process easy.
➢ It helps you to avoid the chances of network failure by connecting all the systems to a
central node.
➢ Every system has its privacy and security.
Disadvantages:
➢ Installation is complex because every node is connected to every node.
➢ It is expensive due to the use of more cables. No proper utilization of systems.
➢ Complicated implementation.
➢ It requires more space for dedicated links.
➢ Because of the amount of cabling and the number of input-outputs, it is expensive to
implement.
➢ It requires a large space to run the cables.

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iii. Bus
➢ A bus topology follows the point-to-multipoint connection. A backbone cable or bus
serves as the primary traffic pathway between the hosts.
➢ The hosts are connected to the main bus employing drop lines or taps.
➢ The bus topology has a simple cabling procedure in which a single bus (backbone cable)
can be used for an organization.
➢ Multiple drop lines and taps can be used to connect various hosts to the bus.
Advantages:
➢ Cost of the cable is very less as compared to other topology, so it is widely used to build
small networks.
➢ Famous for LAN network because they are inexpensive and easy to install.
➢ It is widely used when a network installation is small, simple, or temporary.
➢ It is one of the passive topologies. So computers on the bus only listen for data being
sent, that are not responsible for moving the data from one computer to others.
Disadvantages:
➢ In case if the common cable fails, then the entire system will crash down.
➢ When network traffic is heavy, it develops collisions in the network.
➢ Whenever network traffic is heavy, or nodes are too many, the performance time of the
network significantly decreases.
➢ Cables are always of a limited length.

iv. Ring
➢ A ring topology works on the principle of a point-to-point connection.
➢ Each host is configured to have a dedicated point-to-point connection with its two
immediate neighbouring hosts on either side of it through repeaters at each host.
➢ The repetition of this system forms a ring.

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➢ The repeaters at each host capture the incoming signal intended for other hosts,
regenerates the bit stream, and passes it onto the next repeater.
Advantages:
➢ Easy to install and reconfigure.
➢ Adding or deleting a device in-ring topology needs you to move only two connections.
➢ The troubleshooting process is difficult in a ring topology.
➢ Failure of one computer can disturb the whole network.
➢ Offers equal access to all the computers of the networks
➢ Faster error checking and acknowledgment.
Disadvantages:
➢ Unidirectional traffic.
➢ Break in a single ring can risk the breaking of the entire network
➢ Modern days high-speed LANs made this topology less popular.
➢ In the ring, topology signals are circulating at all times, which develops unwanted
power consumption.
➢ It is very difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
➢ Adding or removing the computers can disturb the network activity.

1.2.3 Network reachability

Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on network reachability:
1. Personal Area Networks
2. Local Area Networks
3. Wide Area Networks
4. Metropolitan Area Networks.

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i. Personal Area Networks (PAN):

➢ PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person.
➢ It generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant.
➢ PAN can be used for establishing communication among these personal devices
for connecting to a digital network and the internet.
➢ It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
Advantages
➢ PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
➢ It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
➢ Strictly restricted to a small area
Disadvantages
➢ It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
➢ Distance limits.

ii. Local Area Networks (LAN)

➢ A LAN is a collection of hosts linked to a single network through wired or
wireless connections.
➢ LANs are restricted to buildings, organizations, or campuses.
➢ LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
➢ There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and
ethernet. Commonly used network components in a LAN are servers, hubs,
routers, switches, terminals, and computers.
Advantages
➢ Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
➢ You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed
software for each client in the network.
➢ Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
➢ You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
➢ It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
➢ Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all
the LAN users.
Disadvantages

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➢ LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
➢ The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer
good privacy.
➢ Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is
not able to secure centralized data repository.
➢ Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related
to software setup and hardware failures
iii. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
➢ The reachability of a MAN lies between that of a LAN and a WAN.
➢ MANs connect various organizations or buildings within a given geographic
location or city.
➢ Networking devices/components in mans are modems and cables.
➢ MANs tend to have moderate fault tolerance levels It mostly covers towns and
cities in a maximum 50 km range.
➢ Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables.
➢ Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages
➢ It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
➢ It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
➢ The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
➢ A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages
➢ More cables are required to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
➢ MAN, network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
iv. Wide Area Networks (WAN)
➢ Wans typically connect diverse geographic locations
➢ They are restricted within the boundaries of a state or country.
➢ The data rate of WANs is in the order of a fraction of LAN’s data rate.
➢ WANs connecting two LANs or mans may use public switched telephone
networks (pstns) or satellite-based links.

