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Geographic Information System 3-2 Data Input and Topology

3.1 Data Input

Data input is the procedure of encoding data into a computer-readable form and writing the data
to the GIS data base.
There are two types of data to be entered into a GIS :
1. Spatial data
2. Associated non-spatial attribute data.
The spatial data represents the geographical location of the features.
 The non-spatial attribute data provide descriptive information like the name of a street,

wwsalinity of the lake or the type of tree stand. It must be logically attached to the features they
describe.

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 The data input and output functions are the means by which a GIS communicates with the
world outside. .Ea
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 The objective in defining GIS input and output requirements is to identify the mix of
equipment and methods needed to meet the required level of performance and quality. No

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one device or approach is optimum for all situations.
 Data entry is usually the major bottleneck in implementing a GIS. The initial cost of building

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the database is commonly 5 to 10 times to cost of the GIS hardware and software.

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 The creation of an accurate and well-documented database is critical to the operation of the
GIS.

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 Accurate information can only be generated if the data on which it is based were accurate to
begin with. .ne
 Data quality information includes the date of collection, the positional accuracy,
completeness, and the method used to collect and encode the data.
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There are five types of data entry systems commonly used in a GIS :
 keyboard entry
 coordinate geometry
 manual digitizing
 scanning
 input of existing digital files

3.1.1 Keyboard Entry

 It involves manually entering the data at a computer terminal. Attribute data are commonly
input by keyboard whereas spatial data are rarely input this way.

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Geographic Information System 3-3 Data Input and Topology

 Keyboard entry may also be used during manual digitizing to enter the attribute information.
However this is usually more efficiently handled as a separate operation.
 Roads files versus the census file -- roads file will use codes for the various road types while
the census file uses exact numbers for things like total population, age range, etc.

3.1.2 Coordinate Geometry (COGO)

 This technique is also called as COGO method.
 In this method survey measurements such as bearings and lengths are taken as input and
entered into GIS using keyboard.

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 Coordinates of objects and features are calculated by the GIS.
 This input technique produces highly accurate results and is useful in preparing cadastral

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maps.

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 However, it takes lot of time, manpower and cost to produce the maps compared with

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normal digitizing process.
 Surveyors and engineers want the higher accuracy of COGO for their applications. Planners

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and most others are happy with the lower accuracy provided by manual digitizing.

3.1.3 Manual Digitizing

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 Digitizing is the process of interpreting and converting paper map or image data to vector
digital data.
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are converted into a digital format in a GIS. g
 Digitizing is the process by which coordinates from a map, image, or other sources of data

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 This process becomes necessary when available data is gathered in formats that cannot be
immediately integrated with other GIS data.
 Digitization results in shape files, which are vector features.
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 Manual digitization is a tedious job and if operator is not efficient it may lead to several
digitizing errors. Hence, it has to be done with most skill and caution.
 Manual digitizing is a tedious job. Operator fatigue (eye strain, back soreness, etc.) can
seriously degrade the data quality.
 Managers must limit the number of hours an operator works at one time.
 A commonly used quality check is to produce a verification plot of the digitized data that is
visually compared with the map from which the data were originally digitized.

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3.1.4 Scanning
 Scanning provides a faster means of data entry compared to manual digitizing.
 The process of conversion of paper maps into digital format usable by computer is known as
scanning.
 It is used to convert an analog map into a scanned file, which is again converted to vector
format through tracing.
 Scanning automatically captures map features, text and symbols as individual cells, or pixels
and produces an automated image.
 The scanned file shows map features as raster lines (a series of connected pixels). And must

wwbe vectorized to complete the process of digitizing.

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 Vectorization is converting raster lines into vector lines in a process known as tracing.

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3.1.5 Inputting Existing Digital Files

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 There are many companies and organizations on the market that provide or sell digital data
files often in a format that can be read directly into a GIS.

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 These digital data sets are priced at a fraction of the cost of digitizing existing maps.
 Over the next decade, the increased availability of data should reduce the current high cost
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and lengthy production times needed to develop digital geographic data bases.

3.2 Scanner - Raster Data Input

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scanning.
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 The process of conversion of paper maps into digital format usable by computer is known as
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 It is used to convert an analog map into a scanned file, which is again converted to vector
format through tracing. Scanning automatically captures map features, text and symbols as
individual cells, or pixels and produces an automated image.
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 The scanned file shows map features as raster lines (a series of connected pixels). And must
be vectorized to complete the process of digitizing.
 Vectorization is converting raster lines into vector lines in a process known as tracing.
 A variety of scanning devices exist for the automatic capture of spatial data. While several
different technical approaches exist in scanning technology, all have the advantage of being
able to capture spatial features from a map at a rapid rate of speed.
 Scanners are generally expensive to acquire and operate. As well, most scanning devices
have limitations with respect to the capture of selected features, e.g. text and symbol
recognition.

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Geographic Information System 3-5 Data Input and Topology

3.2.1 Operation of Scanner

 The primary function of any scanner is to convert measured quantities of light to electrical
analogs. The light that is measured may be light that has been transmitted through the
material, as would be the case when film transparencies are scanned, or the light that is
measured could be that which is reflected from the surface of a map or photograph.
 For GIS and other computer applications, the electrical analogs are subsequently converted
to a binary form suitable for computer processing. If the output of the scanner is to be used
as input to a GIS, care must be taken to preserve the spatial integrity of the item being
scanned.
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 Preservation of the spatial integrity is normally accomplished by describing the scanned

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document as an orthogonal array of grid cells (raster array). Each grid cell represents an

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instantaneous field of view within which the scanner makes a measurement. The manner in
which the grid cell is defined depends upon the particular scanner being used.

