GGS COLLEGE OF MODERN TECHNOLOGY

KHARAR, PUNJAB

COMPUTER NETWORKS
ASSIGNMENT – II
BTCS 504 – 18
B. TECH 5TH SEMESTER
2023-24

Submitted By: Eshan Padhiar

Submitted To: Mr. Munish Kumar
Roll No: 2103769
Course: B. Tech
Semester: 5th
Department: CSE
Question 1: What are Data Communication Components?
Data communication components are the various hardware and software elements that make
up a data communication system. These components work together to transmit, receive, and
process data between devices or across networks. Data communication is essential for the
exchange of information in computer networks, the internet, and various other forms of
telecommunications. The primary components of data communication systems include:

1. Message: This is the data or information that needs to be transmitted from one
point to another. It can be in the form of text, voice, video, or any other digital
content.
2. Sender: The sender is the device or system that initiates the communication
process. It is responsible for creating, encoding, and transmitting the message.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device or system that receives the message, decodes
it, and presents it to the intended recipient.
4. Transmission Medium: This is the physical or logical pathway through which the
message is transmitted from the sender to the receiver. Transmission mediums can
be wired (e.g., copper cables, fiber optics) or wireless (e.g., radio waves,
microwaves).
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern the format and
timing of data transmission. It ensures that the sender and receiver can understand
and interpret the message correctly. Common network protocols include TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) for the internet and HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol) for the web.
6. Modem: Short for modulator-demodulator, a modem converts digital data from a
computer into analog signals for transmission over analog communication lines
and vice versa. Modems are commonly used for internet connections over
telephone lines or cable systems.
7. Multiplexers and Demultiplexers: These devices are used to combine multiple
data streams into a single channel for transmission (multiplexing) and then split
them back into their original streams at the receiving end (demultiplexing).
8. Switches and Routers: Switches and routers are networking devices that help
route data within a local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN).
Switches operate at the data link layer and are used for local traffic, while routers
operate at the network layer and handle routing data between different networks.
9. Network Interface Cards (NICs): NICs are hardware components in computers
that connect them to a network. They enable devices to transmit and receive data
over a network.
10. Firewalls: Firewalls are security devices or software that monitor and control
incoming and outgoing network traffic, ensuring the security and privacy of data
being transmitted.
Question 2: Write A Short Note On

a. Transmission Media
Transmission media, in the context of data communication, are the physical or logical
pathways through which data is transmitted from one device to another. They serve as
the channels that enable the exchange of information between sender and receiver in a
data communication system. There are various types of transmission media, each with
its own characteristics, advantages, and limitations. Here's an overview of common
transmission media:

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

- Twisted pair cables consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
- They are widely used in Ethernet networks, telephone systems, and many other
applications.
- Twisted pair cables are relatively inexpensive and easy to install but are susceptible
to interference and have limited bandwidth compared to other media.

2. Coaxial Cable:
- Coaxial cables consist of a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield,
and an outer insulating layer.
- They are used in cable television (CATV) systems, as well as for high-speed data
transmission in some network setups.
- Coaxial cables offer better shielding and higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables
but are more expensive.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

- Fiber optic cables use strands of glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as pulses of
light.
- They provide very high bandwidth, are immune to electromagnetic interference, and
can transmit data over long distances.
- Fiber optic cables are commonly used in high-speed internet connections,
telecommunications networks, and backbone infrastructure.
 4. Wireless Transmission:
- Wireless transmission media use radio waves, microwaves, or infrared signals to
transmit data without the need for physical cables.
- Examples include Wi-Fi for local wireless networks and cellular networks for
mobile communication.
- Wireless media offer flexibility and mobility but may be subject to interference and
have limitations in terms of range and bandwidth.

5. Satellite Communication:
- Satellite communication uses geostationary or low-earth orbit satellites to relay data
between ground stations.
- It is essential for long-distance communication, such as global television broadcasts
and remote areas with limited terrestrial infrastructure.
- Satellite communication is known for its coverage but introduces latency due to
signal travel to and from space.

