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UNIT-8

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DATA DRIVEN INSTRUCTIONAL
MANAGEMENT
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Written by: Dr. Afshan Huma

Reviewed by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi
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CONTENTS

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 175

Objectives......................................................................................................... 177
1. Assessment......................................................................................... 178
1.1 Sources of Data ................................................................ 179
1.2 Informal Data Collection ................................................. 180
1.3 Difference between Formative & summative Assessment .... 180
1.4 Balanced Assessment ....................................................... 181

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2. Analysis.............................................................................................. 183
3. Forecasting Achievement................................................................... 186

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4. Benchmarking .................................................................................... 188
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5. Action ................................................................................................. 189
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6. References .......................................................................................... 194
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INTRODUCTION
Instructional management is a process of decision making process, which helps to
execute the teaching and learning as well as to create an effective learning environment,
so that much the goals of education are achieved. Instructional management is defined as
“those events and procedures involved in the decision to initiate a specific activity for an
individual student”( Paul and Donald, 1972). Today it is not just the responsibility of the
school head to manage all internal and external execution of planned activities, rather it is
a shared responsibility. It is evident that in the schools of twenty first century a school
head and teachers as well as other managerial personnel and administrative staff is
playing multiple roles at a time. A school system asks every single person involved in
school management to take full responsibility of Instructional management and each one
of them is made accountable for any deficiency and deficit. Instructional leadership
pushes beyond the debates between instructional, managerial and transformational

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practice to a new conception of creating accountable learning systems in schools

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(Halverson, Grigg, Prichett, and Thomas 2005). Such accountability systems began to
develop with the emphasis on Good Governance in all sectors and especially health and
education. With accountability comes the phenomenon of transparency. In the well

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established systems during the age of information technology the first and foremost
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requirement is public information sharing and informed decision making on the bases of
data. At the beginning of new millennium we witnessed an urge towards result based
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management that builds upon the theory of distributed management and requires schools
to collect, share and analyze data for improving their instructional as well as over all
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school management. In this

unit we shall focus more on Once armed with key summative indicators of
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Data Driven Instructional classroom success, educators can use those baseline
management which directly data to identify mastery levels and learning needs of
involves teachers, academic classes, demographic subgroups, and individual
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coordinators and school heads. students. Data driven educators then use that
Data-driven instruction was information to set measurable year-end instructional
goals, which serve as meaningful targets to guide
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one of the themes that emerged

in a study funded by the Ohio their pedagogical strategies. These goals are often
Department of Education. In referred to as SMART goals. The acronym stands for
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results-Oriented,
that study, Kercheval and
and Time-Bound.
Newbill (2002) examined An example SMART goal might look something like
practices in fifty Ohio school the following:
districts that had improved The percentage of third grade students scoring at
their rating on Ohio’s Local Level 3 or higher on the state mathematics test will
Report Card, which is an increase from 64% in Spring 2004 to 82% in Spring
annual report of students’ 2005.
performance on standardized Focus areas for improvement
statewide tests which 1. Number sense
documented rates of 2. Computation
improvement on those tests, 3. Measurement
student attendance and

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graduation rates. Further research and experimentation developed this area into a
practicable approach.

When we hear the word data we get to

visualize it in a specific way. What comes Data-driven educators recognize that
formalized goal-setting can lead to
to mind is the images of spreadsheets, bar
improved student learning outcomes. All
graphs and statistical analysis. But in case SMART goals created by teachers and
of schools and classroom certain kinds of administrators should have the following
data might not be documented in these six components (with example language
from the SMART goal above):
manners; because it might not be 1. A measurable baseline ;
recorded in a numerical format. For 2. A measurable target;
example, norm-referenced reading 3. A specific time frame (e.g. Spring
assessments, informal reading 2014 to Spring 2015;

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4. Specificity about what is being

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inventories, observational checklists of assessed (percentage of third grade
student behavior, anecdotal notes, or students scoring at Level 3 or higher);
students’ self assessments over time can 5. Specificity about the method of

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generate data that is richer than numbers assessment (the state mathematics test);
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and can inform much more for decision 6. Focus areas that guide future action
making and instructional management. needed to reach the learning target
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Similarly school heads can generate data (number sense, computation, and
measurement).
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describing the number of minutes per day (CASTLE PARK MIDDLE SCHOOL,
devoted to reading instruction, California, USA)
mathematics and other school subjects;
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thus not mere time -tabling but rather output in the form of time periods and slots used in
several instructional activities. School managers can also have information regarding
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teacher attributes on an observation checklist of classroom instruction. In short, a broad

use of the term, data, is essential in this regard. Data-driven instructional management
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comprises of certain kinds of systems of practice committed to making formative and

summative data on learning and instructional practices useful for improving teaching and
learning in schools, considering data-driven decision making from a distributed
leadership approach (Halverson, Grigg, Prichett, and Thomas 2005).