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 The following four types of scanner are commonly used in GIS and remote sensing.

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Fig. 3.2.1 Major types of scanner

a. Mechanical scanner
It is called drum scanner since a map or an image placed on a drum is digitized mechanically
with rotation of the drum and shift of the sensor as shown in Fig. 3.2.1(a). It is accurate but slow.

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Geographic Information System 3-6 Data Input and Topology

b. Video Camera
Video camera with CRT (cathode ray tube) is often used to digitize a small part of map of firm.
This is not very accurate but cheap. (See Fig. 3.2.1(b))

c. CCD Camera
Area CCD camera (called digital still camera) instead of video camera will be also convenient
to acquire digital image data (See Fig. 3.2.1 (c)). It is more stable and accurate than video camera.

d. CCD Scanner
Flat bed type or roll feed type scanner with linear CCD (charge coupled device) is now

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commonly used to digitize analog maps in raster format, either in mono-tone or color mode. It is
accurate but expensive. (See Fig. 3.2.1 (d)).

w Type

Mechanical scanner .Ea Resolution

Very high
Accuracy

Very high
Cost

High

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Video camera Low

ngi Low Cheap

CCD camera
(500 x 500 pixels)

Medium cheap nee

Medium Cheap (low resolution)
(500 x 500 pixels) High
rin High ( High resolution)

CCD scanner
( 4000 x 4000 pixels)

Very High High

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High

3.2.2 Types of Scanners

Table 3.2.1 Shows the performance of major scanners
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 There are several different types of scanners performing
the same job but handling the job differently using
different technologies and producing results depending on
their varying capabilities.
 Hand-held scanners although portable, can only scan
images up to about four inches wide. They require a very
steady hand for moving the scan head over the document.
They are useful for scanning small logos or signatures and
are virtually of no use for scanning maps and photographs.
Fig. 3.2.2 Hand held scanner

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Flatbed Scanner
 The most commonly used scanner is a flatbed scanner also
known as desktop scanner. It has a glass plate on which the
picture or the document is placed. The scanner head placed
beneath the glass plate moves across the picture and the result is
a good quality scanned image. For scanning large maps or
toposheets wide format flatbed scanners can be used.

Fig.3.2.3 Flatbed scanner

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Drum Scanner
 Then there are the drum scanners which are mostly used by

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the printing professionals. In this type of scanner, the image

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or the document is placed on a glass cylinder that rotates at
very high speeds around a centrally located sensor

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containing photo-multiplier tube instead of a CCD to scan.
Prior to the advances in the field of sheet fed scanners, the

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drum scanners were extensively used for scanning maps and
other documents.
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3.2.3 Methods of Scanning rin

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 Scanning captures map features, text, and symbols as individual cells, or pixels, and produce
an automated image. .ne
 Based on the document to be scanned there are different scanning procedures followed.

Black and White Raster Scanning :

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 Image scanned in B&W
 Image scanned in B&W Black and white or “binary” scanning is the simplest method of
converting any document and can be performed on line drawings, reduced media, text or any
one colour document.
 This is the appropriate solution for archiving and storage projects, in which the documents
will be viewed and printed but never changed.
 It is, therefore, an ideal solution as the first stage in a planned document conversion project.

Grey Scale and Colour Raster Scanning :

 Image scanned in greyscale.

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Geographic Information System 3-8 Data Input and Topology

 Image scanned in Gray colour scale and (especially) colour images can be quite large.
 It must be made sure that the system is capable of handling files whose size is often
measured in tens of megabytes.
 Because virtually every pixel is populated with a value, an attempt to compress the file
results in little or no reduction in file size.

3.2.4 Limitations in use of Scanners

 Hard copy maps are often unable to be removed to where a scanning device is available, e.g.
most companies or agencies cannot afford their own scanning device and therefore must

wwsend their maps to a private firm for scanning;

 Hard copy data may not be in a form that is viable for effective scanning, e.g. maps are of

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poor quality, or are in poor condition;

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 Geographic features may be too few on a single map to make it practical, cost-justifiable, to
scan;
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 Often on busy maps a scanner may be unable to distinguish the features to be captured from

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the surrounding graphic information, e.g. dense contours with labels;
 With raster scanning there it is difficult to read unique labels (text) for a geographic feature
effectively; and
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 Scanning is much more expensive than manual digitizing, considering all the
cost/performance issues.
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3.3 Raster Data File Formats g
 Raster data represents the world as a surface divided into regular grid of cells. Raster data
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models are useful for storing data that varies continuously, as in an aerial photograph, a
satellite image or an elevation surface.
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 There are two types of raster data : Continuous and discrete. Raster stores the data in the
type of digital image represented by reducible and enlargeable grids and these grid of
cells contains a value representing information, such as temperature, discrete data represents
features such as land-use or soils data.
 Raster data provides a matrix of cells with values representing a coordinate and sometimes
linked to an attribute table and it is much simpler for many layers combinations. Raster data
is very easy to modify or program due to simple data structure.
 Rasters are in part defined by their pixel depth. Pixel depth defines the range of distinct
values the raster can store. For example, a 1-bit raster can only store 2 distinct values :
0 and 1.

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Geographic Information System 3-9 Data Input and Topology

 There is a wide range of raster file formats used in the GIS world. Some of the most popular
ones are listed below.

Tagged Image File Formats (TIFF)

 This format is associated with scanners. It saves the scanned images and reads them. TIFF
can use run length and other image compression schemes. It is not limited to 256 colors like
a GIF.

GEO-TIFF
 As part of a header in a TIFF format it puts Lat/Long at the edges of the pixels.