6. Microwave and Radio Transmission:

- Microwave and radio transmission media utilize microwave frequencies and radio
waves to transmit data between towers or antennas.
- They are commonly used for point-to-point communication, such as in microwave
links for long-distance data transfer.
- These media offer high data rates but require line-of-sight between transmitting and
receiving antennas.
Each type of transmission medium has its own set of advantages and trade-offs, and the
choice of medium depends on factors such as the distance of communication, required
bandwidth, susceptibility to interference, and cost. Modern data communication often
involves a combination of these media to ensure reliable and efficient data transmission
in various contexts.

b. OSI model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes
and describes the functions of a telecommunication or networking system. It divides the
process of network communication into seven distinct layers, each responsible for specific
tasks and functions. The OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) to promote interoperability between different networking technologies
and systems. Here's a brief overview of each of the seven OSI model layers:
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):
- The physical layer deals with the actual transmission and reception of raw data bits over a
physical medium, such as cables, wireless signals, or optical fibers.
- It defines the physical characteristics of the transmission medium, like voltage levels, data
rates, and signal encoding.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

- The data link layer is responsible for error detection, correction, and framing of data.
- It ensures reliable point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication over a physical
medium. Ethernet and Wi-Fi are examples of data link layer technologies.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

- The network layer deals with routing data packets from the source to the destination
across a network.
- It provides logical addressing (such as IP addresses) and determines the best path for data
to traverse a network. Routers operate at this layer.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

- The transport layer is responsible for end-to-end communication, ensuring data integrity
and reliability.
- It establishes, maintains, and terminates connections, and it performs error recovery. The
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) are transport layer
protocols.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

- The session layer manages and controls the dialog between two devices, including session
establishment, maintenance, and termination.
- It provides services for synchronization and checkpointing during data exchange.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

- The presentation layer deals with data format translation and encryption/decryption.
- It ensures that data sent by one system can be understood by another, dealing with issues
like character encoding and data compression.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7):
- The application layer represents the interface between the network and the user or
application.
- It provides various network services directly to applications, including file transfer, email,
remote access, and web browsing. Application layer protocols include HTTP, FTP, and
SMTP.

Question 3: Explain Multiplexing.

Multiplexing is a technique used in data communication and networking to share a single
communication channel or medium for the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals or
data streams. It allows multiple data sources to use a common channel efficiently, thereby
increasing the utilization of the channel and reducing the overall cost of the communication
infrastructure. Multiplexing is commonly used in telecommunications, networking, and
broadcasting. There are several types of multiplexing, including:

1. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM):

 In TDM, the available time on a communication channel is divided into fixed
and equally spaced time slots.
 Each data source is allocated one or more time slots in a round-robin fashion,
allowing multiple sources to transmit their data sequentially.
 TDM is often used in digital voice and video transmission and is employed in
technologies like T1 and E1 lines.

2. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM):

 FDM divides the available frequency spectrum of a communication channel
into multiple non-overlapping sub-bands or channels.
 Each data source is assigned a specific frequency band to transmit its data.
 FDM is common in analog broadcasting, such as AM and FM radio, where
different radio stations use different frequency bands to transmit their signals.

3. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM):

 WDM is an extension of FDM used in optical fiber communication.
 It divides the available optical wavelengths (colors) into multiple channels.
 Each channel can carry data independently, allowing for high data
transmission rates in optical networks.
 4. Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM):
 In CDM, each data source is assigned a unique code (a sequence of bits) that is
used to spread the data over a wider bandwidth.
 Multiple sources can transmit simultaneously, and their data is separated at the
receiving end using the corresponding codes.
 CDM is commonly used in CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) mobile
communication systems.

5. Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM):

 SDM is primarily used in situations where multiple physical transmission
paths (e.g., fibers or antennas) are available.
 Each path serves as a separate channel for data transmission.
 SDM is frequently used in advanced technologies like MIMO (Multiple-Input,
Multiple-Output) in wireless communication.

Question 4: Explain Data Link layer.

