ENGINEERING MATERIALS

CHAPTER THREE

Failure of Engineering Materials

Why Steady Failure?

The design of a component or structure often calls upon the engineer to

minimize the possibility of failure. Thus, it is important to understand the
mechanics of the various failure modes—i.e., fracture, fatigue, and
creep—and, in addition, be familiar with appropriate design principles that
may be employed to prevent in-service failures.

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INTRODUCTION

The failure of engineering materials is almost always an undesirable

event for several reasons; these include human lives that are put in
jeopardy, economic losses, and the interference with the availability of
products and services. Even though the causes of failure and the
behavior of materials may be known, prevention of failures is difficult to
guarantee. The usual causes are improper materials selection and
processing and inadequate design of the component or its misuse.
It is the responsibility of the engineer to anticipate and plan for possible
failure and, in the event that failure does occur, to assess its cause and
then take appropriate preventive measures against future incidents.

Types of Failure :

- Simple fracture :-
 Ductile fracture
 Brittle fracture
- Fatigue Failure
- Creep

1. Simple Fracture :
Simple fracture can be defined as is the separation of a body into two or
more pieces in response to an imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant or
slowly changing with time). The applied stress may be tensile,
compressive, shear, or torsional .

 Any fracture process involves two steps :-

a. crack formation and
b. crack propagation
The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the mechanism of crack
propagation.
 Ductile fracture is almost always preferred for two reasons. First,
brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any
warning; this is a consequence of the spontaneous and rapid crack
propagation. On the other hand, for ductile fracture, the presence of
plastic deformation gives warning that fracture is imminent,

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allowing preventive measures to be taken. Second, more strain

energy is required to induce ductile fracture in as much as ductile
materials are generally tougher. Under the action of an applied
tensile stress, most metal alloys are ductile, whereas ceramics are
notably brittle, and polymers may exhibit both types of fracture.

Ductile Fracture :

Ductile fracture surfaces will have their own distinctive features on both
macroscopic and microscopic levels. Figure (3.1) shows schematic
representations for two characteristic macroscopic fracture profiles. The
configuration shown in Figure (3.1a) is found for extremely soft metals,
such as pure gold and lead at room temperature, and other metals,
polymers, and inorganic glasses at elevated temperatures. These highly
ductile materials neck down to a point fracture, showing virtually 100%
reduction in area.

Figure(3.1) : (a) Highly ductile fracture

in which the specimen necks down to a
point.
(b) Moderately ductile fracture after
some necking.
(c) Brittle fracture without any plastic
deformation.

The most common type of tensile fracture profile for ductile metals is that
represented in Figure 3.1b, where fracture is preceded by only a moderate
amount of necking. The fracture process normally occurs in several stages
(Figure 3.2). First, after necking begins, small cavities, or micro voids,
form in the interior of the cross section, as indicated in Figure (3.2b). Next,
as deformation continues, these micro voids enlarge, come together, and

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coalesce to form an elliptical crack, which has its long axis perpendicular
to the stress direction. The crack continues to grow in a direction parallel
to its major axis by this micro void coalescence process (Figure 3.2c).
Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crack around the
outer perimeter of the neck (Figure 3.2d), by shear deformation at an angle
of about °45 with the tensile axis—this is the angle at which the shear
stress is a maximum. Sometimes a fracture having this characteristic
surface contour is termed a cup-and-cone fracture because one of the
mating surfaces is in the form of a cup, the other like a cone. In this type of
fractured specimen (Figure 3.3a), the central interior region of the surface
has an irregular and fibrous appearance, which is indicative of plastic
deformation.

Figure(3.2): Stages in the cup-and-

cone fracture. (a) Initial necking.
(b) Small cavity formation. (c)
Coalescence of cavities to form a
crack. (d) Crack propagation. (e)
Final shear fracture at a °45 angle
relative to the tensile direction.

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Figure(3.3): (a) Cup-and-cone fracture in aluminum. (b) Brittle fracture in a mild steel.

Ductility is strongly dependent on the inclusion content of the material. With

increasing numbers of inclusions , the distance between the voids decreases, so it
easier for them to link together and lower the ductility .

The characteristics of the surface of ductile fracture :

A ductile fracture surface has a dull, fibrous appearance and often resembles a ―
cup and cone ― configuration .

Brittle Fracture :
Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation, and by
rapid crack propagation. The direction of crack motion is very nearly
perpendicular to the direction of the applied tensile stress and yields a
relatively flat fracture surface, as indicated in Figure (3.1c.).

Characterization of brittle fracture :

1. Rapid rate of crack propagation with no gross deformation and very
little micro deformation .
2. It is a kin to cleavage in ionic.
3. A brittle fracture surface typically appears shiny with flat facets.
Brittle fracture in amorphous materials , such as ceramic glasses , are
relatively shiny and smooth surfaces .

Transgranular & Intergranular Fracture :

For most brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation corresponds to the

successive and repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific
crystallographic planes (Figure 3.4a). This type of fracture is said to be
transgranular (or transcrystalline), because the fracture cracks pass
through the grains. Macroscopically, the fracture surface may have a
grainy or faceted texture (Figure 3.3b), as a result of changes in orientation
of the cleavage planes from grain to grain. This cleavage feature is shown
at a higher magnification in the scanning electron micrograph of Figure

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3.4b.
In some alloys, crack propagation is along grain boundaries (Figure 3.5a);
this fracture is termed intergranular. Figure 3.5b is a scanning electron

micrograph showing a typical

intergranular fracture.