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Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have more errors and noise during
transmission and are very costly to maintain. The fault tolerance of WANs are also
generally low.
Advantages
➢ WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area.
➢ Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
➢ WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client
devices.
Disadvantages
➢ The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
➢ It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
➢ There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
➢ It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired
and wireless technologies.
➢ Offers lower security compared to other types of networks in computer.
1.3 Layered Network Models
The intercommunication between hosts in any computer network, be it a large-scale or a small-
scale one, is built upon the premise of various task-specific layers.
Two of the most accepted and used traditional layered network models are the open systems
interconnection developed by the International Organization of Standardization (ISO-OSI)
reference model and the Internet protocol suite.
1.3.1 OSI Model
The ISO-OSI model is a conceptual framework that partitions any networked communication
device into seven layers of abstraction, each performing distinct tasks based on the underlying
technology and internal structure of the hosts.
These seven layers, from bottom-up, are as follows:
1. Physical layer
2. Data link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer

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6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer
(i) Physical Layer
➢ This is a media layer and is also referred to as layer 1 of the OSI model.
➢ The physical layer is responsible for taking care of the electrical and mechanical
operations of the host at the actual physical level.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a symbol.
Functions of physical layer:
➢ Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
➢ Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex
or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
➢ Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged (star, mesh, bus, or
ring)
➢ Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information(signal
generation, signal transfer and signal loss)
(ii) Data Link Layer: This is a media layer and layer 2 of the OSI model.
➢ The data link layer is mainly concerned with the establishment and termination of the
connection between two hosts and the detection and correction of errors during
communication between two or more connected hosts.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a frame.
It contains two sub-layers:
Logical Link Control Layer
➢ It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is
receiving.
➢ It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header
➢ It also provides flow control, error checking frame synchronization
Media Access Control Layer
➢ A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
➢ It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
➢ It provides the access control and permissions for connecting networked devices

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Functions of the Data-link layer

➢ Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets
known as Frames
➢ Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in
the header.
➢ Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that
no data get corrupted
➢ Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then
the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
➢ Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has
control over the link at a given time.
(iii) Network Layer: This layer is a media layer and layer 3 of the OSI model. It provides a
means of routing data to various hosts connected to different networks through logical paths
called virtual circuits. These logical paths may pass through other intermediate hosts (nodes)
before reaching the actual destination host. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is
referred to as a packet.
Functions of Network Layer:
➢ Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer.
It provides a logical connection between different devices.
➢ Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of
the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
➢ Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the
best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
➢ Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
protocol (IP).
➢ Error control
➢ Congestion control

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(iv) Transport Layer: This is layer 4 of the OSI model and is a host layer.
➢ The transport layer is tasked with end-to-end error recovery and flow control to achieve
a transparent transfer of data between hosts.
➢ This layer is responsible for keeping track of acknowledgments during variable-length
data transfer between hosts.
➢ In case of loss of data, or when no acknowledgment is received, the transport layer
ensures that the erroneous data segment is re-sent to the receiving host.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a segment or datagram.

Functions of Transport Layer:

➢ Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one
computer to another computer but also from one process to another process.
➢ Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from
the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment.
➢ Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented
service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an
individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all
the packets travel in the single route.
➢ Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.
➢ Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control
is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

(v) Session Layer: This is the OSI model’s layer 5 and is a host layer.
➢ It is responsible for establishing, controlling, and terminating of communication
between networked hosts.
➢ The session layer sees full utilization during operations such as remote procedure calls
and remote sessions.

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➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in
a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

(vi) Presentation Layer: This layer is a host layer and layer 6 of the OSI model.
➢ It is mainly responsible for data format conversions and encryption tasks such that the
syntactic compatibility of the data is maintained across the network, for which it is also
referred to as the syntax layer.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

Functions of Presentation layer:

➢ Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving
end.
➢ Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
➢ Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces
the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia
such as text, audio, video.

(vii) Application Layer: This is layer 6 of the OSI model and is a host layer.
➢ It is directly accessible by an end-user through software APIs (application program
interfaces) and terminals.