This implies that first of all we need to understand the goals, structure, functions and
outcomes of DDIM.

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OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. Describe and explain the basic concept and theory behind DDIM
2. Set goals for data collection, analysis and decision making
3. Apply various assessment techniques to generate useful data about learners
4. Analyze the data for future improvements in curriculum and instruction
5. Develop action plans for individual, group and classroom instruction in the light
of evidence

Goals Setting in DDIM

The larger goal of DDIM is to provide the information regarding learning and

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instructional practices for informed decision making at school, district, province and

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national level. The schools and academic coordinators as well as teachers should always
develop their sub-goals and specific objectives must be set for effective implementation
of DDIM. For instance as adopted by a school following can be a good example:

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Activity 1: Pr
You may discuss the concept of DDIM with your colleagues at school and then draft
the Sub Goals and Objectives for English, mathematics and Science at Elementary
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Level.
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Now think further how these objectives will lead towards collection of data and what
procedures are to be followed for reaching the decisions of instructional management. If
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you become a data driven educator you are able to access, analyze and solve the problems
even faster and better. In the United States the push for data-driven instruction was
initiated with the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act, which was signed into
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law in year 2002. The slow rate of adoption of DDIM is the “fear of data”. People tend to
believe that it is only the work of researchers and teachers do not see themselves as
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researchers. Actually every teacher is an action researcher and always keep working with
data without realizing. The teachers do continuous assessments and they also make
reports. The only missing link is analysis and data driven decision making.

Jason Lange (2014) has elaborated a few factors that have slowed the implementation of
DDI:

 Collecting good, reliable data takes discipline. Properly collecting data requires a
level of discipline that most people aren’t inherently comfortable with. Consider
how many people actually write down their personal goals — like a New Year’s
resolution or an exercise plan — and track their progress over time. The answer:
not many. Simply put, we’re not wired to gather data without a great deal of
intentional focus, and teachers have plenty on their plates as it is.

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 Making sense of data can be a full-time job. Even if you manage to collect great
data, interpreting it in an actionable manner is not only time consuming, but it
also requires some pretty advanced analytical skills. It can be an enormous task
for a single teacher. Many schools simply lack the tools, resources, time, and
training to aptly utilize data that’s been collected for each classroom.
 Sometimes there’s too much data. Schools generally gather more data than they
can use. An overabundance of data and conflicting results can make it difficult to
prioritize information and create worthwhile curriculum changes.

Jason (2014) further elaborates on how to make it work:

1. Keep it simple. Use simple tools and techniques to collect data, such as clickers,
response sticks, or exit tickets. They’ll provide a straightforward process for
understanding learning outcomes.

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2. Think small. Start with one class, and scale your efforts with the progress. For

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example, if you want to improve your questioning strategies, track the times you
require students in one class to justify their responses. Once you find
instructional techniques that work, slowly apply them to all your classes.
3. Analyze your efforts. Based on the data, reflect on whether the steps you’ve

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taken have had an impact. When you begin to see a difference in the students and
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their work, the extra effort will seem valuable.
4. Engage students. Involve students in setting goals and tracking progress to
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invest them in the process. This might be as simple as improving an opening
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routine or as complex as meeting large assessment goals. Likewise, encourage

students to reflect upon their progress to help them determine what worked, what
didn’t, and what should be done differently next time.
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5. Make progress visible. Track progress daily using a graph or chart. This will
help students see their progress and, ultimately, be empowered. The size of the
goal doesn’t matter; students need to see what they’re working toward and what
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they’ve accomplished.
6. Be transparent with class-wide results. Follow pre-assessments tests, and
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communicate the results to students. You don’t have to single them out. Simply
relay the outcomes, and explain how instruction will be adjusted based on the
new information.

1. ASSESSMENT
Assessment in its traditional meaning is to collect data for the purpose of evaluation.
Serafini (2000) has rightly mentioned that different philosophical views of teachers and
administration affect classroom practice because teachers are influenced by these
assessment paradigms when they collect and analyze data about student performance.
Administration have a pure positivist approach to education requires quantitative data
mainly and asks for judgments based on quantitative evidence. While a more
constructivist approach to education would lead teachers to collect more of minute details
in qualitative assessment and then develop daily , weekly, monthly and term reports. No

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matter the type of data one collects, it’s one thing to collect data and another thing to use
the data to inform instruction. Mokhtari, Rosemary, and Edwards, (2007) argue that
“collecting, organizing, analyzing and using data for instructional and curriculum
improvement is a new way of work for many educators” (p. 354). Effective use of data is
the key to Data Driven Instructional Management.

