Volume 8, Issue 10, October – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

The Hydrogeochemical Properties of an

Abandoned Mining Location - A Case
Study of Odagbo Coal Mine
T.M. Oluyemi1,2*; A.C. Tse3; and H.O. Nwankwoala4
1
Department of Geology, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
2
Department of Geology, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria
3
Department of Geosciences, University of Namibia.
4
Department of Geology, Rivers State University, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author:- T.M. Oluyemi1,2*

Abstract:- A significant contributor to water of chemical weathering, the quality of recharge water, and
contamination is acid mine drainage (AMD). In this inputs from sources other than water-rock interactions.
study, the chemical composition of water samples in the These factors, along with their interactions with
coal mines at Odagbo, was assessed to determine the groundwater, contribute to the complexity of groundwater
chemistry of the mine waters and potential for acid mine quality (Domenico and Schwartz, 1990; Guler and Thyne,
drainage (AMD). The water samples were all subjected 2004; Sunne Vazquez et al., 2005). Bivariate statistical
to thorough geochemical investigation. The findings methods are analytical techniques that can be employed to
showed that all water samples taken in the mining area examine groundwater composition. They help in adequately
had relatively low PH values (range from 3.24 to 3.84) in characterizing hydrochemical systems and have proven
aqueous solutions which shows high acidity value useful in addressing numerous environmental issues and
ranging from 150 to 1730 typical of AMD, with rising enhancing our understanding of groundwater flow patterns
levels of TDS and SO42-. Electrical conductivity (EC) (Meng and Maynard, 2001; Yidana et al., 2008a, b). Hence,
measurements showed a moderately significant range of the present investigation employed bivariate statistical
123.0 to 170.3 μS cm−1. It was evident that the water analysis to comprehend the associations between water
samples were SO42- enriched, with values ranging from quality parameters in order to establish the predominant
249.50 to 1703.04 mgL-1 which indicates pollution of factors and mechanisms governing the chemical
mine waters. Elevated Ca2+, Mg2+, and Fe were another composition of groundwater in the designated region.
characteristic of the AMD samples. As a result, the Moreover, this examination will also provide an updated
current case study will provide an updated scientific scientific foundation concerning heavy-metal contamination
foundation for the detection of heavy metal and its identification of sources, and may also propose
contamination's source as well as suggest critical lines of significant avenues for future research utilizing multivariate
inquiry for future research. statistical methodologies and geochemical modeling to
ascertain the contamination status and potential origins of
Keywords:- Hydrogeochemical, AMD, EC, Pollution. pollutants in the study area.

I. INTRODUCTION  Description of the Study Area

Odagbo comprises a coal reservoir, situated
The hydrogeochemical species of an element plays a approximately 16km to the north-east of Ankpa in Kogi
significant role in its environmental chemistry. These State (as shown in Figure 1). This deposit stretches from its
species offer valuable insights into the mobility and eastern outcrop boundary near the tributaries of Okpokwu,
consequent availability of the metal to organisms, as well as Otokpa, and Okaba rivers to considerable depths beneath
its potential toxicity, (Xiao et al., 2015; Jaishankar et al., more recent sedimentary layers (Late Maastrichtian-
2013; Nagajyoti et al.,2010; Fergusson, 1990). The rising Tertiary) in the western direction. Access to this area is
demands for river water due to rapid industrialization, possible by means of a 10km road branching off the Ankpa-
urbanization, and population growth in recent decades have Makurdi Federal Highway. This road traverses the Okaba
resulted in a considerable decline in water quality, and Odagbo communities within the Ankpa District. The
particularly in the vicinity of mining areas and in the lower mining operations are conducted at Odagbo, an open-pit
basin. Consequently, water contamination remains a coal mine located approximately 4 km away from Okaba.
pressing concern in this region. Effective management and The mine comprises a 0.8 m thick (exposed section)
planning of groundwater necessitate regular monitoring of bituminous coal layer, which is covered by an overburden of
both the hydrochemical characteristics of water and the 3-6m (as depicted in Plain 1). The coal itself exhibits a very
hydraulic properties of the aquifers that store the dark hue and is overlaid by a light grey silt shale
groundwater. The chemical composition of groundwater is (heterolithic), transitioning into light grey to brownish
influenced by various factors, including geology, the extent laminated and mottled siltstone at the uppermost section.