The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model,
and it is primarily responsible for the reliable transmission of data over a physical medium
within a local area network (LAN). This layer plays a crucial role in ensuring that data frames
are delivered error-free between directly connected devices. The Data Link Layer performs
the following key functions:

1. Framing: The Data Link Layer encapsulates the network layer's packets into frames.
Frames are smaller, fixed-size units of data that include control information, such as
source and destination addresses, frame synchronization, and error-checking codes.
Framing allows devices to distinguish the beginning and end of each frame in a data
stream.
2. Addressing: Each device on a local network is assigned a unique Media Access
Control (MAC) address. The Data Link Layer uses these MAC addresses to specify
the source and destination of the frames. MAC addresses are typically burned into a
device's network interface card (NIC) and are used to identify devices at the local
network level.
3. Error Detection and Correction: The Data Link Layer is responsible for ensuring
data integrity during transmission. It performs error detection by including checksums
or cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) in the frame. If errors are detected in a received
frame, it can request retransmission or perform some level of error correction,
depending on the specific protocol used.
 4. Flow Control: Flow control mechanisms prevent the sender from overwhelming the
receiver with data. This can be important when data transmission speeds do not match
the capabilities of the receiving device. Flow control mechanisms may include
acknowledgments, sliding window protocols, or other techniques to manage the rate
of data transmission.
5. Media Access Control (MAC): The MAC sublayer of the Data Link Layer is
responsible for controlling access to the shared communication medium in LANs. It
defines rules for how devices contend for access to the network. Protocols like
Ethernet use Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) or
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) to manage
access to the network.
6. Logical Link Control (LLC): The LLC sublayer is responsible for error recovery
and flow control. It provides an interface between the Data Link Layer and the
Network Layer, ensuring that the correct network layer protocol is encapsulated in the
frame.

Common data link layer protocols include Ethernet, Wi-Fi (802.11), and Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP). These protocols define the specific rules and formats for framing, addressing,
error detection, and flow control, and they are used in various types of LANs and WANs.

Question 5: What is the spread spectrum?

Spread spectrum is a technique used in telecommunications and wireless communication to
enhance the security, reliability, and resistance to interference of data transmission. It
involves spreading a signal over a broader frequency range than the original information
signal, which makes it less susceptible to narrowband interference and jamming. Spread
spectrum technology is commonly used in wireless communication systems, including Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and various military and satellite communication applications.
Key characteristics of spread spectrum technology include:

1. Frequency Hopping: In frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), the transmitter

and receiver between switch a predefined sequence of frequencies at a very high rate.
This sequence is known to both the sender and receiver, ensuring that they are
synchronized. The rapid frequency hopping makes it difficult for an eavesdropper to
intercept or jam the signal effectively.
2. Direct Sequence: In direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), the data signal is
combined with a much higher-rate pseudo-random noise (PN) code. This code, also
known to the sender and receiver, spreads the signal across a wider frequency band.
The receiver uses the same PN code to despread the signal and recover the original
data.
 3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): CDMA is a spread spectrum technique
used in mobile communication systems. Each user's data is multiplied by a unique
spreading code, allowing multiple users to share the same frequency band without
significant interference. CDMA is known for its efficient use of spectrum and
resistance to interference.

Spread spectrum technology offers several advantages:

 Security: Since the signal appears as noise over a wide frequency range, it is
challenging for unauthorized users to intercept or decipher the transmitted data. This
enhances communication security, making it suitable for military and secure
communication applications.
 Resistance to Interference: Spread spectrum signals are less affected by narrowband
interference and jamming, which makes them highly robust in noisy or congested
communication environments.
 Multiple Access: CDMA technology enables multiple users to communicate
simultaneously on the same frequency without excessive interference. This is a
fundamental feature of modern mobile communication systems.
 Robustness: Spread spectrum technology is known for its resilience to fading,
multipath propagation, and other signal impairments, making it suitable for wireless
communication where signal quality can vary.
 Privacy: The use of unique spreading codes for different communication links offers
a level of privacy, as each code is only known to the communicating parties.

One of the most well-known applications of spread spectrum technology is in Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA) cellular networks, including 3G and 4G mobile systems.
Additionally, spread spectrum is used in wireless local area networks (e.g., Wi-Fi), satellite
communication, and secure military communication systems, where reliability, security, and
resistance to interference are critical requirements.