1.1 Sources of Data

There can be many sources of assessment data. Such as:
i. Teacher made tests and activity sheets
Many of the school systems have already adopted the method of regular
assessment through weekly quizzes, tests and activity sheets. These tools of
formative assessment provide rich data about each child’s regular performance in
the given classroom tasks and activities.
ii. Observation sheets of Classroom Participation

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Along with the tests and activity sheets some qualitative data is to be collected

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about children participation during teaching learning process inside the
classroom and school. The subject teachers as well as class teacher can keep a
shared folder of each child to keep adding information regarding his/her

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strengths, weaknesses, and other qualitative aspects such as social interaction,
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group behavior and etc. Such observational sheets can be made into a form of
checklist but there should always be some space for details where teacher can
note the feedback in descriptive form.
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iii. Home Observation Sheets For Parents
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Teachers give various homework assignments to the students and once they bring
it back only then it is evaluated. Parents are partners in student learn and in the
process of assessment they are also to be involved. Home assignments can be
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designed in a way that the parents will fill up an observation form and the teacher
will evaluate the assignment submitted by the student.
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iv. Homework Assessment Rubrics

Rubrics are not very commonly used in the schools of Pakistan. A rubric is a spread
sheet that elaborates condition of grading against each criterion. This spread sheet is
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used to evaluate the assignments submitted to the teachers. The rubric makes it
possible that more than one person may grade the same assignment for more reliable
grading. Some schools also use it for peer evaluation practices.
v. Online profiles and Analytics
Technological support and blended learning models have made it easier for us to
collect relevant data in a clean and organized form. Most of the Learning
Management Systems have inbuilt mechanism of developing student profiles. It
helps teachers as well as parents to see when and how the child is performing in
the given online tasks. These tasks range from reading, writing to quizzes and
using interactive simulations.
vi. Final Examination and Evaluation
Final examination of a term, a semester or a year can be administered in the form
of written tests, projects, or in any other form decided as per evaluation policy of
the institution. Teachers usually grade these tests and then a decision is made

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about successful completion of the course of study. It is to be highlighted that

adopting the Data Driven Instructional Management. Teachers decide upon the
type and contents of tests and tasks on the bases of previous formative
assessments throughout the term, semester or the year.

All the outcome data that is generated from a variety of assessments: teacher made tests,
observations, and surveys, is analyzed to learn about individual and group performance in
relation to the demographic data that is collected at the time of admission/enrolment and
is utilized for bringing change into instructional strategies as well as in developing
learning resources and content selection.

Activity 2:
Develop some observation sheets for home assignments and ask parents of your
students to fill up these sheets then have a parent teacher meeting to decide what kind

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of help and support the students need in home work.

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1.2 Informal Data Collection
In addition to demographic and outcome data, another category in Fox’s (2001) mode of

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data collection is the “process data”. This kind of data is collected in informal ways and
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settings. This kind of data includes attitudes and practices. Process data are noted and
analyzed with the outcome and demographic data. Process data arise from many sources,
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including but not limited to curriculum organization, materials purchases, instructional
time, instructional strategies formative assessments, and even classroom management.
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1.3 Difference of Formative and Summative Assessment Data

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Stiggens (2004) refer to formative assessment as assessment for learning and summative
assessments as assessments of learning. Unit tests, semester exams, final performance
assessment, and standardized tests all fall under the category of summative assessments.
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Educators use data from these assessments to judge the quality of a student’s
achievement or performance in relation to pre-established criteria or in comparison to a
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peer group. Popham (2008) emphasizes that formative assessment should be thought of
as a multi-step planned process not a test or a particular assessment tool (p.6).
Consequently, paper and pencil assessments, observations, rubrics, conversations, can all
be part of the formative cycle. Hence Summative assessments will naturally influence
decisions in a way that is far different than data emerging from formative assessments,
particularly when this is to be used for decision making that leads to significant
consequences such as success and failure of course. The chart below captures the
distinctions between the two.

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The table shows how the two forms of data are different with respect to purpose and all
other dimensions. Both are equally significant in Instructional Management process but
both serve different purposes.

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1.4 Balanced Assessment Pr
Balanced assessment generally refers to an approach in which various forms of data are
produced regularly. Only achievement scores do not give complete information about a
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learner and do not provide complete picture of teaching-learning progress. Afflerbach
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(2007) mentions in explaining the balanced assessment that “formative assessment that
informs our efforts to teach students so that they experience success is more valuable than
summative assessment that makes after the fact determinations.” According to Afflerbach
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an array of data sources helps more in understanding the current status and in planning
the future strategies in a comprehensive manner.
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A balanced assessment also includes involvement of teachers, students, parents and even
the head teachers in the process of assessment and decision making. Following are the
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significant features of Balanced Assessment:

 Start with what students know
 Involve students in their own learning and enhance their understanding of their
own development.
 Include individual and group assessment
 Include multiple tasks, assignments, tests and activities
 Use multiple data sources
 Involve parents in assessment process instead of only reporting to them
 Focus on students strengths rather than just reveal their weaknesses.
 Use criteria and standards that are public, so that students, teacher, parents, and
others know what is expected.