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Volume 8, Issue 10, October – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165

Fig 1 Location Map of the Study Area

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS  Acid Mine Drainage and Heavy Metal Contamination
Heavy metal contamination is a significant
 Sample Collection environmental issue, particularly for rising medium-sized
A sum of 20 water samples were gathered from various cities in emerging nations such as Nigeria. Heavy metal
regions within the mining site situated in Odagbo, Nigeria. pollution of the soil and ultimately the food chain is a risk
These samples were obtained using sterilized polythene since heavy metals are typically not removable even after
bottles with a capacity of 500 milliliters. wastewater treatment at sewage treatment plants (Fytianos et
al., 2001). This is why this study analyses a couple of heavy
 Physicochemical Analysis of Water metals (As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Ni and Zn) at the Odagbo
The physicochemical characteristics of the water coal mine. The concentration of aqueous metals in receiving
samples, such as pH and electrical conductivity, were water bodies is frequently increased by mine drainage, and
examined. Total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness these metals can be transported to sediment by adsorption
(TH), and (EC), as well as total Alkalinity, nitrate, sulphate and precipitation mechanisms, Spellman et al., 2022 (Smith,
(SO4), sodium, calcium, magnesium (Mg), and sodium 1999), while the pollution risk from heavy metals increases
(Na), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe). The with time due to conversion from an inert state into an active
evaluation adheres to the guidelines outlined by APHA state during weathering (Al-Oud et al., 2011).
(1995) as displayed in Table 1. TDS, EC, and other
variables were on the field measurements. This is crucial  Geostatistical Techniques
because these criteria can alter while being transported. Numerous statistical techniques have been employed
over time to assess both the hydrogeochemistry and water
Table 1 Techniques for the Determination of the quality (Nelson and Ward 1981; Briz-Kishor and Murali
Physicochemical Parameters 1992; Ramesh Kumar and Riyazuddin 2008; Routroy et al.
Parameter Method of Determination 2013). Correlation and regression analyses in this study
pH pH meter were carried out using Microsoft Excel software (2013)
EC Conductometer
TDS Gravimetric technique
TH EDTA Titration technique
TA Titrimetric
NO3 Discreet analyser
SO4 Discreet analyser
Cl Argentometric technique
Zn, Mn, Cu, As, Pb, Co ICP-AES
Mg, Fe, Ca, Na, Al, K, ICP-MS
**By inductively coupled plasma Optical / Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy (ICP OES/AES) Inductively coupled plasma
Mass Spectroscopy (ICPMS)

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Volume 8, Issue 10, October – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

 pH
Sulphuric acid from pyrite oxidation makes water corrosive and decreases pH. Acidic mining discharge and low-pH
groundwater systems produce weakly acidic groundwater. Metal sulphide oxidation during mining can cause acidic discharge
(Herbert, 1996; Keith et al., 2001; Santofimia and López-Pamo, 2013). Odagbo had a mean pH of 3.55, a maximum and minimum
of 3.84 and 3.24, and a standard deviation of 0.18 (Table 2). The control sample was the most acidic. The WHO (2017)
recommends 8.0 for drinking water. Awalla (2014) and Matthew et al. (2012) indicate that acid mine drainage may cause this
situation in mining-area water sources. Concentration and strength determine acid and alkali effects. Strong, concentrated acids
and alkalis are corrosive, whereas weaker ones are not. pH does not cause bad effects alone.