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➢ Applications such as file transfers, FTP (file transfer protocol), e-mails, and other such
operations are initiated from this layer.
➢ The application layer deals with user authentication, identification of communication
hosts, quality of service and privacy.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

Functions of Application layer:

➢ File transfer, access and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a
user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer
and to manage the files in a remote computer.
➢ Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.
➢ Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is
used to provide that global information about various objects.

Advantages of the OSI model

➢ It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to develop any network model.
➢ It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect other layers, provided that the
interfaces between the layers do not change drastically.
➢ It distinctly separates services, interfaces and protocols. Hence, it is flexible in nature.
Protocols in each layer can be replaced very conveniently depending upon the nature
of the network.
➢ It supports both connection-oriented services and connectionless services.
Disadvantages of the OSI model
➢ It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the availability of appropriate
technology. This restricts its practical implementation.
➢ The launching timing of this model was inappropriate.
➢ The OSI model is very complex. The initial implementation was cumbersome, slow
and costly.
➢ There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like addressing, flow
control and error control are offered by multiple layers.
➢ The standards of OSI model are theoretical and do not offer adequate solutions for
practical network implementation.

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A networked communication between two hosts following the OSI model is shown in Figure
1.3

1.3.2 Internet Protocol Suite

The Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model and provides only four levels of abstraction:
1. Link Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer.
This collection of protocols is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite as the
foundation technologies of this suite are transmission control protocol (TCP) and Internet
protocol (IP)
i. Link Layer
➢ The first and base layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite is also known as the
network interface layer.
➢ This layer is synonymous with the collective physical and data link layer of the
OSI model.
➢ It enables the transmission of TCP/IP packets over the physical medium.
According to its design principles, the link layer is independent of the medium
in use, frame format, and network access, enabling it to be used with a wide

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range of technologies such as the Ethernet, wireless LAN, and the asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM).
ii. Internet Layer
➢ Layer 2 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is somewhat synonymous to the network
layer of the OSI model.
➢ It is responsible for addressing, address translation, data packaging, data
disassembly and assembly, routing, and packet delivery tracking operations.
➢ Some core protocols associated with this layer are address resolution protocol
(ARP), Internet protocol (IP), Internet control message protocol (ICMP), and
Internet group management protocol (IGMP). Traditionally, this layer was built
upon IPv4, which is gradually shifting to IPv6, enabling the accommodation of
a much more significant number of addresses and security measures.
iii. Transport Layer
➢ Layer 3 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is functionally synonymous with the
transport layer of the OSI model.
➢ This layer is tasked with the functions of error control, flow control, congestion
control, segmentation, and addressing in an end-to-end manner; it is also
independent of the underlying network.
➢ Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP) are the
core protocols upon which this layer is built, which in turn enables it to have the
choice of providing connection-oriented or connectionless services between two
or more hosts or networked devices.
iv. Application Layer
➢ The functionalities of the application layer, layer 4, of the TCP/IP protocol suite
are synonymous with the collective functionalities of the OSI model’s session,
presentation, and application layers.
➢ This layer enables an end-user to access the services of the underlying layers
and defines the protocols for the transfer of data.
➢ Protocols used in the application layer are Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP),
file transfer protocol (FTP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), domain
name system (DNS), routing information protocol (RIP) and simple network
management protocol (SNMP) are some of the core protocols associated with
this layer.

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A networked communication between two hosts following the TCP/IP model is shown in
Figure 1.4

The advantages of TCP/IP protocol suite

➢ It is an industry–standard model that can be effectively deployed in practical
networking problems.
➢ It is interoperable, i.e., it allows cross-platform communications among heterogeneous
networks.
➢ It is an open protocol suite. It is not owned by any particular institute and so can be
used by any individual or organization.
➢ It is a scalable, client-server architecture. This allows networks to be added without
disrupting the current services.
➢ It assigns an IP address to each computer on the network, thus making each device to
be identifiable over the network. It assigns each site a domain name. It provides name
and address resolution services.
The Disadvantages of the TCP/IP Model
➢ It is not generic in nature. So, it fails to represent any protocol stack other than the
TCP/IP suite. For example, it cannot describe the Bluetooth connection.
➢ It does not clearly separate the concepts of services, interfaces, and protocols. So, it is
not suitable to describe new technologies in new networks.
➢ It does not distinguish between the data link and the physical layers, which has very
different functionalities. The data link layer should concern with the transmission of

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frames. On the other hand, the physical layer should lay down the physical
characteristics of transmission. A proper model should segregate the two layers.
➢ It was originally designed and implemented for wide area networks. It is not optimized
for small networks like LAN (local area network) and PAN (personal area network).

