General References

•Alan H. Cromer: Physics for the Life Sciences. The McGraw-Hill Company
•Paul Peter Urone:Physics with Health Scişence Application. John Wiley and Sons
•Prof.Dr. Gürbüz Çelebi: Biyomedikal Fizik. Barış Yayınları Fakülteler Kitabevi 2008
•Prof.Dr. Ferit Pehlivan: Biyofizik. Pelikan Yayıncılşık 2011
•Prof.Dr. İsmail Günay: Temel Biyofizik Cilt 1 Biyomekanik. Nobel Tıp Kitabevi 2014

Prof.Dr. Necla ÖZTÜRK

MEASUREMENT:
MEASUREMENT ERRORS
and
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Prof.Dr. Necla ÖZTÜRK

Subject Readings Activity Discussion Topics
Measurement, Prof.Dr. Ferit ❑ Explain properties of error.
Measurement Pehlivan: Biyofizik. Slights
Errors, Pelikan Yayıncılık ❑ Define sensitivity and
accuracy of the
Significant 2011 Read refences
measurement.
Numbers
https://www.webassign. Participation
net/question_assets/un
❑ Define random and
to lectures. systematic error.
ccolphysmechl1/measur
ements/manual.html
(Read only Random Discuss topics ❑ Define the relationship
Error and systematic given in the between accuracy and
error, accuracy and systematic error and
table
precision part) sensitivity and random
error.
http://webs.mn.catholic.
edu.au/physics/emery/
measurement.htm ❑ List the differences between
random and systematic
https://www.youtube.co error.
m/watch?v=awRuUQM_
WuM ❑ Explain the significant
figure.
Sub-subjects:

*UNITS
*ACCURACY OF A MASUREMENT
*PRECISION OF A MASUREMENT
*SOURCES OF ERROR
*SYSTEMATIC ERROR
*RANDOM ERROR
*SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
 MAIN UNITS

CGS UNITS MKS UNITS

Length cm Length m
Mass g Mass Kg
Time s Time s
Area=  r2 Area=  r2

Unit of area: cm2 Unit of area: m2

Density = Mass/volume Density = Mass/volume

Unit of density: g/cm3 Unit of density: Kg/m3

Measurement: ERROR
In a measurument: Error is inevitable

All measurements have some degree of uncertainty that may

come from a variety of sources. Uncertainty is actually the
magnitude of the «error» in measurement.

Experimental error is the difference between a measurement

and the true value or between two measured values.

Experimental errors are inherent in the measurement

process and cannot be eliminated simply by repeating the
experiment no matter how carefully it is made.
Let us assue that we measure the length of an object with a
ruler.

After several measurements you may have numbers such as

7.3; 7.2; 7.4; 7.3
You record these values because you are not able to say
exactly the length as 7.2 or 7.3 cm.
The division on the ruler does not allow us to give an exact
number.
The fineness of the scale markings is limited and the width of
the scale lines is greater than zero. In every case the final
figure of the reading must be estimated and therefore it is
somewhat inaccurate.
DEFINITIONS:
Accuracy and Precision of Experimental Error.

Accuracy:

Accuracy of a measurement indicates how close the

measured quantity is to the quantity's actual (true) value.

It may arise because of a flaw (worn out, fracture,

broken) in the equipment.

Accuracy of a measuring instrument can be checked by

comparing the measured results with a standard meter.

Sometimes, a true or accepted value for a physical

quantity may be unknown, in that case it is not possible to
determine the accuracy of a measurement.
Precision:

The Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a

group of measurements. It is related to the limitations of the
scale of the measuring instrument.
For example, if meter has 1 mm divisions, the readings might
be (7.2, 7.3, 7.3, 7.4, 7.2 cm)

However, if meter has 0.1 mm divisions (more fine scaling)

then the readings most propably will be

7.30, 7.31, 7.32, 7.30 cm. They are more close to each other.
They agree more.

Precision is sometimes referred as repeatability or

reproducibility. A measurement which is highly reproducible
tends to give values which are very close to each other.
When several measurements are made the variation of
readings have a bell shape.