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In DDIM summative and formative assessment exist in tandem and lead towards the
same purpose. One most important feature that emerges with this kind of assessment is
“portfolio process” in which the teachers are required to maintain each child’s portfolio
through daily records. Students and parents can add to these portfolios if these are
maintained and shared with them. In every decision making the information recorded in
the form of portfolio serves as the baseline information for further instructional planning.

Self Assessment Questions

Q.1 Develop an assessment for classroom and a relevant activity for home:
Class: Subject: Topic:

Group Activity for Classroom:

Individual Activity for Home:

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Q.2 Develop an assessment tool for parents to assess home activity:
Class: Subject:
Topic Activity:

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Grading Criterion
 Time Spent
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Marks Assigned

 Independent work
 Asked for help
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 Used internet/books/resources
Total: 25
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Q.3 Develop an assessment tool for classroom and activity

Class: Subject:
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Topic: Activity:
Grading Criterion Marks Assigned:
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 Participation
 Understanding and knowledge
 Application and Analysis
 Creativity
Total 25

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2. ANALYSIS
In Data driven Instructional Management procedures, data analysis goes parallel with
data collection and assessments. As a result of any formative assessment process, a
teacher may analyze the information and immediately adjust a current lesson, or may
decide to refine the next lesson, or decide to plan different experiences for different
students. Ideally, the data will prompt some actions on the part of student, and parents
too. Students and parents who are a part of the process continually receive feedback from
a formative assessment (as opposed to grades) therefore they can self-assess the progress,
adjust the learning tactics and set improvement goals. In today’s high-stakes educational
environment which is getting more n more competitive it is essential to be cognizant of
self learning and needs of improvement. Summative data or a final report may inform
additional instruction for the group of students who took the assessment or, for future
groups of students. Hence the data analysis is done for two major purposes one is to

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provide evidence about the status of the learning that is in progress, and the other is to set

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a degree to which progress is being made toward achieving a pre-identified learning
target or learning objective.

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The word “Data Analytics” refers to the field of examining raw data with the purpose of
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inferring about certain aspects of required information. Data analytics was used initially
in the business management to allow companies and organizations to make informed
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decisions and to verify the utility of current strategies or to disapprove the existing
management strategies. Similarly in the field of DDIM educators opted for data analytics
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to make informed decisions about teaching-learning mechanisms at the educational

institutions. The traditional data analysis was supported by various softwares such as
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statistical packages and qualitative data analysis protocols yet the web 2.0 is thought of as
one very large database, with information distributed in loosely-connected nodes across a
wide array of systems. This is comparable with the historically structured world of the
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relational database management system (RDBMS), where data is neatly managed in

tables and columns in a relatively closed environment. the newer web-based approaches,
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such as RDF (Resource Description Framework) can be considered a data model for
information on the World Wide Web. In any case- traditional or web based Data analysis
is used to determine whether the systems in place operate efficiently and succeed in
accomplishing overall goals.

The process of analysis involves many stages and steps:

1. Data profiling or data archeology in which data is organized one the bases of
consistency, uniqueness and logic. The
2. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) where the new features in data are discovered
and
3. Confirmatory Data Analysis (CDA) where existing hypothesis are proven true or
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4. Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) where conclusions are to be drawn from words,
pictures and visuals etc.

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Not all analytics are relevant to all users. If you are a teacher, you’re probably thinking
about getting information that can allow you to teach better. If you are a manager at an
institution, you will be more concerned to know how successful your teachers are with
their students. Bet let’s not forget the students and parents as well; there is information
and analysis that can help them also. If the DDIM is based on a learning management
system (LMS) it helps teachers, management, parents and students to take advantage of
the analytics as per their own needs. An LMS analytics help in showing the following:

Progress: With an LMS, it is possible to achieve regular assessment within a course

based on a rich set of finely chunked multi-modal activities, and while this can lead to
deep learning, it can also be overwhelming for students. It is, therefore, useful for a
student to know where they are up to in a course and what they have to do next. Students
who use short-term planning tend to be more successful; they just need a quick snapshot
of their progress.

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Relative success: Deep learners are more successful and deep learners are characterized
by meta-cognition about their learning. Providing analytics about their relative success
can allow students to know whether they are on track of if they need further exposure to a

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topic. Relative success can also be used to introduce a competitive element into a cohort,
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which some educationalists recommend.