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Chapter 4
Emergence of IoT
Definition: “The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain
embedded technology to communicate and sense or interact with their internal states or the
external environment.”
4.1 Introduction
➢ Miniaturization of electronics and the cheap affordability of technology
➢ Connected devices → Internet Traffic • Example : Smart Phone
➢ IoT is an anytime, anywhere and anything network of Internet -connected physical
devices or systems capable of sensing an environment and affecting the sensed
environment intelligently

Characteristics
➢ Efficient, Scalable and associated Architectures.
➢ No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
➢ Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices and non-IP
devices.
➢ Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.
Application
Smart parking, smartphone detection, traffic congestion, smart lighting, waste management,
smart roads, structural health, urban noise maps, river floods, water flow, silos stock
calculation, water leakages, radiation levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access
control, snow level monitoring, liquid presence, forest fire detection, air pollution, smart grid,
Tank level, photovoltaic installations, NFC (near-field communications) payments, Intelligent
shopping applications, landslide and avalanche prevention, early detection of earthquakes,
supply chain control, smart product management and others.

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4.2 Evolution of IoT

The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by achieving easy integration
to daily lives, popular public acceptance, and massive benefits by using connected solutions
can be considered as the founding solutions for the development of IoT.

➢ ATM
▪ ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which are
linked to a user’s bank account.
▪ ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the identity of a user and their account
through a specially coded card.
▪ The central concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions
even when banks were closed beyond their regular work hours.
▪ The first ATM became operational and connected online for the first time in
1974.
➢ Web
▪ World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication platform.
The Web became operational for the first time in 1991.
▪ It has been massively responsible for the many revolutions in the field of
computing and communication.
➢ Smart Meters
▪ The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in early
2000.
▪ These power meters were capable of communicating remotely with the power
grid.
▪ They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers’ power usage and eased the
process of billing and power allocation from grids
➢ Digital Locks

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▪ Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at connected home-
automation systems.
▪ Operations such as locking and unlocking doors, changing key codes, including
new members in the access lists, can be easily performed and that too remotely
using smartphones.
➢ Connected Healthcare
▪ Healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives to alert them of
medical emergencies and take preventive measures.
▪ The devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart rate
and pulse of the wearer, as well as regular medical devices and monitors in
hospitals.
▪ The connected nature of these systems makes the availability of medical records
and test results much faster, cheaper, and convenient for both patients as well
as hospital authorities.
➢ Connected Vehicles
▪ Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with other vehicles, or
even with sensors and actuators contained within it.
▪ These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures.
➢ Smart Cities
▪ This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and actuation
systems.
▪ The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst themselves enables
unified and synchronized operations and information dissemination.
➢ Smart Dust
▪ These are microscopic computers.
▪ Smaller than a grain of sand each, they can be used in numerous beneficial ways,
where regular computers cannot operate.
▪ For example, smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or even
to diagnose problems in the human body.
➢ Smart Factories
➢ These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines, distribution lines,
and manage factory floors all on their own.

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➢ The reduction in mishaps due to human errors in judgment or unoptimized

processes is drastically reduced.

➢ UAVs
▪ UAVS or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public
▪ Domain solutions tasked with applications ranging from agriculture,
surveys, surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance, asset management,
and other tasks.
The various technological interdependencies of IOT with other domains and networking
paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the Internet of environment (IOE), the Internet of people (IOP),
and Industry 4.0

➢ M2M
▪ The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of connected
machines and devices, which can talk amongst themselves without human
intervention.
▪ The communication between the machines can be for updates on machine status
(stocks, health, power status, and others), collaborative task completion, overall
knowledge of the systems and the environment, and others.