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Graphic Interchange Format (GIF)
 Graphic Interchange Format. A file format for image files, commonly used on the Internet. It

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is well-suited for images with sharp edges and relatively few gradations of color.

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Joint Photograph Experts Group (JPEG)

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 JPEG is a common picture format. It uses a variable-resolution compression system offering
both partial and full resolution recovery.

DEM
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 Digital Elevation Models or DEM have two types of displays. The first is 30-meter elevation
data from 1:24,000 seven-and-a-half minute quadrangle map. The second is the 1:250,000 3
arc-second digital terrain data. DEMs are produced by the National Mapping Division of
USGS. rin
Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP), Band Interleaved by Line (BIL)
 BIP and BIL are formats produced by remote sensing systems. The primary difference
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among them is the technique used to store brightness values captured simultaneously in each
of several colors or spectral bands.
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RS Landsat
 Landsat satellite imagery and BIL information are used in RS Landsat. In one format, using
BIL, pixel values from each band are pulled out and combined. Programs that use this kind
of information include IDRISI, GRASS, and MapFactory. It is fairly easy to exchange
information from within these raster formats.

Portable Network Graphics (PNG)

 Provides a well-compressed, lossless compression for raster files. It supports a large range of
bit depths from monochrome to 64-bit color. Its features include indexed color images of up
to 256 colors and effective 100 percent lossless images of up to 16 bits per pixel.
Single file - extension *.png
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Geographic Information System 3 - 10 Data Input and Topology

JPEG File Interchange Format (JFIF)

A standard compression technique for storing full-color and grayscale images. Support for
JPEG compression is provided through the JFIF file format.

Single file - extension *.jpg, *.jpeg, *.jpc, or *.jpe

World file - extension *.jgw

ArcCatalog only recognizes the .jpg file extension by default. To add .jpeg or .jpe files to
ArcMap without renaming them, add those file extensions to ArcCatalog or drag those files from
Windows Explorer into your map.

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3.4 Digitizer - Vector Data Input

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 Digitizing is the process of interpreting and converting paper map or image data to vector
digital data.
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 Digitizing is the process by which coordinates from a map, image, or other sources of data
are converted into a digital format in a GIS. This process becomes necessary when available

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data is gathered in formats that cannot be immediately integrated with other GIS data.
 Digitization results in shape files, which are vector features.

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 Manual digitization is a tedious job and if operator is not efficient it may lead to several
digitizing errors. Hence, it has to be done with most skill and caution.
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 Manual digitizing is a tedious job. Operator fatigue (eye strain, back soreness, etc.) can
seriously degrade the data quality. Managers must limit the number of hours an operator
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works at one time. A commonly used quality check is to produce a verification plot of the .ne
digitized data that is visually compared with the map from which the data were originally
digitized. t
 Tablet digitizers with a free cursor connected with a personal computer are the most
common device for digitizing spatial features with the plainmetric coordinates from analog
maps. The analog map is placed on the surface of the digitizing tablet as shown in figure.
The size of digitizer usually ranges from A3 to A0 size.

Fig. 3.4.1 Tablet digitizer

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Geographic Information System 3 - 11 Data Input and Topology

The digitizing operation is as follows

Step 1 : A map is affixed to a digitizing table.

Step 2 : Control points or tics at four corners of this map sheet should be digitized by the
digitizer and input to PC together with the map coordinates of the four corners.

Step 3 : Map contents are digitized according to the map layers and map code system in either
point mode or stream mode at short time interval.

Step 4 : Editing errors such as small gaps at line junctions, overshoots, duplicates etc. should

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be made for a clean dataset without errors.

Step 5 : Conversion from digitizer coordinates to map coordinates to store in a spatial database.

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Major problems of map digitization are :
- The map will stretch or shrink day by day which makes the newly digitized points slightly off
from the previous points.
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- The map itself has errors.

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- Discrepancies across neighbouring map sheets will produce disconnectivity.
Manual digitizing has many advantages. These include :
 Low capital cost, e.g. digitizing tables are cheap;
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 Low cost of labour;
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 Flexibility and adaptability to different data types and sources;
 Easily taught in a short amount of time - an easily mastered skill
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 Generally the quality of data is high;
 Digitizing devices are very reliable and most often offer a greater precision that the data
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warrants; and
 Ability to easily register and update existing data.

Heads-up digitization
This method uses scanned copy of the map or image and digitization is done on the screen of
the computer monitor. The scanned map lays vertical which can be viewed without bending the
head down and therefore is called as heads up digitization. Semi-automatic and automatic methods
of digitizing requires post processing but saves lot of time and resources compared to manual
method .

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Geographic Information System 3 - 12 Data Input and Topology

Heads-down digitization
Digitizers are used to capture data from hardcopy maps. Heads down digitization is done on a
digitizing table using a magnetic pen known as Puck. The position of a cursor or puck is detected
when passed over a table inlaid with a fine mesh of wires. The function of a digitizer is to input
correctly the coordinates of the points and the lines. Digitization can be done in two modes.
Point mode : In this mode, digitization is started by placing a point that marks the beginning of
the feature to be digitized and after that more points are added to trace the particular feature (line or
a polygon). The number of points to be added to trace the feature and the space interval between
two consecutive points are decided by the operator

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Stream mode : In stream digitizing, the cursor is placed at the beginning of the feature, a
command is then sent to the computer to place the points at either equal or unequal intervals as per
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the position of the cursor moving over the image of the feature

3.5 Topology
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 Topology expresses explicitly the spatial relationships between connecting or adjacent

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vector features (points, polylines and polygons) in a GIS, such as two lines meeting perfectly
at a point and directed line having an explicit left and right side.

