BIOLOGY chapter 2

ABBIE LAM

CELLS
BASIC UNITS OF LIFE
___

By Abbie Lam

1.1 Molecules of Life

Carbohydrates
● made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), with H and O in the ratio of 2:1
● Types:
1. Monosaccharide

-Sugars with a single ring of atoms.

-They are soluble in water and have reducing power. (✅osmotic effect, thus cannot be stored)

- They provide the building blocks for large carbohydrates molecules.

E.g. glucose, fructose, ribose

 2

2. Disaccharides

- They are formed by joining two monosaccharides by condensation

- They have reducing power (except sucrose).

E.g. maltose, sucrose and lactose

3. Polysaccharides

- They are polymers of monosaccharides.

-They are insoluble in water and non-reducing.

E.g.starch, glycogen and cellulose

● Function of carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates Functions

Glucose This can be oxidized to release energy in

respiration.

Pentose They are main components in nucleic acids

Starch and glycogen Starch and glycogen are stored in plant and
animal cells respectively. They are suitable
for storage because
- they are insoluble in water so they do not
upset the osmotic condition inside the cell.
-are compact so that they can be stored
without taking up much space.

Cellulose This is the main structural component of the

cell wall which gives strength to the cells and
supports the plant.
 3

Lipids
● The constituent elements of lipids are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The ratio between
hydrogen and oxygen is much greater than 2: 1.
● Lipids are insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol and
chloroform
● Types:

Triglycerides Steroid Phospholipid

Consists of three fatty acids Contains a characteristic Made up of a glycerol, two

joined by ester bonds to a arrangement of four rings of fatty acids and a phosphate
glycerol. atoms. group.

Acts as food storage. Used to make steroid Acts as major component of

hormones, e.g. oestrogen cell membrane.
and progesterone.

● Functions:

Functions Explanation

as energy source The oxidation of lipids produces twice as

much energy as that of carbohydrates or
proteins

as storage materials In animals, lipids are usually stored under

the skin and around internal organs. In
plants, they are usually stored in the seeds.

as structural materials Phospholipids are major constituents of the

cell membrane and membranes of
organelles.

as insulating layer The subcutaneous fat forms an insulating

layer to reduce heat loss in warm-blooded
animals.

as waterproof layer The cuticle on the leaf reduces the

evaporation of water.
 4

as cushion for internal organs The fats around the internal organs act as a
shock-absorber to protect the internal
organs.

as organic solvent Fats help transport fat-soluble vitamins (e.g.

vitamins A and D) inside the body.

Proteins
● Proteins are made up of amino acids
● The constituent elements of lipids are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
● Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain
● One or more polypeptide chain folds to form a protein molecule.
● Functions :

Functions Explanations

as structural materials Proteins are the main components of the cell

membrane and cytoplasm. They are
required for growth and repair.

as metabolic regulators Enzymes act as biological catalysts.

Hormones are to regulate metabolic
reactions.
Antibodies defend the body against
pathogens.

as energy source Proteins in food can be oxidized to release

energy in respiration.
Proteins which have already been built up
into the body would not normally be used
except when carbohydrates and lipids are not
available.

**order of energy source : carbohydrates → lipids → proteins

Water
● Water is the most abundant substance in living cells. (made up 70% of our body)
● Properties and biological significance:
 5

Properties Biological significance

Good solvent Food and metabolic wastes are easily

dissolved in water and transported to other
parts of the body in solution form.

High specific heat capacity It reduces drastic temperature change and

helps to maintain body temperature in
warm-blooded animals.

High latent heat of vaporisation It removes heat when evaporated, hence

keeping the body cool.

High density It provides buoyancy for aquatic organisms.

Freeze at surface Aquatic organisms are able to survive

underneath the ice.

Incompressible It provides turgidity to plant cells to support

leaves and herbaceous stems.

Metabolically active It is a raw material for photosynthesis and

takes part in the hydrolysis of complex food
molecules.