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➢ CPS
▪ The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control loop
from sensing, processing and finally to actuation using a feedback mechanism.
▪ CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the feedback
control loop, which ensures that until the desired state is attained, the system
keeps on actuating and sensing.
➢ IOE
▪ The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing the
ill-effects of the permeation of Internet-based technologies on the environment.
▪ The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable farming,
sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of
systems and processes, and others.
➢ Industry 4.0
▪ Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution
pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing industry.
▪ The previous revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass
production, and the industrial revolution, respectively.
▪ The digitization and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better resource
and workforce management, optimization of production time and resources, and
better upkeep and lifetimes of industrial systems.
➢ IOP
▪ IOP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to decentralize
online social interactions, payments, transactions and other tasks while
maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data.
▪ A famous site for IOP states that as the introduction of the Bitcoin has severely
limited the power of banks and governments, the acceptance of IOP will limit
the power of corporations, governments, and their spy agencies.
IoT versus M2M
➢ M2M refers to communications and interactions between machines and devices.
➢ These interactions occur in cloud computing infrastructure
➢ M2M collects data from machinery and sensors, also enabling device management and
device interaction. Telecommunication services providers introduced the term M2M

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and technically emphasized on machine interactions via one or more communication

networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite, public networks).
➢ M2M is part of the IoT and is considered as one of its sub-domains
➢ IoT is vaster than M2M and comprises a broader range of interactions such as the
interactions between devices/things, things and people, things and applications and
people with applications.
➢ M2M enables the amalgamation of workflows comprising such interactions within IoT.
IoT versus CPS
➢ Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation and feedback as
a package.
➢ A digital twin is attached to a CPS-based system.
➢ A digital twin is a virtual system model relation, in which the system signifies a physical
system or equipment or a piece of machinery, while the model represents the
mathematical model or representation of the physical system’s behavior or operation.
➢ A digital twin is used parallel to a physical system, especially in CPS as it allows for
the comparison of the physical system’s output, performance, and health.
➢ Based on feedback from the digital twin, a physical system can be easily given
corrective directions/commands to obtain desirable outputs.
➢ The IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need feedback or a digital twin system.
➢ IoT is more focused on networking than controls.
➢ A sub-system in an IoT environment may include feedback and controls too
➢ CPS is also one of the sub-domains of IoT.
IOT versus WoT
➢ The Web of Things (WoT) paradigm enables access and control over IoT resources and
applications.
➢ These resources and applications are built using technologies such as HTML 5.0,
JavaScript, Ajax, PHP and others. REST (Representational State Transfer) is one of the
key enablers of WoT.
➢ The use of RESTful principles and RESTful APIs enables both developers and
deployers to benefit from the recognition, acceptance and maturity of existing web
technologies without redesign and redeploy solutions.
➢ Still, designing and building the WoT paradigm has various adaptability and security
challenges, when trying to build a globally uniform WoT.

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➢ IOT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things, people, systems and
applications, which do not consider the unification aspect and the limitations of the
Internet, the need for WOT is to integrate the various areas of IoT into the existing Web.
➢ WoT can be thought of as an application layer-based hat added over the network layer.

4.3 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies.
IoT paradigm is divided into four planes
1. Services
2. Local Connectivity
3. Global Connectivity
4. Processing

1. Services: The service plane is composed of two parts :

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1) Things or Devices
2) Low -Power Connectivity
➢ Services are a combination of things and low power connectivity.
➢ IoT application requires the basic setup of Sensing , processing and a low -power, low
-range network, which is built upon the IEEE 802 .15 . 4 protocol
➢ The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones, household appliances, smart
glasses
Low power connectivity: WiFi , Ethernet or cellular are used for connecting the things in
local implementation. Modern day technologies such has Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth are also
used.
2. Local connectivity
➢ The local connectivity is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple
local IoT deployments.
➢ Services such as address management, device management, security, sleep
scheduling, and others fall in this plane.
➢ For example, in smart home, the first floor and the ground floor have local IoT
implementations, which have various things connected to the network via low -
power, low -range connectivity technologies, the traffic from these two floors
merges into a single router or a gateway .
➢ The total traffic intended for the Internet from a smart home leaves this single
gateway or router, which is assigned a single global IP address to help the
conservation of limited global IP addresses .
➢ The local connectivity plane falls under IoT management as it directly deals with
strategies to use/reuse addresses based on things and applications.
➢ Edge Computing is deployed in conjunction with these first two planes : services
and local connectivity .
3. Global Connectivity
➢ The global connectivity plays a significant role in enabling IoT in the real sense
by allowing for worldwide implementations and connectivity between things,
users, controllers, and applications.
➢ This plane also falls under IoT management as it decides how and when to store
data, when to process it, when to forward it, and in which form to forward it .
➢ The Web, data -centres, remote servers, Cloud and others make up this plane .