Fig 2 pH, Acidity and Hardness values at Odagbo Coal Mine

 Sulphate Ion at Odagbo and a standard deviation of 2.38. These conductivity levels
Acid mine drainage, caused by mining and mineral are below the WHO (2017) standard of 1000 μS/cm.
processing, pollutes water. Pyrite oxidation in air and water Conductivity selects optimal dilutions for accurate sulphate
creates sulphuric acid and dissolved iron. AMD acidic analysis. No ion-specific electrode is available to
streams will contaminate surface and groundwater with continually measure sulphate in the field. Automated
heavy metals. AMD pollutes water in mining nations. calorimetry can be employed, but due to iron oxides in
Sulphate's conservatism predicts acid mine drainage AMD, natural humic acids in rivers, and other factors, field-
frequency and severity. Discrete analyzers measured sample based sulphate analysis is unreliable, imprecise, and
sulphate ions. Sulphate ion concentrations ranged from 249 expensive. Conductivity seems suitable for sampling and
to 1581, with a mean of 915. 941.87 SD. WHO recommends monitoring acid mine waters. Odagbo data reveal that small
250 ppm or less sulphate. Health issues develop when soluble particles did not considerably ionise the water.
sulphate concentrations for human consumption are
disturbed (Backer, 2000). The research area's sulphate  Total Disssolve Solid (TDS)
concentration may cause laxation. Electrometrically measuring total dissolved solids in
water samples (APHA 2004). TDS measures water's total
 Electrical Conductivity (EC) inorganic and organic salts and other components. Anions
EC and sulphate ions are AMD-sensitive even after like carbonate, bicarbonate, nitrate, chloride, and sulphate,
substantial dilutions. Sulphate, unlike other ions, is and cations like calcium, magnesium, and potassium are the
unaffected by sorption, precipitation, or pH changes, making main components. TDS's "Hardness" is the quantity of
it ideal for AMD tracing. Sulphate ions especially affect dissolved calcium and magnesium in water. Some ions are
conductivity. Conductivity, which can be measured directly necessary, but others are detrimental. TDS levels peak at
in the field, is appropriate for routine field screening of 1000.00 and 500.00 mg/L. TDS in Odagbo (Table 2) ranges
water samples for AMD contamination. Sulphate and from 1000.38 to 1980, with a mean value of 1586.13. Thus,
conductivity are associated in all examined waterways, with people reject water with high TDS levels for taste and other
AMD contamination strengthening the relationship. Odagbo reasons. Lower TDS water may include microorganisms that
EC (Table 3) ranges from 1.74 to 5.10, with a mean of 3.42 are detrimental to human health.

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Volume 8, Issue 10, October – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Table 2 Geochemical Parameters of Odagbo Mine Site
Chemical Odagbo mine WHO (2017) NIS(2015)
Parameters range Mean SD
Temp. 27.5-29.1 28.3 1.13 Ambient Ambient
Ph 3.24-3.48 3.5 0.18 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
TDS(ppm) 1000-1980 1490 692.96 1000 500
EC(µS/cm) 1.74-5.10 3.42 2.38 1000 1000
T. Hardness 90.2-325.4 207.8 166.31 100 -
Acidity 150-1730 940 1117.23 - -
DO 2.4-8.2 5.3 4.10 - -
Phosphate 0.4-15.8 8.1 10.89 - -
Sulphate 249.-1581 915 941.87 200 100
Nitrate 1.32-3.86 2.59 1.80 45 50
Chloride 0.94-2.27 1.605 0.94 250 250

 Geostatistical Analysis of Odagbo Coal Mine groundwater, the order of abundance is as follows:
The physicochemical characteristics and metal Mn>Zn>Co>Ni>Fe>Al>Cr>Cu>Ca>Si>Mg>K>As>Pb>Na.
concentrations of the water samples collected at Odagbo are Descriptive statistics, including the maximum admissible
presented in Table 3. The pH levels of the groundwater concentration (MAC), global standards, and health effects,
samples in this region exhibit strong acidity, ranging from are provided in Table 3. Notably, toxic heavy metals, such
3.24 to 3.84 with an average value of 3.55. Furthermore, the as arsenic (As), are present in the study area. The
electrical conductivity (EC) of the water samples fluctuates concentration of As in the groundwater ranges from
between 1.74 to 5.1 with an average of 3.14ms/cm, 2.58µg/L to 14.39µg/L, with an average value of 7.98µg/L
reflecting the influence of saline-water intrusion. Regarding (Table 3). It is worth mentioning that these arsenic values
the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations, values exceeding are below the acceptable limit of 50µg/L set by the World
5mg/L indicate an oxygenated groundwater environment. Health Organization (WHO, 2017) and the United States
However, the DO levels in the area vary from 2.4 to 8.2 with Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 2012). The
an average of 4.08 mg/L, suggesting that the groundwater is presence of As in the study area primarily stems from
aerobic. Analyzing the metal concentrations in the mining activities (Hunt and Howard, 1994).