Opportunities to interact: If students are studying in isolation, it may not always be

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apparent when there are chances for them to interact with peers or teachers. Determining
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the level at which a student is interacting could be seen as an analytic that can be used to
direct them to opportunities for communication and collaboration.
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Student participation: In an online world, it is more difficult for a teacher to know

which students are participating and those needing a push. Students can fail to participate
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for numerous reasons, usually valid ones. Sometimes a student may need to be
encouraged to withdraw from a course and re-enrol later. Where analytics can help is in
the determination of the timing of when such decisions need to be made. That’s not to say
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that such information needs to be complex; it could be as simple as “traffic light”

coloured icons next to a list of names of students, ordered by risk.

Student success: Assuming a student is involved, a teacher also wants to know how
successful they are. This could be the product of assessment and views of resources. If
students are progressing through the course with unsuccessful results, then they may need
to be encouraged to re-expose themselves to a topic within the course before progressing
further.

Student exposures: Moving away from a course modality where “one size fits all”, it is
useful to know how many times a student was exposed to a topic before they were
successful. This is a differentiating factor among students in a cohort. If students are
progressing with few exposures, perhaps they are finding the course too easy, perhaps
even boring, and may need to be challenged further. If students are requiring numerous

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exposures before they are successful, then perhaps alternate presentations of a topic need
to be created to suit the learning preference of particular learners. Such an analytical tool
can assist a teacher to deliver learning at an individual level.

Student difficulty in understanding: Through an analysis of exposures and assessment

results, it may be possible to determine which topics, or areas within a topic, students are
finding difficult. This may indicate areas that need to be revisited in the current delivery
or enhanced in a future delivery of the course. When students are undertaking learning,
the last thing they want is to be stifled by an inability to express their understanding
because of by the way a course is set up within the LMS. Students patterns of use within
the LMS may indicate they are having such difficulties, and a teacher can be alerted to
take action.

Feedback attention: Teachers take time and spend effort creating feedback for students as a

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reflection of their understanding. It is useful to know which students have paid attention to

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such feedback, and which students may need to be encouraged to do so. Going beyond this it
may be possible to deliver information to a teacher about the effectiveness of their feedback
on students’ understandings as reflected in subsequent assessment.

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Course quality: In several institutions that I know of, part of the measurement of a
teacher’s effectiveness is judged by the quality of the courses they are producing within
the LMS, based on a set of metrics. Such measurements can be used for promotions and
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to drive the development of PD activities. If such metrics can be automated, then
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analytics can be produced for teachers that encourage them to improve their course by
increasing the richness of their resources, improving the quality of their activities,
including more activities of different kinds, providing more opportunities for students to
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interact or collaborate.
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Student Teacher Involvement: Analytics can provide more information about students than
simple pass/fail rates. Analytics can help determine when students may be at risk of failing
and in which courses this is more likely to happen. Such analytics can help an institution to
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send resources to where they are needed most and to plan resources for the future.

There is information in an LMS that can be presented in a useful way in relation to

training and promotions. It might also be useful to anonymously tie in a teacher
involvement analytic with other analytics to find correlations. As well as looking at
success in terms of pass and fail, it may also be possible to determine where teacher
interventions have encouraged students to achieve beyond their expected outcomes.

Activity:
Design an analytical framework for your class. What will you measure? How will you
measure? And then what will you analyze?
Make a table in excel and keep pouring data at least for three terms.
Then analyze at least three of the features that you selected.
Use LMS if it is available at your institution.

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3. FORECASTING ACHIEVEMENT
First of all, remember that the purpose of assessment and data collection as well as data
analysis in DDIM is to understand the relationship between achievement and instruction
in light of the decision-making process in each case. This process is usually done through
applying various predictive models in educational data mining method. In order to build
the predictive modeling, there are several tasks used, which are classification, regression
and categorization. The most popular task to predict students performance is
classification. There are several algorithms under classification task that have been
applied to predict students performance. Among the algorithms used are Decision tree,
Artificial Neural Networks, Naive Bayes, K-Nearest Neighbor and Support Vector
Machine.

3.1 Decision Tree

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Decision Tree is one of a popular technique for prediction. Most of researchers have used
this technique because of its simplicity and comprehensibility to uncover small or large
data structure and predict the value. Romero et al. (2008) said that the decision tree
models are easily understood because of their reasoning process and can be directly

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converted into set of IF-THEN rules. Examples of previous studies using Decision Tree
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method are predicting drop out features of students data for academic performance,
predicting farther semester performance of students and also predicting the suitable
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career for a student through their behavioral patterns. The students performance
evaluation is based on features extracted from logged data in an education on web-based
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system.
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3.2 Neural Network

Neural network is another popular technique used in educational data mining. The
advantage of neural network is that it has the ability to detect all possible interactions
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between predictors variables. Neural network could also do a complete detection without
having any doubt even in complex nonlinear relationship between dependent and
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independent variables. Therefore, neural network technique is selected as one of the best
prediction method. The studies using this technique present an Artificial Neural Network
model to predict students performance. The attributes analyzed by Neural Network are
admission data, students attitude towards self-regulated learning and academic
performance.