Probability

Value
Accuracy
True value True value

True value
Precision True value

More precise
Accuracy and precision are two independent quantities. A
measurement system can be accurate but not precise, or it
may be precise but not accurate.

If a measuring system is not accurate then repeating the

measurement does not improve accuracy.
The result would deviate from the flawed value.

Accuracy is related to systematic error.

Eliminating the systematic error improves accuracy but does

not change precision.
 ERROR
There are two kinds of errors that can enter into a measurement.
1. Systematic Errors
2. Random Errors
Systematic Errors:
Occurs because of a flaw (incorrect) in either the measuring
equipment or the experimental procedure.
i.e. Meter is shortened by any means.
Systematic errors are one-sided errors, because, in the
absence of other types of errors, repeated measurements yield
results that differ from the true or accepted value by the same
amount.
The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors
cannot be improved by repeating the measurements.

You can decrease the systematic error by only checking the

instruments or your system.
Systematic errors cannot easily be analyzed by statistical
analysis.
Systematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a
measurement.
Systematic Errors:
Repeating the experiments do not affect the systematic error

Systematic error affects the result always in the same direction,

either shorter or longer ; less or more

It can be controlled by chenking the measuring system and

making corrections in the measruing system.

In reports the error given in the results define the random error,
not systematic error.
Random Errors:
*A random error is introduced each time as a measurement is
repeated.

Always there is an uncertainty in a measurement.

When we measure the length of a pencil, we can say that
its length is 7.3 cm for sure. But actual length of the pencil is
larger than 7.3 cm. Then we estimate the rest. Usually we
divide the smallest scale of the meter to 10 parts.
Then we can say that the length is 7.34 cm.
In this figure we are for sure about 7 and 3 but we
estimated 4. 4 is the figure for uncertainty.

Uncertainty depends on the finest division of the instrument.

For the ruler given above the uncertainty is 0.1 mm and it is
the error in the measurement.
Random Errors:
*When we repeat the measurements,
we can read 7.34, 7.33, 7.35 ….

We can not get rid of this uncertainty. But by repeating

the experiment and taking their averages we can reduce
the error.
Random Errors
Random errors are errors that affect the precision of a
measurement. Random errors are two-sided errors, because,
in the absence of other types of errors, repeated
measurements yield results that fluctuate above and below
the true or accepted value. Measurements subject to random
errors differ from each other due to random, unpredictable
variations in the measurement process. The precision of
measurements subject to random errors can be improved by
repeating those measurements. Random errors are easily
analyzed by statistical analysis. Random errors can be easily
detected, but can be reduced by repeating the measurement
or by refining the measurement method or technique.
 ERROR

Random Errors:
*A random error is introduced each time as a measurement is
repeated.

*The random error depends on the precision of the measuring

instrument. The random error is related with the precision.

*The random error makes the final result greater or smaller, the
deviation is the same in both direction.

*They are unavoidable.

You cannnot make it zero.

How can you decrease the random error?
Random error has Gaussian distribution.
Statistical methods are used in the analysis.
When smaller divisions are used Gaussian distribution will
have a narrow shape.

40
Number of cases

20

10

7,1 7,2 7,3 7,4 7,5 length

When we state a measured value it should include
an estimate of the level of confidence associated with the
value.
Properly reporting an experimental result allows other
people to have an idea about the quality of the
experimental set-up.

The error given in measurements is usually the random error.

 Experimental error, itself, is measured by its
Accuracy and Precision.
In scientific measurements we indicate accuracy and
precision by means of significant figures.

Significant figure gives an idea about how accurately the

measurement is done.

In most cases you do not need to specify the random

error. The digits used in measurement itself gives an
idea about the random error.

When we record measured values:

*include all of the digits which are certain according to the
measurements;
*include the first uncertain digit, which is an estimate.
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURE

It is the number of reliably known digits in the measurement.

For example, there are three significant figures in the length 18.4 cm.
In this case we are sure for about 1 and 8 but not 4.