Table 3 Geostatistical Parameters of Odagbo Coal Mine

Parameters Units Minimum Maximum SD Mean MAC USEPA Health Effect
(2012)
Ph 3.24 3.84 0.175 3.55 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 Abdominal pain, diarrhea,
nausea and vomiting
DO mg/L 2.4 8.2 2.02 4.08 - -
EC mS/m 1.74 5.1 1.4 3.15 1400 Laxative effects
TDS mg/L 1000.38 1980 310.67 1586.13 1500 - Aesthetic
Cr µg/L 2.26 73.05 24.66 26.14 20
Mn mg/L 2841.6 18645.99 4843.31 9196.09 50 50 Staining, discoloration
Co µg/L 74.65 376.11 102.92 163.96 - Cancer, polycythemia
Ni µg/L 55.39 320.42 88.82 135.7 150 Skin allerges
Cu µg/L 7.48 60.14 15.88 23.74 1000 1300 Anemia, Liver damage
Zn µg/L 182.68 1097.26 304.87 452.31 75 Nausea and vomiting
As µg/L 2.58 14.39 4.15 7.98 10 - Increased risks of lung
and bladder cancer and
skin changes
Pb mg/L 0.9 6.68 2.03 3.29 10 - Dealth or permanent
damage to the brain and
kidneys
Al µg/L 1.38 85.92 32.88 38.66 200 200 severe trembling, loss of
memory, dementia
Fe mg/L 6.7 234.3 79.78 76.94 1000 Anemia, weight loss
Ca mg/L 9.94 57.61 13.33 32.97 growth retardation,
reproductive failure
K mg/L 1.72 17.43 4.57 7.65 Diarrhea, chest tightness
Mg mg/L 3.86 22.4 5.35 13.75 laxative effect
Na mg/L 1.32 5.39 1.17 2.98 Corrosion, contamination
of freshwater streams
Si 6.2 48.57 15.21 25.06 - - Lung cancer

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Volume 8, Issue 10, October – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
IV. CORRELATION ANALYSIS with increasing pH and vice versa. This demonstrates that as
pH rises, hydrogen ions (H+), which normally take the place
Bivariate analysis, which evaluates the direction and of calcium and iron in minerals like clay, become less
magnitude of the relationship between two variables, is abundant. This can be the result of an ion exchange process
known as correlation. The correlation coefficient's numerical alone. Only Ca, K, Mg and Na exhibit a negative connection
value ranges from +1 to -1, based on the strength of the with EC. While there is a high positive connection with
relationship. A value of 1 signifies a perfect correlation TDS, Zn, As, Al and Fe; and a low positive correlation with
between the two variables. As the correlation coefficient Pb. TDS exhibits discernible positive association with other
approaches zero, the association between the variables factors except Ca, K, Mg, and Na where there is
becomes weaker. The sign of the coefficient indicates the demonstrable negative correlation. Ca exhibits a positive
direction of the relationship, with a positive or no sign affinity for pH, Fe, and Zn, while exhibiting a negative
representing a positive relationship and a negative sign affinity for DO, EC, TDS, Pb, As and Al. Mg exhibits
representing a negative relationship. In order to conduct positive affinities for Fe, Zn, Ca and K while exhibiting
factor analysis, it is necessary to be aware of the correlation negative affinities for pH, EC, TDS and DO. It is clear that
coefficients between the parameters. These coefficients were parameters with higher ion character have a stronger
computed to measure the extent of variance between specific association than parameters with lower ion character. In
pairs of water quality measures. general, the variety in connection demonstrates how
complex the quality of groundwater is and how interactions
Table 4 shows a positive association between pH and between rock and water affect it.
Ca, K and Na, which suggests that Ca, K and Na increase

Table 4 Correlation Analysis of Hydrochemical Parameters of Odagbo Coal Mine

V. REGRESSION ANALYSIS and Olive, 1996). In the statistical study of water resources
data, simple linear regression analysis is absolutely crucial
The regression analysis predicts the values of the (Khan 2011). The description of the relationship between
responses for a given set of predictors as well as the the variables of interest and the other variables may be made
relationship between one or more responses (dependent with the help of the analysis. It is utilized to forecast the
variables) and one or more predictors (independent values of one variable utilising information from another
variables). These variables are typically quantitative, that is, variable that has more data. I utilized the basic linear
interval or ratio-based. regression of the form in Equation 2 (Khan 2011) to conduct
the regression analysis using the significant positive
 The Straightforward Correlation between those correlation between some of the parameters in Table 4 at the
Variables can be Expressed Mathematically as follows: 0.01 level (r < 0.05):