3.3 K-Nearest Neighbor

K-Nearest Neighbor depicts, all three papers studied in this research showed that K-
Nearest Neighbor gave the best performance with the good accuracy. According to
Bigdoli et al. (2003), K-Nearest Neighbor method takes less time to identify the students
performance as a slow learner, average learner, good learner and excellent learner . K-
Nearest Neighbor gives a good accuracy in estimating the detailed pattern for learner’s
progression in tertiary education.

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3.4 Naive Bayes algorithm

Naive Bayes algorithm is also an option for analysts to make a prediction. The objective
this analysis is to find the most effective prediction technique in predicting students
performance by making comparisons. Their researches show that Naive Bayes uses all of
attributes contained in the data. Then, it analyzes each one of them to show the
importance and independency of each attributes.

3.5 Support Vector Machine

Support Vector Machine is a supervised learning method used for classification.
Hamalainen et al. (2006) maintain that Support Vector Machine is a useful prediction
technique in classrooms because it suited well in small datasets. Sembiring et al. (2011)
stated that Support Vector Machine has a good generalization ability and faster than other
methods. Meanwhile, the study done by Gray et al (2014) demonstrated that Support
Vector Machine method has acquired the highest prediction accuracy in identifying

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Self Assessment Questions

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1. Instructional management is a process of ___________________
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2. Assessment means collection of data for the purpose of _________________
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3. A ___________ is a spreadsheet that elaborates condition of grading.

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4. The purpose of formative assessment is to ___________________

5. Data analytics refers to the field of _________________________

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4. BENCHMARKING
In education, benchmarking means the process of assortment of evaluation tests and
observations administered throughout the school year in order to find out whether or not
students are meeting specified academic standards. Benchmarking is regarded as the most
sophisticated way in measuring students academic growth and in designing customized
curriculum plans to reach each student's learning needs. There are three types of
benchmark assessments in a school setting:

Vertical scheme administered within one subject area to measure consistency between
different grade levels.
Horizontal Scheme and evaluation is applied to ensure consistency between all members
of a certain classroom taking a given subject.
Common benchmark evaluations is administered to all students in the same grade level

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and course.

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Benchmark assessments are used to measure proficiency in areas such as writing, oral
reports and even mathematics. The process of benchmarking goes along following

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procedures: Pr
4.1 Developing Baseline Chart
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Usually a baseline chart is developed by inserting the scores of a student across the grade
levels within various subject areas. The baseline charts are developed through software
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that allows cross sectional analysis and follow up analysis, in other words vertical and
horizontal representation is possible. During a year or semester the baseline chart shows
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task bars that indicate the start and end date as well as achievement of a student across
the assigned period of time for a task. Multiple tasks are shown with different colors.
Active, overdue and completed tasks are shown through different colored bars
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4.2 Generating Performance Chart

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Performance chart shows performance within each activity. Student, teacher and parent
evaluation is aggregated and shown in the form of line graphs. The graphs are showing
actual time frame with target time as well as the scores/ badges achieved so far. Each
completed task has a final grade point. Performance charts show individual profile
independently. Analytics on the other hand show performance with reference to standards
and performance of other students.

4.3 Placing Benchmarks

First of all identify the standards and benchmarks from the national curriculum
framework. Once those national standards and benchmarks are identified for the specific
grade and subject, relate these with the school’s standards if these are not the same. Then
enlist these benchmarks in the performance chart. Regular review of each students profile
may be made against each benchmark and color coding may be used.

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4.4 Building Milestones

Developing upon the baseline and performance charts against benchmarks; further
milestones are set for each child. This graph clearly indicates the chances of achieving
goals within a given time frame ore any delays expected. The chart is to made
realistically based on the available data and realistic targets and milestones must be set
for the child. The student should neither get into procrastination nor into an
overwhelming state. The goal is to provide the teacher, student and parents a real picture
and realistic roadmap to achieve learning outcomes.

5. ACTION
In DDIM multiple data sources guide the teachers and management at all levels. School
level data describes position of each classroom over all and it is mainly a source of
building teachers profile; while class level data provides information regarding each

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student across various subject areas. It also maintains student profile (Taylor & Pearson,
2005). A school reform-effort is directly related to increases in students’ achievement
score. The school management approves or disapproves certain action plans on the bases
of evidence provided by the teachers.