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 Topological or topology based data are useful for detecting and correcting digitizing error in
geographic data set and are necessary for some GIS analyses.

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 Topologic data structures help insure that information is not unnecessarily repeated. The

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database stores one line only in order to represent a boundary (as opposed to two lines, one
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for each polygon). The database tells us that the line is the “left side” of one polygon and the
“right side” of the adjacent polygon.
 Topology is the study of those properties of geometric objects that remain invariant under
certain transformations such as bending or stretching.
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 Topology is often explained through graph theory.
 Topology has least two main advantages.
i) The assurance of data quality
ii) Enhance GIS analysis
 Topological relationships are built from simple elements into complex elements: points
(simplest elements), arcs (sets of connected points), areas (sets of connected arcs), and routes
(sets of sections, which are arcs or portions of arcs).

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Geographic Information System 3 - 13 Data Input and Topology

3.5.1 Components of Topology

Topology has three basic components :

1. Connectivity (Arc - Node Topology) :

 Points along an arc that define its shape are called vertices.
 Endpoints of the arc are called nodes.
 Arcs join only at the nodes.

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2. Area Definition / Containment (Polygon - Arc Topology) :

 An enclosed polygon has a measurable area. ngi
 Lists of arcs define boundaries and closed areas are maintained.
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 Polygons are represented as a series of (x, y) coordinates that connect to define an area.

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Fig. 3.5.2 Polygon arc topology

3. Contiguity (Adjacency) :
 Every arc has a direction
 A GIS maintains a list of Polygons on the left and right side of each arc.
 The computer then uses this information to determine which features are next to one another.

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Geographic Information System 3 - 14 Data Input and Topology

Fig. 3.5.3 Polygon topology

Generally, topology is employed to do the following :

 Manage coincident geometry (constrain how features share geometry). For example,
wwadjacent polygons, such as parcels, have shared edges; street centerlines and the boundaries

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of census blocks have coincident geometry; adjacent soil polygons share edges; etc.

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 Define and enforce data integrity rules (such as no gaps should exist between parcel features,
parcels should not overlap, road centerlines should connect at their endpoints).

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 Support topological relationship queries and navigation (for example, to provide the ability
to identify adjacent and connected features, find the shared edges, and navigate along a
series of connected edges).
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 Support sophisticated editing tools that enforce the topological constraints of the data model
(such as the ability to edit a shared edge and update all the features that share the common
edge).
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 Construct features from unstructured geometry (e.g., the ability to construct polygons from
lines sometimes referred to as "spaghetti"). g .ne
3.5.2 Topology in Different GIS Format

1. Coverage
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 Coverage is a topology based vector data format. Coverage can be a point coverage, line
coverage, or polygon coverage.
 The coverage model supports three basic topological relationships.
Connectivity : Arc connects to each other at nodes.
Area definition : An Area is defined by a series of connected arcs.
Contiguity : Arcs have directions and left and right polygon.

2. Shapefile
 Shapefile is a standard non topological data format. Shape file are a first attempt an object
spatial features.

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Geographic Information System 3 - 15 Data Input and Topology

 They are very simple floating point geometry feature. A Shapefile is a digital vector storage
format for storing geometric location and associated attribute information.
A shapefile is actually a set of several files
 .shp - shape format; the feature geometry itself
 .shx - shape index format; a positional index of the feature geometry to allow seeking
forwards and backwards quickly
 .dbf - attribute format; columnar attributes for each shape, in dBase III format
The geometry of a shapefile is stored in two basic files .shp and .shx :

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3. DXF (Drawing exchange format)
It maintains data in separate layers. But it does not support topology. It is AutoCAD format.

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4. Geodatabase

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A geodatabase is a relational database that store geographic information.

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 It is object-oriented model not a georelational.
 A relational database is a collection of tables logically associated with each other by
common key attribute field.
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 A geodatabase can store geographic information because, besides storing a number or a

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string in a attribute field; tables in a geodatabase can also store geometric coordinates to
define the shape and locations of points, lines or polygon.
Georelational
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Object based
Topological
Non-Topological
Coverage
Shapefile
Geodatabase
Geodatabaseg .ne
3.6 Topological Consistency Rules
 Geodatabase topology rules allow you to define relationships between features in the same
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feature class or subtype or between two feature classes or subtypes. The status of a topology,
including errors and exceptions, is saved to the source geodatabase.
Points
Must be Coincident With
Points in one feature class or subtype must be coincident
with points in another feature class or subtype. Use this rule
when points from one feature class or subtype should be
aligned with points from another feature class or subtype.
for example, when service meters must be coincident with
service points in an electric utility network.
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Geographic Information System 3 - 16 Data Input and Topology

Must Be Disjoint
Points cannot overlap within the same feature class or
subtype. Use this rule when points within one feature class
or subtype should never occupy the same space, for
example, when fittings in a water distribution network
should not overlap.

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Must Be Covered By Boundary Of
Points in one feature class or subtype must touch

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boundaries of polygons from another feature class or subtype.

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Use this rule when you want points to be on or inside the

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boundaries of polygons, for example, when utility service
points are required to be within the boundary of a parcel.

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Must Be Properly Inside Polygons
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Points in one feature class or subtype must be inside
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polygons of another feature class or subtype. Use this rule
when you want points to be completely within the boundaries g .ne
of polygons, for example, when state capitals must be inside
each state. t
Must Be Covered By Endpoint Of
Points in one feature class or subtype must be covered by the
ends of lines in another feature class or subtype. Use this rule
when you want to model points that are coincident with the ends
of lines, for example, when street intersections must be covered
by the endpoints of street centerlines.