Y=F (Xi)……………………………………………………1 Y= Po + P1X………………………………………………2

Where the independent variables are expressed by X, Where Y and X are the dependent and independent
while the dependent variables are represented by Y. If the variables, respectively; Po represents the coefficient of
relationship between Y and Xi is linear, the regression regression's intercept; and P1 represents the slope. Equations
would be linear; otherwise, it would be nonlinear. 4 and 5 presents the regression equations for various water
Regression analysis' primary goal is to model the dependent quality metrics that were assessed using Microsoft Excel
variables as a function of an independent variable (Duleba version 2016:

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Volume 8, Issue 10, October – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
pH= -8.7271DO + 35.031…………………………………..3 by measuring Zn with a strong regression value of 0.8494.
The relationship between K and Na produced a trend (Figure
K = 0.2073Na + 1.3988…………………………………….4 3). The relationship between these two parameters is strong
(R2= 0.6623). It is important to acknowledge that the level
Zn = 0.0028NO3- + 0.8552…………………………………5 of confidence is not substantial; nonetheless, the
examination aids in formulating inferences regarding the
The results of the regression analysis shows that pH correlation of the variables within the designated research
can directly be calculated from DO. This shows a positive region, relying on the accessible data collections (Fatoba et
trend with R2 of 0.5743. The value of NO3- can be calculated al., 2011).

Fig 3 The Regression Plots of Zinc against Nitrate, pH against Dissolve Oxygen, Potassium against Sodium

VI. CONCLUSION stronger compared to those with a lower ion character. The
varying nature of this relationship emphasizes the intricacy
In other to examine the hydrochemical data from 20 of groundwater quality and the influence of interactions
water samples, geostatistical approaches such as correlation between rock and water. A regression analysis was
and simple regression analysis were utilized to obtain some employed to predict the values of one variable using the
information that was initially unavailable in the research information from other variables, for which more extensive
area to get some information that was not available at first data were available.
glance. Sixteen parameters encompassing pH, EC, TDS,
SO4, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, and Pb were assessed. The Therefore, bivariate statistical techniques can be
average metal concentrations in the groundwater are ordered utilized to comprehend intricate water quality datasets and
as follows: identify the primary factors and mechanisms governing the
Mn>Zn>Co>Ni>Fe>Al>Cr>Cu>Ca>Si>Mg>K>As>Pb>Na. chemical composition of groundwater in the study area.
Most ion concentrations abide by the acceptable limits set These findings are crucial for the management of water
by the WHO, with a few exceptions at certain locations quality. While bivariate statistical methods alone cannot
where some metal concentrations slightly surpass both the directly elucidate hydrochemical processes, multivariate
desired and allowable thresholds. This could potentially be analysis can enhance our understanding of groundwater
attributed to mining activities at Odagbo. Correlation quality in the given area and the factors that drive such
analysis conducted within the study area reveals that the processes.
relationship between parameters with a high ion character is

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Volume 8, Issue 10, October – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
 Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate: Not southeastern California, USA. Journal of
Applicable Hydrology, 285(4), 177-198.
 Competing Interests: Not Applicable [11]. Herbert, R. B. (1996). Metal retention by iron oxide
 Funding: Not Applicable precipitation from acidic ground water in Dalarna,
 Author’s Contributions: T.M. Oluyemi conceptualised Sweden. Applied Geochemistry, 11(1-2), 229-235.
this study and wrote the draft of the manuscript, A.C. Tse [12]. Hunt, L. E., & Howard, A. G. (1994). Arsenic
and H.O. Nwankwoala supervised the work and speciation and distribution in the Carnon estuary
corrected the manuscript. following the acute discharge of contaminated water
from a disused mine. Marine Pollution
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Bulletin, 28(1), 33-38.
[13]. Jaishankar, M., Mathew, B. B., Shah, M. S., &
The Authors would like to appreciate the support of Mr Gowda, K. R. S. (2014). Biosorption of few heavy
Yahaya for his assistance in the course of the fieldwork, and metal ions using agricultural wastes. Journal of
also the management of the coal mine for granting access to Environment Pollution and Human Health, 2(1), 1-6.
their facility. Critical and constructive feedback from the [14]. Keith, D. C., Runnells, D. D., Esposito, K. J.,
anonymous reviewers is sincerely acknowledged. Chermak, J. A., Levy, D. B., Hannula, S. R., ... &
Hall, L. (2001). Geochemical models of the impact of
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