LESSON 3

BASIC MATRIX OPERATIONS AND

SOLUTIONS FOR SYSTEMS OF
EQUATIONS

3. Matrix Algebra and System of Equations

3.1. Definition of a matrix
In mathematics, a matrix (Plural – matrices) is a rectangular array of elements
(or entries), which may be numbers or, more generally, any abstract quantities
that can be added and multiplied. These elements are arranged in 𝒎 number of
rows and 𝒏 number of columns.

Matrices are used to describe linear equations. They can be added, multiplied, and
decomposed in various ways, which also makes them a key concept in the field of
linear algebra.

3.2. Size (Dimension) of a Matrix

The size or dimension of a matrix is determined by the number of its rows and
columns.

 The size of the matrix is denoted by 𝒎 × 𝒏

 A matrix is denoted by a bold face letter, say 𝑨
For example, a matrix 𝑨 with 𝒎 rows and 𝒏 columns are illustrated below:

Element/Component of matrix 𝐴
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎14 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎24 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝑨=[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ] Size/Dimension of matrix 𝐴
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 𝑎𝑚4 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

𝑨𝑚×𝑛 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … … 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 = 1,2,3, … … 𝑚

𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑖 𝑡ℎ 𝑗𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑨 (𝑖 𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛)

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Example: 1
2 4 5 3
𝐴 = [1 2 0 −1]
0 2 5 7 3×4
This matrix has 3 rows (Horizontal lines) and 4 columns (Vertical lines) and thus
it is called 3 × 4, read as a “3 by 4 matrix”. The first number 3 indicates the number
of rows and the second number 4 indicates the number of columns.

3.3. Special Types of Matrices

Vector: A matrix which consists of only 1 row or 1 column. Thus, there are types
of vectors – Row vector (1 row) and Column vector (1 column).

𝑹𝒐𝒘 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓: 𝐴𝑛𝑦 1 × 𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 − [𝑥1 𝑥2 ⋯ 𝑥𝑛 ]

𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓: 𝐴𝑛𝑦 𝑚 × 1 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 − [ ⋮ ]
𝑥𝑚

Square matrix: Any matrix with the same number of rows and columns.

𝑥11 𝑥12 𝑥13 𝑥14

𝑥21 𝑥22 𝑥23 𝑥24
𝑿 = [𝑥 𝑥32 𝑥33 𝑥34 ] → 4 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 (𝑚 = 𝑛)
31
𝑥41 𝑥42 𝑥43 𝑥44

Identity matrix: A square matrix, where all primary diagonal elements are 1,
and off-diagonal elements (all other elements) are 0. The Identity Matrix is
generally denoted by 𝑰.
1 0
𝑰2×2 = [ ]
0 1

1 0 0 0
𝑰4×4 = [0 1 0 0]
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Primary/Main Diagonal

Diagonal matrix: A square matrix in which the elements outside the main
diagonal (off-diagonal elements) are all zero. The diagonal elements themselves

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can be any number, in contrast to the Identity Matrix, where they are equal to
one.
1 0 0
𝑫 = [0 4 0]
0 0 −3 3×3

Zero (Null) matrix: A matrix composed of all zeros, and can be of any dimension.
It is necessarily a square matrix. Addition or subtraction of a null matrix leaves
the original matrix unchanged; multiplication by a null matrix produces another
null matrix.
0 0 0
𝑵 = [0 0 0]
0 0 0 3×3

Transpose of a matrix: The Transpose of an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 is the 𝑛 × 𝑚 matrix,

whose roes are the columns in 𝑨, and whose columns are the rows in 𝑨. The
transpose of matrix 𝑨 can be denoted by 𝑨𝑻 or 𝑨′ .

1 4
1 2 3
If 𝑨2×3 = [ ] then 𝑨′ 3×2 = [2 5]
4 5 6
3 6

If you transpose a column vector, it becomes a row vector.

Properties of a Transpose

 (𝑨′ )′ = 𝑨
 (𝑨 + 𝑩)′ = 𝑨′ + 𝑩′
 (𝑨𝑩)′ = 𝑩′ . 𝑨′

Symmetric matrix: A square matrix that is equal to its transpose. If 𝑨 is a

symmetric matrix.