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Geographic Information System 3 - 17 Data Input and Topology

Point Must be Covered by Line

Points in one feature class or subtype must be covered by lines in
another feature class or subtype. Use this rule when you want to model
points that are coincident with lines, for example, when monitoring
stations must fall along streams.

POLYLINE

Must be Larger than Cluster Tolerance

The cluster tolerance is the minimum distance between the vertices that make up a feature.

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Vertices that fall within the cluster tolerance are determined to be
coincident. This rule is mandatory for a topology and applies to all

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polyline feature classes.

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Must Not Overlap
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Lines must not overlap any part of another line within a feature class or

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subtype. Lines can touch, intersect, and overlap themselves. Use this rule with
lines that should never occupy the same space with other lines, for example,
when lot lines cannot overlap one another. nee
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Must Not Intersect
Lines must not cross or overlap any part of another line within the same
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feature class or subtype. Use this rule with lines whose segments should never
cross or occupy the same space with other lines, for example, when lot lines
cannot intersect or overlap, but the endpoint of one feature can touch the
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interior of another feature.

Must Not Have Dangles

The end of a line must touch any part of one other line or any part of itself within
a feature class or subtype. Use this rule when you want lines in a feature class or
subtype to connect to one another, for example, when a street network has line
segments that connect. In this example, you can set exceptions to this rule for road
segments that end at terminate with dead-ends.

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Geographic Information System 3 - 18 Data Input and Topology

POLYGON

Must be Larger than Cluster Tolerance

The cluster tolerance is the minimum distance between the
vertices that make up a feature. Vertices that fall within the cluster
tolerance are determined to be coincident. This rule is mandatory
for a topology and applies to all polygon feature classes.

Must Not Overlap

Requires that polygons must not overlap within a feature class or subtype. Polygons can be

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disconnected, touch at a point, or touch along an edge. Use this rule to
make sure that no polygon feature overlaps another polygon feature in

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the same feature class or subtype, for example, when administrative

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boundaries such as ZIP Codes or voting districts, or mutually exclusive
area classifications such as land form types cannot have any overlaps.

Must Not Have Gaps syE

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Requires that polygons must not have a void between them within a
feature class or subtype. Use this rule when all of your polygons should
form a continuous surface with no voids or gaps, for example, when soil
polygons cannot include gaps or form voids and must form a continuous
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fabric. rin
Must Not Overlap with
Polygons of the first feature class or subtype must not overlap
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polygons of the second feature class or subtype. Use this rule when
polygons from one feature class or subtype should not overlap
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polygons of another feature class or subtype, for example, when
lakes and land parcels from two different feature classes must not
overlap.

Must be Covered by Feature Class of

The polygons in the first feature class or subtype must be covered
by the polygons of the second feature class or subtype. Use this rule
when each polygon in one feature class or subtype should be covered
by all the polygons of another feature class or subtype, for example,
when states are covered by counties.

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Must Cover Each other

All polygons in the first feature class and all polygons in the second feature class must cover
each other. This means that feature class one (1) must be
covered by feature class two (2), and feature class two (2)
must be covered by a feature class of feature class one (1). Use
this rule when you want the polygons from two feature classes
or subtypes to cover the same area, for example, when
vegetation and soils must cover each other.

Must be Covered by

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Polygons in one feature class or subtype must be covered by a
single polygon from another feature class or subtype. Use this rule
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when you want one set of polygons to be covered by some part of
another single polygon in another feature class or subtype, for

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example, when countries must be covered by states.

Boundary Must be Covered by

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Polygon boundaries in one feature class or subtype must be covered
by the lines of another feature class or subtype. Use this rule when
polygon boundaries should be coincident with another line feature class nee
or subtype, for example, when major road lines form part of outlines
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for census blocks.

Area Boundary Must be Covered by Boundary of

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The boundaries of polygons in one feature class or subtype must be
covered by the boundaries of polygons in another feature class or
subtype. Use this rule when the boundaries of polygons in one feature
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class or subtype should align with the boundaries of polygons in another
feature class or subtype, for example, when subdivision boundaries are
coincident with parcel boundaries but do not cover all parcels.
Contains Point
Each polygon of the first feature class or subtype must contain
within its boundaries at least one point of the second feature class or
subtype. Use this rule to make sure that all polygons have at least one
point within their boundaries. Overlapping polygons can share a
point in that overlapping area, for example, when school district
boundaries must contain at least one school.
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Geographic Information System 3 - 20 Data Input and Topology

3.7 Attribute Data Input and Management

 Attribute data describe the characteristics of the map feature.
 Attribute data are stored in tables
 Each row of a table represents a map feature.
 Each column represents a characteristic.
 The object-oriented data model stores both data in a single database, but can distinguish
spatial data from attribute data.

Linking Attribute Data and Spatial Data

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 The georelational data model store spatial data and attribute data in separate files.
 Each map feature has unique label ID (Fig 3.7.1).

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 Linked by feature ID, the two sets of data files can be queried, analyzed and displayed.
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 Attribute data are stored in a table called feature attribute table (Fig 3.7.2).

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 A row is called a record.
 A column is called a field.

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Fig. 3.7.1 Attribute data linked to spatial data

Fig. 3.7.2 Attribute data table

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Geographic Information System 3 - 21 Data Input and Topology

 Most GIS projects have many attributes.

 Data from both structures are linked together for use through unique identification numbers,
e.g. feature labels and DBMS primary keys.
 This coupling of spatial features with an attribute record is usually maintained by an internal
number assigned by the GIS software.
 A label is required so the user can load the appropriate attribute record for a given
geographic feature.
 Most often a single attribute record is automatically created by the GIS software once a
clean topological structure is properly generated.