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➢ The paradigm of “fog computing” lies between the planes of local connectivity
and global connectivity.
➢ It serves to manage the load of global connectivity infrastructure by offloading
the computation nearer to the source of the data itself to reduce the traffic load
on the global Internet.
4. Processing
➢ The processing plane is at the top-up of the basic IoT networking framework .
➢ The continuous rise in the usefulness and penetration of IoT in various application areas
such as industries, transportation, healthcare and others is the result of this plane .
➢ The members in this plane are termed as IoT tools, because they provide useful and
human -readable information from all the raw data received from IoT devices and
deployments .
➢ The various sub -domains of this plane include Conversion (data and format conversion
& cleaning), Learning (making sense of temporal &spatial data patterns), Cognition
(recognizing patterns & mapping to known patterns) Algorithms (various control and
monitoring algorithms), Visualization (form of collective trends, graphs, charts &
projections) Analysis (estimating the usefulness of the generated information, making
sense of the information with respect to the application and place of data generation &
estimating future trends based on past and present patterns of information obtained) .
➢ Various computing paradigms such as “big data”, “machine Learning”, and others, fall
within the scope of this domain.
4.4 IoT Networking Components
IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may vary with their application
domains the broad components that come into play during the establishment of any IoT
network, into six types:
i. IoT node
ii. IoT router
iii. IoT LAN
iv. IoT WAN
v. IoT gateway
vi. IoT proxy
A typical IoT implementation from a networking perspective is shown in Figure 4.9. The
individual components are briefly described here:

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The components in the establishment of IoT network into 6 types:

1. IoT Node: Networking devices within an IoT LAN, made up of a sensor, a processor
and a radio, which communicates with the network infrastructure.The nodes may be
connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by a common gateway for that LAN,
Connections outside the LAN are through gateways and proxies.
2. IoT Router: An IoT router is a networking device, tasked with the routing of packets
between various entities in the IoT network, keeps the traffic flowing correctly within
the network.
3. IoT LAN: Enables local connectivity within the gateway, consist of short-range
connectivity technologies, may or may not be connected to the Internet, localized within
a building or an organization.
4. IoT WAN: Connects LANs, organizationally and geographically wide, with their
operational range between a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometres, connect to the
Internet and enable Internet access to the LAN they are connecting.
5. IoT Gateway: A router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet, implement
several LANs and WANs, forward packets between LANs and WANs and the IP layer
using only layer.
6. IoT Proxy: Proxies lie on the application layer and performs application layer functions
between IoT nodes and other entities, providing security to the network entities, helps
to extend the addressing range of its network.

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In the above figure the various IoT nodes within an IoT LAN are configured to one another as
well as talk to the IoT router whenever they are in the range of it.
➢ The devices have locally unique (LU-x) device identifiers.
➢ These identifiers are unique only within a LAN.
➢ There is a high chance that these identifiers may be repeated in a new LAN.
➢ Each IOT LAN has its own unique identifier, which is denoted by IOT LAN-x in
Figure.
➢ A router acts as a connecting link between various LANS by forwarding messages from
the LANS to the IOT gateway or the IOT proxy.
➢ The proxy is an application layer device, it is additionally possible to include features
such as firewalls, packet filters, and other security measures besides the regular routing
operations. Various gateways connect to an IOT WAN, which links these devices to
the Internet.
➢ There may be cases where the gateway or the proxy may directly connect to the Internet.
➢ This network may be wired or wireless however, IOT deployments heavily rely on
wireless solutions. This is mainly attributed to the large number of devices that are
integrated into the network.
➢ Wireless technology is the only feasible and neat-enough solution to avoid the hassles
of laying wires and dealing with the restricted mobility rising out of wired connections.

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