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DDIM is designed for continuous improvement in teaching and learning. The continuous
improvement process includes the following steps:
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 Disaggregate the data by individual student and classroom and identify strengths
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and weaknesses.
 Establish an instructional timeline which states what will be taught, when it will
be taught and when it will be assessed
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 Create an instructional calendar based on the timeline. Use the calendar to

prioritize deficient skills, and target skills to be repeated throughout the year
 Establish an instructional focus as a school wide priority (i.e., if summarization is
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the skill to be taught, then discuss it in reading, science, and even summarize
how to play a game.)
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 Assess students for mastery and analyze the results to determine patterns in their
responses. Log results and use them to make instructional decisions over a three-
week period.
 Provide tutoring for struggling students and administer assessments to track the
students response to instruction
 Provide enrichment for students who have demonstrated mastery.
 Provide maintenance activities so that skills are retained.
 Collaboration with parents is an important part of this process.
 Progress is reported by the principal at the local and district level.

5.1 Significant Questions for Developing Action Plan

Once the profiles are made, benchmarks and milestones are marked then the teachers
need to do a group effort for preparing further action plans. The action plan also needs

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cyclical review and reform. Following are the significant questions to be answered at
each review which can be monthly, quarterly or once a semester (Taylor et al., 2005).
1. Specifying what we were focusing on?
2. What needs to be done?
3. What activities were identified and how far they were implemented?
4. How the achievement is measured
5. What else is required?
Reviewing on these lines is recommended at least three times a year at school level. Such
review will help teachers, parents and management to help learners move forward and in
a better speed.

5.2 Learning Activities

Here are some of the ideas that are developed by various teachers and teacher educators.
The activities themselves help in learning as well as collecting data:

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Entry/Exit Tickets
Entry & Exit tickets are short prompts that provide instructors with a quick student diagnostic.
These exercises can be collected on 3”x5” cards, small pieces of paper, or online through a

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survey or course management system.
 Entry tickets focus student attention on the day’s topic or ask students to recall background
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knowledge relevant to the day’s lesson: e.g., “Based on the readings for class today, what is
your understanding of ___________?”
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 Exit tickets collect feedback on students’ understanding at the end of a class and provide
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the students with an opportunity to reflect on what they have learned. They can be helpful
in prompting the student to begin to synthesize and integrate the information gained during
a class period. For example, a muddiest point prompt: “What was the muddiest point in
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today’s class?” or “What questions do you still have about today’s lecture?”.
Advantages of entrance and exit tickets include: participation of each student, prompt for
students to focus on key concepts and ideas, a high return of information for the amount of time
invested, important feedback for the instructor that can be useful to guide teaching decisions
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(e.g., course pacing, quick clarification of small misunderstandings, identification of student

interests and questions).
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Jigsaw
A Jigsaw is a cooperative active learning exercise where students are grouped into teams to
solve a problem or analyze a reading. These can be done in one of two ways – either each team
works on completing a different portion of the assignment and then contributes their knowledge
to the class as a whole, or within each group, one student is assigned to a portion of the
assignment (the jigsaw comes from the bringing together the various ideas at the end of the
activity to produce a solution to the problem). In a jigsaw the activity must be divided into
several equal parts, each of which is necessary to solving a problem, or answering a question.
Example activities include implementing experiments, small research projects, analyzing and
comparing datasets, and working with professional literature. The advantages of the jigsaw
include the ability to explore substantive problems or readings, the engagement of all students
with the material and in the process of working together, learning from each other, and sharing
and critical analyzing a diversity of ideas.

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Interactive Demonstrations

Interactive demonstrations can be used in lectures to demonstrate the application of a concept, a

skill, or to act out a process. The exercise should not be passive; you should plan and structure
your demonstration to incorporate opportunities for students to reflect and analyze the process.
1. Introduce the goal and description of the demonstration.
2. Have students think-pair-share (see above) to discuss what they predict may happen, or to
analyze the situation at hand (“pre-demonstration” state or situation).
3. Conduct the demonstration.
4. Students discuss and analyze the outcome (either in pairs/small groups, or as a whole
class), based on their initial predictions/interpretations.
Advantages of interactive demonstrations include novel visualizations of the material and
allowing students to probe their own understanding by asking if they can predict the outcome of
the demo. They are also a venue for providing applications of ideas or concepts.

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Free Writing/Minute Paper/Question of the Day Exercise

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These are activities that prompt students to write a response to an open question and can be
done at any time during a class. Writing activities are usually 1-2 minutes, and can focus on

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key questions and ideas or ask students to make predictions. These activities give students the
opportunity to organize their own thoughts, or can be collected by the teacher to gain feedback
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from the students. Advantages include developing students’ abilities to think holistically and
critically, and improving their writing skills.
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Case studies are scenarios that apply concepts learned in class to a “real-life” situation. They
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are usually presented in narrative form and often involve problem-solving, links to course
readings or source materials, and discussions by groups of students, or the entire class. Usually,
case studies are most effective if they are presented sequentially, so that students receive
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additional information as the case unfolds, and can continue to analyze or critique the
situation/problem.
Problem-based learning activities are similar to case studies but usually focus on quantitative
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problems. In some cases the problems are designed to introduce the material as well as provide
students with a deeper learning opportunity.
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5.3 Individualized Educational Plans

Grouping and Clustering of Students

Cluster grouping has been defined as the intentional placement of a group of high
achieving or gifted students in an otherwise heterogeneous classroom with a teacher who
has both the background and willingness to provide appropriate challenges for these
students (McInerney, 1983). Research indicates three major benefits exist to cluster
grouping (Rogers 1991. Hoover, Sayler, & Feldhusen, 1993)
 gifted students interact with their intellectual peers as well as their age peers on a
regular basis.
 cluster grouping provides services for gifted students without additional cost to
the school district.