𝑨 = 𝑨𝑻

The elements of a symmetric matrix are symmetric with respect to the

primary/main diagonal. So, if the entries are written as 𝑨 = 𝒂𝒊𝒋 , then

𝒂𝒊𝒋 = 𝒂𝒋𝒊

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The following 3 × 3 matrix is symmetric:

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑨 = 𝑨𝑻 = [𝟐 𝟒 −𝟓]
𝟑 −𝟓 𝟔 𝟑×𝟑

Every diagonal/identity matrix is symmetric, since all off-diagonal entries are

zero.

Note: Equality of Matrices

Two matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩 are equal only if they have the same dimensions (number
of rows and columns), and each element in 𝑨 is identical to the corresponding
element in 𝑩.
𝒂𝒊𝒋 = 𝒃𝒊𝒋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝒊, 𝒋

1 2 4 3
𝑨=[ ] 𝑩=[ ] 𝑨 ≠ 𝑩 (Different elements)
3 4 2 1

1 2 3
1 2
𝑨=[ ] 𝑩 = [4 5 6] 𝑨 ≠ 𝑩 (Different dimensions)
3 4
7 8 9

1 2 1 2
𝑨=[ ] 𝑩=[ ] 𝑨 = 𝑩 (Same elements and dimensions)
3 4 3 4

3.4. Matrix Operations

a) Matrix Addition

If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are two matrices with the same dimensions 𝒎 × 𝒏, (i.e

conformable for addition) the sum of 𝑨 and 𝑩 if the 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix 𝑪, whose
elements are;

𝒄𝒊𝒋 = 𝒂𝒊𝒋 + 𝒃𝒊𝒋 for 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, ⋯ ⋯ 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒋 = 𝟏, 𝟐, ⋯ ⋯ 𝒏

Example: 2
4 9 2 0
𝑨=[ ] ,𝑩 = [ ]
2 1 2×2 0 7 2×2

4 9 2 0 4+2 9+0 6 9
Then, 𝑨 + 𝑩 = [ ]+[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
2 1 0 7 2+0 1+7 2 8

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Laws of Matrix Addition

 Commutative Law: 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨
 Associative Law: 𝑨 + (𝑩 + 𝑪) = (𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑪

b) Matrix Subtraction
𝑨 − 𝑩 = 𝑨 + (−𝑩)

Example: 3

1 2 2 −3
𝑨=[ ] ,𝑩 = [ ]
0 −1 2×2 −1 7 2×2

1 2 2 −3 1−2 2 − (−3) −1 5
Then, 𝑨 − 𝑩 = [ ]−[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
0 −1 −1 7 0 − (−1) −1 − 7 1 −8

Note: Matrices with different dimensions cannot be added or subtracted.

c) Matrix Multiplication

 Scalar Multiplication (Multiplication by a Constant)

In matrix algebra, a simple number (constant) such as 𝟏𝟐, −𝟐 or 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 is called

a Scalar. Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar involves multiplication of every
element of the matrix by that number. The process is called Scalar
Multiplication because it scales the matrix up and down according to the size
of the number.

If 𝒌 is any real number (scalar) and 𝑨 is an 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix, then the product

𝒌. 𝑨 is defines as the matrix whose elements are given by,

𝒌. 𝑨 = [𝒌. 𝒂𝒊𝒋 ]
𝒎×𝒏

Example: 4
1 2 4 8
𝑨=[ ] , 𝑘 = 4, Then, 𝑘. 𝐴 = [ ]
0 −1 2×2 0 −4 2×2

Try Self-Assessment Question No. 1 - 7

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 Matrix Multiplication

Multiplication of two vectors

The product of an 𝒏 component row vector 𝑨, and 𝒏 component column

vector 𝑩,
𝒃𝟏
𝑨 = [𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝒏 ]𝟏×𝒏 , 𝑩 = [𝒃𝟐 ]
⋮
𝒃𝒏 𝒏×𝟏