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 This attribute record normally contains the internal number for the feature, the user's label
identifier, the area of the feature, and the perimeter of the feature.

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 Linear features have the length of the feature defined instead of the area.To store all
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attributes in a single table is not efficient both time and computer space and difficult to use

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and update. Most GIS packages include DBMS :
o INFO for Arc/Info
o MS Access for IDRISI, ArcView and ArcGIS
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3.8 Open Database Connectivity
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ODBC “Open Data Base Connectivity” A standard software API specification for using
database management systems (DBMS). A component of Windows Open Services Architecture rin
Independent of any programming language, database system and operating system
Open Database Connectivity-or ODBC-is an application programming interface (API) that lets
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software connect with database management systems while remaining independent of them. This is
important, because it allows applications to interact with multiple databases simultaneously
using SQL (Structured Query Language).
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Goals of ODBC
 Access any data from any application, regardless of which DBMS is handling the data Insert
a middle layer between an application and the database management system.
 A database driver this layer translates the application's data queries into commands that the
DBMS understands
 Allow application programs to use SQL to access data from any kinds of sources

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Some of the advantages of ODBC are :

 ODBC provides a consistent interface regardless of the kind of database server used.You can
have more than one concurrent connection.
 Applications do not have to be bound to each database on which they will run.
 Although COBOL for AIX does this bind for you automatically, it binds automatically to
only one database. If you want to choose which database to connect to dynamically at run
time, you must take extra steps to bind to a different database.

The ODBC architecture has four components :

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 Application
 Driver Manager

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 Driver
 Data Source .Ea
Application
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Performs processing and calls ODBC functions to submit SQL statements and retrieve results.
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A number of tasks are common to all applications, no matter how they use ODBC.

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Taken together, they largely define the flow of any ODBC application. The tasks are :
 Selecting a data source and connecting to it.
 Submitting an SQL statement for execution.
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 Retrieving results (if any).
 Processing errors.
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 Committing or rolling back the transaction enclosing the SQL statement.
 Disconnecting from the data source.
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Driver Manager
 Loads and unloads drivers on behalf of an application. Processes ODBC function calls or
passes them to a driver.
 The Driver Manager exists mainly as a convenience to application writers and solves a
number of problems common to all applications. These include determining which driver to
load based on a data source name, loading and unloading drivers, and calling functions in
driver
 Driver Processes ODBC function calls, submits SQL requests to a specific data source, and
returns results to the application. If necessary, the driver modifies an application's request so
that the request conforms to syntax supported by the associated DBMS.

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Drivers are libraries that implement the functions in the ODBC API. Each is specific to a
particular DBMS; Drivers expose the capabilities of the underlying DBMSs; they are not required
to implement capabilities not supported by the DBMS. The only major exception to this is that
drivers for DBMSs that do not have stand-alone database engines, such as Xbase, must implement
a database engine that at least supports a minimal amount of SQL.
Data Source consists of the data the user wants to access and its associated operating system,
DBMS, and network platform (if any) used to access the DBMS.
A data source is simply the source of the data. It can be a file, a particular database on a
DBMS, or even a live data feed. The data might be located on the same computer as the program,

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or on another computer somewhere on a network.
The purpose of a data source is to gather all of the technical information needed to access the

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data - the driver name, network address, network software, and so on - into a single place and hide
it from the user.
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Fig.3.8.1 Four Components of Open Database Connectivity(ODBC)

3.9 GPS or Global Positioning System

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What is GPS ?
GPS or Global Positioning System is a satellite navigation system that furnishes location and
time information in all climate conditions to the user. GPS is used for navigation in planes, ships,
cars and trucks also. The system gives critical abilities to military and civilian users around the
globe. GPS provides continuous real time, 3-dimensional positioning, navigation and timing
worldwide.

How does GPS System Work ?

The GPS system consists of three segments :
1) The space segment: the GPS satellites

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Geographic Information System 3 - 24 Data Input and Topology

2) The control system, operated by the U.S. military,

3) The user segment, which includes both military and civilian users and their GPS equipment.

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Space Segment :
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Fig 3.9.1 Three elements of GPS

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The space segment is the number of satellites in the constellation. It comprises of 29 satellites

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circling the earth every 12 hours at 12,000 miles in altitude. The function of the space segment is
utilized to route/navigation signals and to store and retransmit the route/navigation message sent by
the control segment. These transmissions are controlled by highly stable atomic clocks on the
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satellites. The GPS Space Segment is formed by a satellite constellation with enough satellites to .ne
ensure that the users will have, at least, 4 simultaneous satellites in view from any point at the
Earth surface at any time. t
Control Segment :
The control segment comprises of a master control station and five monitor stations outfitted
with atomic clocks that are spread around the globe. The five monitor stations monitor the GPS
satellite signals and then send that qualified information to the master control station where
abnormalities are revised and sent back to the GPS satellites through ground antennas. Control
segment also referred as monitor station.

User Segment :
The user segment comprises of the GPS receiver, which receives the signals from the GPS
satellites and determine how far away it is from each satellite. Mainly this segment is used for the
U.S military, missile guidance systems, civilian applications for GPS in almost every field. Most of
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the civilian uses this from survey to transportation to natural resources and from there to
agriculture purpose and mapping too.

3.9.2 How does the GPS Work ?

 Principle : GPS works on the principle of trilateration i.e. determining absolute or relative
locations of points based on the distances to at least three known positions.
 Determining the location of a receiver
 GPS receiver calculates its distance from a satellite by
measuring how long a signal from the satellite takes to

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somewhere on the surface of an imaginary sphere

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centered at the satellite.