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 cluster grouping facilitates ongoing programming for gifted or high achieving

students in the regular classroom.

Based on these assumptions “Schoolwide Cluster Grouping Model” was introduced in the
schools to enable students learn in a more collaborative learning environment (Dina
Brulles 2010). In the Schoolwide Cluster Grouping Model first of all the focus remained
on gifted students and teachers were specifically chosen and given trainings to help these
bright stars move forward on their own pace. In this process gifted students are clustered
into a mixed-ability classrooms at each grade level. If there are more than eight gifted
students in the grade level, two or more clusters may be formed. Slowly the model was
expanded to mixed ability grouping and clusters of special need students are also made.
The teachers are provided professional development training in understanding, planning
for, and instructing gifted students, mixed ability students, and students with special
needs. This system provides opportunities for teachers to more readily respond to the

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needs of all their students.

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5.4 Individualized Educational Plans
An Individualized Education Program (commonly referred to as IEP) is a document,

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which is based upon the data driven needs identification and setting of the individual
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goal and objectives set for a child with special needs. These programs are written
documentation of the special educational program, instructional plan and academic
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modifications required to meet the child’s individual needs in a classroom setting. The
two main purposes of a student’s IEP are to:
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1. set reasonable learning goals for the student, and

2. state the required services that the school district needs to provide for said child.
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IEPs are developed by a team including the child’s teacher(s), parents, and supporting
school staff, while in some cases it involves health practitioners and psychologists too.
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This team meets at least once or twice a year to assess the academic and developmental
progress of the student, design appropriate educational plans, and suggest changes if they
see any issues and challenges not being met.
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5.5 Differentiated Curriculum and Instruction

Differentiated Curriculum and Instruction is the process of planning and revisiting the
curriculum as well as instructional design to meet the differentiated needs of a diverse
student population. Whenever the evidence based analysis is made about individual
learner or groups the teachers and management plans according to the specific trends of a
class as well as for smaller groups or individuals. On the bases of data analysis we can
differentiate at least four classroom elements based on student ability, readiness, interest,
or learning profile (Tomlinson 2015)
 Content – what the student needs to learn or how the student will get access to
the information;
 Process – activities in which the student engages in order to make sense of or
master the content;

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 Products – culminating projects that ask the student to rehearse, apply, and
extend what he or she has learned in a unit; and
 Learning environment – the way the classroom works and feels.

Self Assessment Questions

Select the appropriate options for the following:

1. ______________ chart is developed by inserting the scores of student across the
grade levels
a. Bar chart
b. Performance chart
c. Baseline chart
2. ______________ are short prompts that provide instructors with a quick student
diagnostic.

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a. Entry Tickets
b. Exit Tickets
c. Both
3. _______________ can be used in lectures to demonstrate the application of a

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concept or a skill. Pr
a. participative demonstration
b. Interactive
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c. Pure demonstration
4. ______________prompt students to write a response to an open question
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a. case studies
b. free writing
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c. benchmark
5. _______________ assessment are used to measure proficiency in areas such as
writing, oral reports and even mathematics
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a. formative
b. summative
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c. benchmark

Correct answers
Self Assessment Exercise 1:
1. Decision making
2. Evaluation
3. Rubric
4. Promote better learning
5. Examining raw data
Self Assessment Exercise 2
1. Baseline chart
2. Both
3. Interactive demonstration
4. Free Writing
5. Benchmark

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REFERENCES
 The New Instructional Leadership: Creating Data-Driven Instructional Systems
in Schools Richard Halverson, Jeffrey Grigg, Reid Prichett, Chris Thomas
School of Education Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis
University of Wisconsin-Madison
http://www.academiccolab.org/resources/documents/HalversonGriggPrichettTho
mas%20NCPEA.pdf

 Amirah Mohamed Shahiri , [email protected], Wahidah

Husain, Nur’ainiAbdul Rashid Procedia Computer Science Volume 72, 2015,
Pages 414-422
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050915036182

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ADDITIONAL READING FOR YOU
“When you think about it, education is really all about data.”

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By: Jason Lange(2014) http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=423
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