𝑨. 𝑩 = [𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 + ⋯ ⋯ 𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒏 ]𝟏×𝟏

Example: 5
4
𝑨 = [1 2 3]1×3 , 𝑩 = [5]
6 3×1

𝑨. 𝑩 = [(1 × 4) + (2 × 5) + (3 × 6)]𝟏×𝟏 = [4 + 10 + 18]1×1 = [32]1×1

Multiplication of two matrices

For any two matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩, the product 𝑨. 𝑩 is defined if and only if the
number of columns in 𝑨 is equal to the number of rows in 𝑩. If so, we say
that “𝑨 is conformable to 𝑩 for multiplication”.

The resulting matrix is the matrix whose elements are the products of the
𝒊𝒕𝒉 row of 𝑨 and 𝒋𝒕𝒉 column of 𝑩.

𝑨𝒎×𝒑 ∙ 𝑩𝒑×𝒏 = 𝑪𝒎×𝒏

1st condition
No of
rows
in 𝑨

No of
Dimension of the resulting matrix columns
in B

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 Example: 6

2 4 5 6 1
𝑨=[ ] ,𝑩 = [ ]
3 1 2×2 7 8 3 2×3

[2 4] [5] [2 6 1
4] [ ] [2 4] [ ]
𝑨. 𝑩 = [ 7 8 3]
[3 1] [5] [3 6 1
1] [ ] [3 1] [ ]
7 8 3

10 + 28 12 + 32 2 + 12
𝑨. 𝑩 = [ ]
15 + 7 18 + 8 3+3

38 44 14
𝑨. 𝑩 = [ ]
22 26 6 2×3

Laws of Matrix Multiplication

 Associative Law: 𝑨. (𝑩. 𝑪) = (𝑨. 𝑩). 𝑪

 Distributive Law:𝑨. (𝑩 + 𝑪) = 𝑨. 𝑩 + 𝑨. 𝑪
 Commutative Law breaks down: 𝑨. 𝑩 ≠ 𝑩. 𝑨

Note: Multiplication of matrix 𝑨 by 𝑰 (Identity Matrix) leaves matrix 𝑨 unchanged.

Therefore, the 𝑰 matrix is similar to the number 𝟏 in algebra.

3.5. Matrix Inverse

a) Determinant of a matrix

The determinant of a square matrix 𝑨, denoted by |𝑨|, is a uniquely defined

scalar (number) associated with that matrix. Note that determinants are
defined only for square matrices. A determinant is an expansion around any
row or column, which is the sum of each element multiplied by its Cofactor.

The following concepts are necessary in calculating the determinant of a

matrix.

Minor: Let 𝑨 be a 𝒏 × 𝒏 matrix. Let 𝑨𝒊𝒋 be the (𝒏 − 𝟏)(𝒏 − 𝟏) sub matrix

obtained by deleting row 𝒊 and column 𝒋 from 𝑨.

Then, the scalar 𝑴𝒊𝒋 = |𝑨𝒊𝒋 | = 𝐝𝐞𝐭 𝑨𝒊𝒋 is called (𝒊𝒋)𝒕𝒉 minor of the element 𝒂𝒊𝒋 of
matrix 𝑨.

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 Cofactor: It is a scalar 𝑪𝒊𝒋 is called the (𝒊𝒋)𝒕𝒉 cofactor of the element 𝒂𝒊𝒋 of
matrix 𝑨. It is the minor with a specified sign (signed minor).

𝑪𝒊𝒋 = (−𝟏)(𝒊+𝒋) ∙ 𝑴𝒊𝒋

Note: If 𝒊 + 𝒋 is an even number 𝑪𝒊𝒋 = 𝑴𝒊𝒋

If 𝒊 + 𝒋 is an even number 𝑪𝒊𝒋 = −𝑴𝒊𝒋

 Determinant of a 𝟐 × 𝟐 Matrix

𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐
𝑨 = [𝒂 𝒂𝟐𝟐 ]
𝟐𝟏

Set of Minors

𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐
𝑴𝟏𝟏 = |𝒂
𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 | = |𝒂𝟐𝟐 |