Because the random error could be 0.1 cm. And the length might be
18.3 cm or 18.5 cm.

It is not proper to write that quantity as 18.40 either.

In that case it means that the instrument we used is more precise than the
first case. And the measurement is accurate to four significant figures.
Instead of «0» we may have 1, 2…9.
when a measurement is given as 18.413 cm, in this case the
length of the material is 18.412 cm or 18.414 cm.

The uncertainty in this case is 0.001 cm.

0.001 cm is the magnitude that we don’t say for sure in

the measurement.
Significant figure is the number of digits that are known with
some degree of confidence.

Example:

In a measured value 2.34 g, the signifiant figure is 3.

OR
a weight of 1.237 g has four significant figures.
Rules for significant figures:
*All non zero figures are significant.
1.234 g has four significant figures
2.13 g has 3 significant figures
6.4 g has 2 significant figures.

*Zeros between non zero digits are significant.

203 has 3 significant figures,
2.003 has 4 significant figures.

*Leading zeros are insignificant. Zeroes indicate the

position of the decimal point.
0.0005 has 1 significant figures,
0.03 has 1 significant figures.
0.0023 has 2 significant figures.
Rules for significant figures:

*Zeroes to the right of a decimal point after a non zero

figure are significant

0.0120 g has 3 significant figures,

0.0020 g has 2 significant figures.

Because you can express that number as 12.0x10-3 g

*When a number ends in zeroes that are not to the right of

a decimal point, the zeroes may or may not be significant.
19,500 m?
it might be 19,400m, 19,490 m, or 19495 m.
In order to indicate the significant figure it is convenient to use
scientific notation.

19,500 m can be written as

19.5 x 103 (3 s.f.) means that the number might be

19,400/19,600 and the precision of the measurement is 100 m.
0,1 x103 m=100 m)

OR
19.50 x 103 ( 4 s.f.) means that the precision of the
measurement is 10 m.
(0,01x103 m=10 m::::: 19,540, 19,550, 19,560 m

The length is given as 5.61 cm. The number of significant figures is 3.

2000 Can be expressed as :2 x 103 (one significant figure)
1 x 103 = 1000 or
2 x 103 = 2000 or we can express the result as
3 x 103 = 3000
We are not for sure whether the emasurement is 1000, 2000 or 3000.

Or
2.0 x 103 is expressed to two significant figures
1.9 x 103 = 1900
2.0 x 103 = 2000
2.1 x 103 = 2100
Or
2.00 x 103 is expressed to three significant figures
1.99 x 103 = 1990
2.00 x 103 = 2000
2.01 x 103 = 2010
Or 2.000 x 103 is expressed to four significant figures. The result can
be 1999, 2000 0r 2001.
(a) 353 3 sig.figs.

(b) 0.072 2 sig.figs., the leading zeros in a

decimal are not significant.

(c) 3.040 4 sig.figs., the zeros between the

numbers are significant and also
the last zero in a t decimal is
significant.

(d) 3000 1 sig.fig.,the trailing zeros in a

whole number are not significant.
For addition and subtraction: the result can
contain no more decimal than the least accurate measurement.

123.7 g
0. 203 g
+_______________
123.903

The result must have one figure after the decimal point.
So it is 123.9 g.

the result is rounded off so that it has the same number of digits as the
measurement having the fewest decimal places .
Or:
123.72 g
0.203 g
+_______________
123.923

The result must have two figures after the decimal point.
So it is 123.92 g.

Or
123.72 g
0.207 g
+_______________
123.927
The result must have two figures after the decimal point.
The value is 123.927 so we round off the number to 123.93
so that it has the same number of digits as the fewest decimal places.
Significant figures in multiplication and division:
As a general rule the result cannot have more significant
figures than the least significant figure.

Length=12.3 cm
Width=6.4 cm
Area=12.3 x 6.4 =78.72

Thus the result is

rounded off so as to have the same number of significant
figures as with the least number of significant figures
The lowest significant figure is 2 in our case.

Area= 79 cm2