1.2 Cellular Organization

Cellular Organization
● Cells are the sites of all metabolic activities of an organism.
● Cells arise only from pre-existing cells.
● Cells contain hereditary materials which can be duplicated and passed from generation
to generation.
 6

Cell membrane
● The cytoplasm is surrounded externally by a cell membrane. It is differentially
permeable and controls substances into and out of the cell.
● Fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane:

1. Cell membranes are made up of phospholipids molecules and proteins.

2. Phospholipid molecules form a bilayer.

3. Hydrophilic (water loving) phosphate head of each phospholipid molecule is on the

outside of the structure while the two hydrophobic (water hating) lipid tails of each are on
the inside.

4. Protein molecules intersperse among phospholipid molecules.

5. The lipid bilayer is a dynamic (fluid) state, membrane proteins move laterally within the
membrane.
 7

● Properties and functions :

1. Plasma membrane separates the contents of cells from their external environments.
2. The selective permeability controls the exchange of materials between the two sides
of the membrane:

- The phospholipids bilayer makes the cell membrane permeable to lipid-soluble molecules
(e.g. vitamins A and D).

- The channel proteins containing pores allow water-soluble substances (e.g. ions) to pass
through.

- Some carrier proteins facilitate diffusion of certain molecules across the membrane (e.g.
glucose).

- Other carrier proteins allow active transport of molecules against the concentration
gradient.

3. Recognition proteins (e.g. glycoprotein) serve as the antigens of the cell. They mark
the identity of the cell.
4. Receptor proteins serve to recognize external stimuli (e.g. hormones,
neurotransmitters) from the outside.
5. Membrane-bound enzymes catalyze special biochemical reactions in the cell.
 8

6. The fluid nature of the cell membrane enables the cell to change shape, thus, the cell
can grow and divide.

Other cellular structures

● Functions:

Cell wall 1. Fully permeable

2. Supports and protects the plant cell.

Cytoplasm 1. Provides a medium for metabolism and the

biochemical reactions to take place.
2. Contains granules of food, e.g. starch
granules.

Nucleus 1. Stores genetic information (chromosome)

2. Controls the cellular activities inside the
cell.

Mitochondria Carries out aerobic respiration to produce

ATP for various metabolic activities.

Vacuole 1. Provides a space for various functions, e.g.

storage of food and dissolved ions.
2. Exerts a pressure outwards on the cell wall,
making the plant cell turgid.

Chloroplast Contain chlorophyll which is responsible for

absorbing light energy for photosynthesis.

Endoplasmic reticulum 1. Rough ER is for the transport of proteins

which are made by ribosomes on its surface.
2. Smooth ER is the site of lipid metabolism /
synthesis, such as steroids and
phospholipids.

Prokaryotic VS Eukaryotic cells

● Prokaryotic cells : smaller and simpler **lack of distinct nucleus and membrane
bounded organelles. (E.g. bacterial cells)
 9

● Eukaryotic cells : larger and more complex **have distinct nucleus and membrane
bound organelle. (E.g. animal cells, plant cells)
● Comparison:

Cell organelle Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

(plant) (animal)

distinct nucleus ❌ ✅ ✅
(DNA bounded by
nuclear membrane)

DNA circular DNA helix bounded by nuclear bounded by nuclear

lying freely in membranes membranes
cytoplasm

cell wall ✅ ✅ ❌

chloroplast ❌ ✅ in green cells ❌

mitochondria ❌ ✅ ✅

endoplasmic ❌ ✅ ✅
reticulum

ribosome ✅ ✅ ✅

Levels of Body Organization

Levels of organization Examples

Cell Red blood cell, white blood cell, root hair cells

Tissue Blood, xylem, phloem

Organ Heart, lung, flower

System Digestive system, circulatory system, root system

Organism Human, elephant, amoeba

 10

Light microscope

● Steps : (5-7: for high power magnification)

1. Select a low power eyepiece and low power objective
2. Adjust the diaphragm and condenser to control the brightness of the image
3. Move the part to be magnified to the center of the field of view
4. Adjust the course adjustment knob and fine adjustment knob to focus and obtain a
sharp image.
5. Select a high power objective
6. Adjust the diaphragm and condenser to increase the illumination of the slide
7. Adjust the fine adjustment knob to obtain a maximum sharpness of the image
● Magnification = power of eyepiece x power of objective
● Low power magnification VS High power magnification

Low High

degree of magnification smaller greater

details of specimen less more

area of field of view larger smaller

 11

brightness of image brighter dimmer

** image obtained is inverted!! (E.g. “box” → “xoq” )