Similarly

𝑴𝟏𝟐 = |𝒂𝟐𝟏 |

𝑴𝟐𝟏 = |𝒂𝟏𝟐 |

𝑴𝟐𝟐 = |𝒂𝟏𝟏 |

Set of Cofactors

𝑪𝟏𝟏 = (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟏) ∙ 𝑴𝟏𝟏 = (−𝟏)𝟐 ∙ 𝑴𝟏𝟏 = 𝒂𝟐𝟐

𝑪𝟏𝟐 = (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟐) ∙ 𝑴𝟏𝟐 = (−𝟏)𝟑 ∙ 𝑴𝟏𝟐 = −𝒂𝟐𝟏

𝑪𝟐𝟏 = (−𝟏)(𝟐+𝟏) ∙ 𝑴𝟐𝟏 = (−𝟏)𝟑 ∙ 𝑴𝟐𝟏 = −𝒂𝟏𝟐

𝑪𝟐𝟐 = (−𝟏)(𝟐+𝟐) ∙ 𝑴𝟐𝟐 = (−𝟏)𝟒 ∙ 𝑴𝟐𝟐 = 𝒂𝟏𝟏

The determinant of matrix 𝑨, |𝑨|, is the expansion (sum of each element

multiplied by its cofactor) around any row or column:

Row one: 𝑹𝟏 = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝑪𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝑪𝟏𝟐 = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝒂𝟐𝟐 − 𝒂𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝒂𝟐𝟏

Row two: 𝑹𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑪𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 ∙ 𝑪𝟐𝟐 = −𝒂𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝒂𝟏𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 ∙ 𝒂𝟏𝟏

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 Example: 7

1 2
𝑨=[ ]
3 4

𝑀𝟏𝟏 = |4|, 𝑀𝟏2 = |3|, 𝑀2𝟏 = |2|, 𝑀22 = |1|

𝑪𝟏𝟏 = 4, 𝑪𝟏2 = (−3), 𝑪2𝟏 = (−2), 𝑪22 = 1

|𝐴| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝐶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝐶𝟏𝟐 = (1 × 4) + (2 × 3) = −2

A simple method to find the determinant of a 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrix is illustrated

below:

𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐
𝑨 = [𝒂 𝒂𝟐𝟐 ]
𝟐𝟏

|𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝒂𝟐𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝒂𝟏𝟐

The product of diagonal elements minus the product of off-diagonal

elements gives the determinant.

Example: 8

−1 −4
𝑨=[ ]
5 57

|𝐴| = (−1 × 57) − (5 × −4) = −37

 Determinant of a 𝟑 × 𝟑 Matrix

𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑

𝑨 = [𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 ]
𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑

The first step is to find the minors:

𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐

𝑴𝟏𝟏 = |𝒂 𝒂𝟑𝟑 | , 𝑴 𝟏𝟐 = |𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟑 | , 𝑴 𝟏𝟑 = | 𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 |
𝟑𝟐

It is sufficient to find the minors of only 𝟏 row or 𝟏 column. Here we have

found the minors for row 𝟏 of the 𝑨 matrix.

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Next, find the cofactors

𝑪𝟏𝟏 = (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟏) ∙ 𝑴𝟏𝟏 → 𝑪𝟏𝟏 = (+)𝑴𝟏𝟏

𝑪𝟏𝟐 = (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟐) ∙ 𝑴𝟏𝟐 → 𝑪𝟏𝟐 = (−)𝑴𝟏𝟐

𝑪𝟏𝟑 = (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟑) ∙ 𝑴𝟏𝟑 → 𝑪𝟏𝟑 = (+)𝑴𝟏𝟑

Thirdly, expand around the 𝟏𝒔𝒕 row (multiply element by cofactor):

𝒂𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝑪𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝑪𝟏𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏𝟑 ∙ 𝑪𝟏𝟑

|𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 (𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑 − 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝟑𝟐 ) − 𝒂𝟐𝟐 (𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟑 − 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝟑𝟏 ) − 𝒂𝟏𝟑 (𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟏 )

Example: 9

3 2 5
𝑨 = [ 3 4 1]
5 6 1

Expansion of 𝟏𝒔𝒕 row:

|𝑨| = 𝟑 × (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟏) ∙ |𝟒 𝟏| + 𝟐 × (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟐) ∙ |𝟑 𝟏| + 𝟓 × (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟑) ∙ |𝟑 𝟒|

𝟔 𝟏 𝟓 𝟏 𝟓 𝟔
|𝑨| = 𝟑 × (𝟒 × 𝟏 − 𝟔 × 𝟏) + (−𝟐) ∙ (𝟑 × 𝟏 − 𝟓 × 𝟏) + 𝟓 × (𝟔 × 𝟑 − 𝟓 × 𝟒)
|𝑨| = 𝟑 ∙ (−𝟐) − 𝟐 ∙ (−𝟐) + 𝟓 ∙ (−𝟐)
|𝑨| = −𝟔 − (−𝟒) + (−𝟏𝟎)
|𝑨| = −𝟏𝟐

We can verify whether we get the same answer by expanding another

row,

Expansion of 𝟐𝒏𝒅 row:

|𝑨| = 𝟑 × (−𝟏)(𝟐+𝟏) ∙ |𝟐 𝟓| + 𝟒 × (−𝟏)(𝟐+𝟐) ∙ |𝟑 𝟓| + 𝟏 × (−𝟏)(𝟐+𝟑) ∙ |𝟑 𝟐|

𝟔 𝟏 𝟓 𝟏 𝟓 𝟔
|𝑨| = 𝟑 ∙ (−𝟐𝟖) + 𝟒 ∙ (−𝟐𝟐) − 𝟏 ∙ (𝟖) = 𝟖𝟒 − 𝟖𝟖 − 𝟖 = −𝟏𝟐

Note: Singularity and Non singularity

If |𝑨| = 𝟎, it is said that 𝑨 is a singular matrix → No matrix inverse exists.

If |𝑨| ≠ 𝟎, it is said that 𝑨 is a nonsingular matrix → A matrix inverse exists.

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b) Inverse of a Matrix
Let, 𝑨(𝒌,𝒌) be a non-singular matrix. Then there exists a unique matrix, call it
𝑩(𝒌,𝒌) , such that

𝑨𝑩 = 𝑩𝑨 = 𝑰(𝒌,𝒌)

The matrix B is called the INVERSE of A and is denoted by 𝑨−𝟏 .

𝑨 𝑨−𝟏 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑨 = 𝑰(𝒌,𝒌)

where 𝑰(𝒌,𝒌) denotes the identity matrix.

 Finding Inverse using Determinants (Ad joint Matrix Method)

Let, 𝑨 be a nonsingular matrix, that is |𝑨| ≠ 𝟎, then

𝟏
𝑨−𝟏 = 𝒂𝒅𝒋𝑨
𝑨

𝒂𝒅𝒋𝑨 = 𝑪𝑻 (Transpose of 𝑪), where 𝑪 is the Cofactor matrix.

Example: 10

1 2
𝑨=[ ]
3 4

First, it is important to check whether 𝑨 is a non-singular matrix (|𝑨| ≠ 𝟎),

in order to clarify that 𝑨 is invertible.

|𝑨| = (1 × 4) − (2 × 3) = −2 ≠ 0 (An inverse thus exists)

(−1)1+1 ∙ 4 (−1)1+2 ∙ 2 4 −2
𝑪=[ ]=[ ]
(−1)2+1 ∙ 3 (−1)2+2 ∙ 1 −3 1

We can see that the cofactor matrix 𝑪, can be derived by simply

interchanging the diagonal elements 1 and 4, and changing the sign of the
off-diagonal elements 2 and 3 of matrix 𝑨. However, this condition can be
applied only to 2 × 2 matrices.