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 The distance to the other satellite will also be calculated by the receiver. Similarly a sphere
centred at B (satellite 2) with a radius R2 can be imagined on whose surface lies the receiver.

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Since the receiver is R1 distance from A (satellite1) and R2 distance from B (satellite 2), it is
clear that the receiver will be on either of the points of intersection of the two spheres
(shown by red dots).
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 The distance calculated from the third satellite will add one more sphere to be imagined on .ne
whose surface lies the receiver. This gives rise to only one valid intersection i.e. the point
where the three spheres intersect is the position of the receiver in a two dimensional space.
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A GPS receiver determines its position by using the signals that it receives from different
satellites. Since the receiver must solve for its position (X,Y,Z) and the clock error (d), four
satellite are required to solve receiver’s position using the following four equations:

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Fig. 3.9.3 Determining the location of receiver

R 12 = (X  X1 ) 2  (Y  Y1 )2  (Z  Z1 ) 2  d 2
R 22 = (X  X 2 ) 2  (Y  Y2 )2  (Z  Z2 ) 2  d 2
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R 32 = (X  X3 ) 2  (Y  Y3 ) 2  (Z  Z3 ) 2  d 2

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R 24 = (X  X 4 ) 2  (Y  Y4 )2  (Z  Z4 ) 2  d 2

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Where (X1, Y1, Z1) (X2, Y2, Z2) (X3, Y3, Z3 ) and (X4, Y4, Z4) are the locations of the satellites
and R1, R2, R3, R4 are the distances of satellites from the receiver position. Hence solving the four

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equations for four unknown factors X, Y, Z and d, the location of the receiver is calculated.

3.9.3 Sources of Error

Following are the possible sources of errors that may affect a GPS reading :
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 Ionosphere and troposphere delays : When a satellite signal passes through the
atmosphere it slows down. This slow down is taken care of by the built-in model of the GPS
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system which calculates the average delay to correct this type of error.
 Signal multipath Error : The error arises when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such
as tall buildings, mountains or such other hinderances before it reaches the receiver. The
reflectance increases the distance that the signal had to travel to reach the receiver and the
receiver assumes that the satellite is more distant than it actually is.
 Receiver clock errors : The built-in clock of a receiver may not be as accurate as the atomic
clocks onboard the GPS satellites and this may lead to errors in calculating the time.
 Orbital errors : These are the inaccuracies of the satellite's reported location. Though the
satellites remain in a fixed orbit but due to graviatational force a slight shift in the orbit
could occur.

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 Satellite visibility : The more number of satellites a GPS receiver can observe, the better the
accuracy. Buildings, terrain, or dense foliage can block signals which can cause inaccurate
estimation of the position or no position reading at all.
 Satellite geometry : The satellite geometry refers to the relative position of the satellites at
any given time. Better GPS signals are obtained when satellites are separated from each than
when they are in tight grouping.

3.9.4 Applications of GPS

GPS is an essential element of the global information infrastructure. It is free, open and so

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dependable that it makes its presence in everything from wrist watches to shipping containers. One
may find GPS in sectors such as farming, construction, mining, surveying, and logistics.

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The benefits arising from the use of GPS in various fields are mentioned below :

Agriculture .Ea
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 Allows accurate field navigation, and maximum ground coverage in the shortest possible
time.

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 Enhancement of crop productivity by having precision soil sampling, correct estimation of
variation in chemical applications and planting density.

Environment nee
 Environmental disasters such as fires and oil spills can be tracked accurately.
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 GPS tracking and mapping to facilitate monitoring and preservation of endangered species.

Aviation
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 Free, continuous and accurate positioning information of flights on a global basis.
 Safe and fuel-efficient routes for airspace service providers.
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Public Safety and Disaster Relief
 Helps in mapping the disaster affected regions.
 Can provide positional information about individuals with mobile phones in case of
emergency.

Surveying and Mapping

 Provides significant productivity gains over traditional surveying by eliminating many of its
inherent limitations
 Allows surveyors to work uninterrupted in periods of poor weather conditions

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Advantages of GPS :
 GPS satellite based navigation system is an important tool for military, civil and commercial
users
 Vehicle tracking systems GPS-based navigation systems can provide us with turn by turn
directions
 Very high speed

Disadvantages of GPS :
 GPS satellite signals are too weak when compared to phone signals, so it doesn’t work as

wwwell indoors, underwater, under trees, etc.

 The highest accuracy requires line-of-sight from the receiver to the satellite, this is why GPS

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doesn’t work very well in an urban environment.

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3.10 Two Marks Questions with Answers

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Q.1 What are the data input devices used in a GIS ?
Ans. : The different methods of input into a GIS are by
 Keyboard entry ngi
 Manual digitizing
 Scanning and
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 Automatic digitizing. rin
Q.2 What are the data output devices used in a GIS ?
Ans. : The important data output devices used in a GIS are
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 Plotter : Used to plot the graphical information after analysis on a paper
 Printer : Used to print the information after analysis on a paper
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 VDU : Visual display unit –used to display the results after analysis
 Tape Drive : Used to store the results after analysis and take it to other systems.
Q.3 What is buffering ?
Ans. : Buffering is the creation of polygons that surround other points, lines or polygons.
Buffers M/J be created either to exclude a certain amount of area around a point, line or polygon
or to include only the buffer area in a study
Q.4 Write short notes on digitizing.
Ans. : The process of convert the data from maps and other documents in to digital form. The
digital form M/J be vector or raster data. A digitizer is used to convert the data from maps into
digital form. Manual digitizing &automatic digitizing.
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Q.5 List the various errors in digitizing.