4 −2
𝒂𝒅𝒋𝑨 = 𝑪𝑻 = [ ]
−3 1

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 𝟏
𝑨−𝟏 = 𝒂𝒅𝒋𝑨, 𝒅𝒆𝒕𝑨 = −𝟐
𝑨
1 4 −2
𝑨−1 =− ∙[ ]=
2 −3 1

−2 1
[ ]
3⁄2 −1⁄2

Of course, if 𝑨−𝟏 really is the inverse of 𝑨, then 𝑨 𝑨−𝟏 and 𝑨−𝟏 𝑨 should
multiply out to give 𝑰(Identity matrix). Checking this condition:

−2 1 1 2 1 0
𝑨−1 𝑨 = [ ]∙[ ]=[ ]
3⁄2 −1⁄2 3 4 0 1

1 2 −2 1 1 0
𝑨 𝑨−1 = [ ]∙[ ]=[ ]
3 4 3⁄2 −1⁄2 0 1

Thus, 𝑨−𝟏 is truly inverse of 𝑨 in this example.

Example: 11
9 1 5
𝑨 = [1 2 3]
5 3 4

|𝑨| = (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟏) ∙ 𝟗 ∙ |𝟐 𝟑| + (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟐) ∙ 𝟏 ∙ |𝟏 𝟑| + (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟑) ∙ 𝟓 ∙ |𝟏 𝟐|

𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟒 𝟓 𝟑
|𝑨| = 9 ∙ (8 − 9) − 1 ∙ (4 − 15) + 5 ∙ (3 − 10) = −9 + 11 − 35 = −33

𝑨𝒅𝒋 𝑨 = 𝑪𝑻

𝑪𝟏𝟏 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟑

𝑪 = [𝑪𝟐𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑪𝟐𝟑 ]
𝑪𝟑𝟏 𝑪𝟑𝟐 𝑪𝟑𝟑

𝟐 𝟑
𝐶𝟏𝟏 = (−𝟏)(𝟏+𝟏) ∙ | | = 1 × (8 − 9) = −1
𝟑 𝟒
(𝟏+2) 1 3
𝐶𝟏2 = (−𝟏) ∙| | = −1 × (4 − 15) = 11
5 4
(1+3) 1 2
𝐶𝟏3 = (−1) ∙| | = 1 × (3 − 10) = −7
5 3
(2+1) 1 5
𝐶21 = (−1) ∙| | = −1 × (4 − 15) = 11
3 4
(2+2) 9 5
𝐶22 = (−1) ∙| | = 1 × (36 − 25) = 11
5 4
(2+3) 9 1
𝐶23 = (−1) ∙| | = −1 × (27 − 5) = −22
5 3
(3+1) 1 5
𝐶31 = (−1) ∙| | = 1 × (3 − 10) = −7
2 3
(3+2) 9 5
𝐶32 = (−1) ∙| | = −1 × (27 − 5) = −22
1 3

Page 12 of 16
 9 1
𝐶33 = (−1)(3+3) ∙ | | = 1 × (18 − 1) = 17
1 2

−𝟏 𝟏𝟏 −𝟕 −𝟏 𝟏𝟏 −𝟕
𝑪 = [ 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 −𝟐𝟐] → 𝑪𝑻 = [ 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 −𝟐𝟐]
−𝟕 −𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟕 −𝟕 −𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟕

𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏𝟏 −𝟕 𝟏⁄𝟑𝟑 −𝟏⁄𝟑 𝟕⁄𝟑𝟑

−𝟏 ⁄ ⁄
𝑨 = [ 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 −𝟐𝟐] = [− 𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏 𝟑 𝟐⁄𝟑 ]
−𝟑𝟑
−𝟕 −𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟕 𝟕⁄𝟑𝟑 𝟐⁄𝟑 −𝟏𝟕⁄𝟑𝟑

You can multiply this answer (𝑨−𝟏 ) by 𝑨 and see whether you get the identity
matrix.

`` Example: 12

2 5
𝑩=[ ]
4 10

2 5
det 𝑩 = | | = (2 × 10) − (5 × 4) = 0
4 10

We see that det 𝑩 = 0 so this matrix is singular and the inverse does not
exist.