Ans. : Scale and resolution of the source/base map. Quality of the equipment and the software
used. Incorrect registration. A shaky hand. Line thickness. Overshoot. Under shoot. Spike.
Displacement. Polygonal knot. Psychological errors.
Q.6 What is scanning ?
Ans. : A piece of hard ware for converting an analogue source of document into digital raster
format (a light sensitive device).Most commonly used method. When raster data are there to be
encoded scanning is the most appropriate option. There are three different types of scanners
available in usage :

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 Flat-bed scanners (a PC peripheral).
 Rotating drum scanners.

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 Large format feed scanners
Q.7 What is overlaying ? .Ea
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Ans. : Map overlay is the process by which it is possible to take two or more different thematic
map layers of the same area and overlay them on top of the other and form a composite new

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layer this techniques is used to overlay vector data on a raster image. In Vector base systems
map overlay is time consuming, complex and computationally expensive. In raster based
systems it is quick, straightforward and efficient nee
Q.8 What are the Scanners available for GIS software’s ?
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Ans. :
 Mechanical scanner
 Video camera
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 CCD camera
 CCD scanner(CCD-Charge Coupled Scanner)
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Q.9 Name any five Raster Data File format.
Ans. :
 JPEG File Interchange Format (JFIF)
 Portable Network Graphics (PNG)
 Tagged Image File Formats (TIFF)
 Graphic Interchange Format (GIF)
 Joint Photograph Experts Group (JPEG)

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Q.10 What are the two modes of digitization ?

Point mode : In this mode, digitization is started by placing a point that marks the beginning
of the feature to be digitized and after that more points are added to trace the particular feature
(line or a polygon).
Stream mode : In stream digitizing, the cursor is placed at the beginning of the feature, a
command is then sent to the computer to place the points at either equal or unequal intervals as
per the position of the cursor moving over the image of the feature
Q.11 What are the three types of topological feature ?
Ans. :

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 Connectivity : Information about linkages among spatial objects
 Contiguity : Information about neighbouring spatial object
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 Containment : Information about inclusion of one spatial object within another spatial
object

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Q.12 Give any five topological consistency rules for Polygon.
Ans. :
 Must Be Larger Than Cluster Tolerance
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 Must Not Overlap
 Must Not Have Gaps nee
 Must Not Overlap With
 Must Be Covered By Feature Class Of rin
 Must Cover Each Other
Q.13 What is GPS ?
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Ans. : GPS or Global Positioning System is a satellite navigation system that furnishes location
and time information in all climate conditions to the user. GPS is used for navigation in planes,
t
ships, cars and trucks also. The system gives critical abilities to military and civilian users
around the globe. GPS provides continuous real time, 3-dimensional positioning, navigation and
timing worldwide.
Q.14 What are the advantages and disadvantages of GPS ?
Ans. : Advantages of GPS :
 GPS satellite based navigation system is an important tool for military, civil and
commercial users.
 Vehicle tracking systems GPS-based navigation systems can provide us with turn by turn
directions.
 Very high speed.

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Disadvantages of GPS :
 GPS satellite signals are too weak when compared to phone signals, so it doesn’t work as
well indoors, underwater, under trees, etc.
 The highest accuracy requires line-of-sight from the receiver to the satellite, this is why
GPS doesn’t work very well in an urban environment.
Q.15 Define ODBC.
Ans. : Open Database Connectivity-or ODBC-is an application programming interface (API)
that lets software connect with database management systems while remaining independent of
them. This is important, because it allows applications to interact with multiple databases

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simultaneously using SQL
Q.16 What are the four components of ODBC ?
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 Application .Ea
 Driver Manager
 Driver
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 Data Source
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Q.17 Name the three segments in GPS.
Ans. : nee
The GPS system consists of three segments :
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 The space segment : the GPS satellites

 The control system, operated by the U.S. military,

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 The user segment, which includes both military and civilian users and their GPS equipment.
Q.18 Write few advantages of ODBC.
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Ans. :
Some of the advantages of ODBC are :
 ODBC provides a consistent interface regardless of the kind of database server used.

 You can have more than one concurrent connection.

 Applications do not have to be bound to each database on which they will run.
Q.19 Name some Topological Consistency rules for Line .
Ans. :
 Must Coincide With

 Must Be Disjoint

 Must Be Covered By Boundary Of

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 Must Be Properly Inside

 Must Be Covered By Endpoint Of

 Must Be Covered By Line

Q.20 Give the working operation of Tablet Digitizer.
Ans. : The digitizing operation is as follows
Step 1 : A map is affixed to a digitizing table.
Step 2 : Control points or tics at four corners of this map sheet should be digitized by the
digitizer and input to PC together with the map coordinates of the four corners.
Step 3 : Map contents are digitized according to the map layers and map code system in either
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point mode or stream mode at short time interval.

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Step 4 : Editing errors such as small gaps at line junctions, overshoots, duplicates etc. should be

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made for a clean dataset without errors.
Step 5 : Conversion from digitizer coordinates to map coordinates to store in a spatial database.

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3.11 Long Answered Questions with Answers

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Q.1 Explain in detail about GPS and its working principle. (Refer section 3.9)

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Q.2 Discuss in detail about the topological consistency rules. (Refer section 3.6)
Q.3 What is Scanner ? Give its types and its operation procedures. (Refer section 3.2)
Q.4 What is Digitizer ? Explain the working process. (Refer section 3.4)
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Q.5 Define ODBC. What are the components of ODBC ? (Refer section 3.8)
Q.6 Illustrate the concept of topological Features. (Refer section 3.5) g .ne
Q.7 List out the raster data file formats. (Refer section 3.3)
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