Properties of an Inverse

 𝑨−𝑘 = (𝐴−1 )𝑘
 (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝑨
1
 (𝑘 ∙ 𝑨)−1 = 𝐴−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ≠ 0
𝑘

 (𝑨𝑇 )−1 = (𝑨−1 )𝑇

 (𝑨 ∙ 𝑩)−1 = 𝑩−1 ∙ 𝐴−1

3.6. Solving Systems of Linear Equations

General Case: 𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 = 𝑏2

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑥1 𝑏1
In matrix form: [𝑎 𝑎22 ] ∙ [𝑥2 ] = [𝑏2 ] → 𝑨 ∙ 𝑿 = 𝑩
21

Page 13 of 16
 𝑨 → 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
𝑿 → 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠
𝑩 → 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

a) Methods of Solving Linear Equations

 Using Matrix Inversion

Basic equation: 𝑨 ∙ 𝑿 = 𝑩

If 𝑨 is invertible, 𝑨−𝟏 ∙ 𝑨 ∙ 𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 ∙ 𝑩 (pre-multiplying both sides of the

equation by 𝑨−𝟏 )

Therefore, 𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 ∙ 𝑩

Example: 13
The equilibrium prices 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 for two goods satisfy y=the equations,
−4𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = −13
2𝑃1 − 5𝑃2 = −7

The equations can be written in matrix form as:

−4 1 𝑃 −13
[ ] ∙ [ 1] = [ ]→𝑨∙𝑿=𝑩
2 −5 𝑃2 −7

|𝑨| = |−4 1 | = (−4) ∙ (−5) − 1 ∙ 2 = 20 − 2 = 18

2 −5

To find 𝑨−𝟏 we swap the diagonal elements −4 and −5, and change the sign
of the off-diagonal elements, 1 and 2, and divide by the determinant 18, to
get

1 −5 −1
𝑨−𝟏 = [ ]
18 −2 −4

Finally, to calculate 𝑿 we multiply 𝑨−𝟏 by 𝑩,

𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 ∙ 𝑩
1 −5 −1 −13
𝑿= [ ]∙[ ]
18 −2 −4 −7
1 72 4
𝑿= [ ] = [ ] ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 = 3
18 54 3

Page 14 of 16
 Using Cramer’s Rule

Cramer’s rule provides a simplified method of solving a system of linear

equations through the use of determinants. Cramer’s rule states that,

|𝑨𝒊 |
̅𝒊 =
𝒙
|𝑨|
Where 𝒙𝒊 is the 𝒊𝒕𝒉 unknown variable in a series of equations, |𝑨| is the
determinant of the coefficient matrix and |𝑨𝒊 | is the determinant of a special
matrix formed from the original coefficient matrix by replacing the column of
coefficients of 𝒙𝒊 with the column vector of constants.

This method is further explained using the following example;

Example: 14

Solve the equations by using Cramer’s rule

6𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 = 49
3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 32

Firstly, express the equation in matrix form:

𝑨∙𝑿=𝑩
6 5 𝑥1 49
[ ]∙[ ]=[ ]
3 4 𝑥2 32

Find the determinant of 𝑨,

|𝑨| = (6 × 4) − (5 × 3) = 9

Then to solve for 𝑥1 , replace column 1, the coefficients of 𝑥1 with the vector
of constants 𝑩, forming a new matrix 𝑨1 ,
49 5
𝑨1 = [ ]
32 4

Page 15 of 16
Find the determinant of 𝑨1 ,

|𝑨1 | = (49 × 4) − (5 × 32) = 36

Then use the formula for Cramer’s rule,

|𝑨𝟏 | 𝟑𝟔
̅𝟏 =
𝒙 = =𝟒
|𝑨| 𝟗

Then to solve for 𝑥2 , replace column 2, the coefficients of 𝑥2 from the original
matrix, with the vector of constants 𝑩, forming a new matrix 𝑨2 ,
6 49
𝑨2 = [ ]
3 32

Take the determinant of 𝑨1 ,

|𝑨2 | = (6 × 32) − (49 × 3) = 45

And use the formula for Cramer’s rule,

|𝑨𝟐 | 𝟒𝟓
̅𝟐 =
𝒙 = =𝟓
|𝑨| 𝟗

Thus, the solutions of the above examples are:

𝑥1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 = 5

Try Self-Assessment Question No. 8 -9

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