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Stress Concentration
The measured fracture strengths for most brittle materials are significantly
lower than those predicted by theoretical calculations based on atomic
bonding energies.
This discrepancy is explained by the presence of very small, microscopic
flaws or cracks that always exist under normal conditions at the surface
and within the interior of a body of material. These flaws are a detriment
to the fracture strength because an applied stress may be amplified or
concentrated at the tip, the magnitude of this amplification depending on
crack orientation and geometry. This phenomenon is demonstrated in
Figure 3.6, a stress profile across a cross section containing an internal
crack. As indicated by this profile, the magnitude of this localized stress
diminishes with distance away from the crack tip. At positions far
removed, the stress is just the nominal stress or the applied load divided by
the specimen cross-sectional area (perpendicular to this load). Due to their
ability to amplify an applied stress in their locale, these flaws are
sometimes called stress raisers.

Figure(3.6) : (a) The geometry of surface and internal cracks. (b) Schematic stress profile
along the line X–X in (a), demonstrating stress amplification at crack tip positions.

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If it is assumed that a crack is similar to an elliptical hole through a plate,

and is oriented perpendicular to the applied stress, the maximum stress,
occurs at the crack tip and may be approximated by

where
: is the magnitude of the nominal applied tensile stress,
𝜌t : is the radius of curvature of the crack tip (Figure 3.6a),
and a : represents the length of a surface crack, or half of the length of an internal
crack.
Sometimes the ratio is denoted as the stress concentration factor (Kt )

which is simply a measure of the degree to which an external stress is amplified at

the tip of a crack.

Critical stress for crack propagation in a brittle material

Using principles of fracture mechanics, it is possible to show that the
critical stress required for crack propagation in a brittle material is
described by the expression

Where:

E = modulus of elasticity

γs = specific surface energy

a =one half the length of an internal crack

All brittle materials contain a population of small cracks and flaws that
have a variety of sizes, geometries, and orientations. When the magnitude
of a tensile stress at the tip of one of these flaws exceeds the value of this

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critical stress, a crack forms and then propagates, which results in fracture.

Ductile-to-Brittle Transition:

One of the primary functions of Charpy and Izod tests is to determine

whether or not a material experiences a ductile-to-brittle transition with
decreasing temperature and, if so, the range of temperatures over which it
occurs.

Figure(3.7): Temperature
dependence of the Charpy V-
notch impact energy
(curve A) and percent shear
fracture (curve B)
for an A283 steel.

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The ductile-to-brittle transition is related to the temperature dependence of

the measured impact energy absorption. This transition is represented for a
steel by curve A in Figure 3.7 At higher temperatures the CVN energy is
relatively large, in correlation with a ductile mode of fracture. As the
temperature is lowered, the impact energy drops suddenly over a relatively
narrow temperature range, below which the energy has a constant but
small value; that is, the mode of fracture is brittle.

Structures constructed from alloys that exhibit this ductile-to-brittle

behavior should be used only at temperatures above the transition
temperature, to avoid brittle and catastrophic failure. Classic examples of
this type of failure occurred, with disastrous consequences, during World
War II when a number of welded transport ships, away from combat,
suddenly and precipitously split in half. The vessels were constructed of a
steel alloy that possessed adequate ductility according to room-
temperature tensile tests. The brittle fractures occurred at relatively low
ambient temperatures, at about 4°C.

Figure(3.8): Schematic curves for the three general types of impact

energy-versus-temperature behavior

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From figure (3.8) , may be noted that low-strength FCC metals (some
aluminum and copper alloys) and most HCP metals do not experience a
ductile-to-brittle transition (corresponding to the upper curve of Figure
3.8), and retain high impact energies (i.e., remain ductile) with decreasing
temperature. For high-strength materials (e.g., high-strength steels and
titanium alloys), the impact energy is also relatively insensitive to
temperature (the lower curve of Figure 3.8); however, these materials are
also very brittle, as reflected by their low impact energy values. And, of
course, the characteristic ductile-to-brittle transition is represented by the
middle curve of Figure 3.8. As noted, this behavior is typically found in
low-strength steels that have the BCC crystal structure.
For these low-strength steels, the transition temperature is sensitive to both
alloy composition and microstructure. For example, decreasing the
average grain size results in a lowering of the transition temperature.
Hence, refining the grain size both strengthens and toughens steels. In
contrast, increasing the carbon content, while increasing the strength of
steels, also raises the CVN transition of steels, as indicated in Figure 3.9.

Figure(3.9) : Influence of carbon content on the Charpy V-notch energy-versus

temperature behavior for steel.
2. Fatigue Failure :
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic
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and fluctuating stresses (e.g., bridges, aircraft, and machine components).

Under these circumstances it is possible for failure to occur at a stress level
considerably lower than the tensile or yield strength for a static load. The
term ―fatigue‖ is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a
lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling.
Fatigue is important inasmuch as it is the single largest cause of failure in
metals, estimated to comprise approximately 90% of all metallic failures;
polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to this type
of failure. Furthermore, fatigue is catastrophic and insidious, occurring
very suddenly and without warning.
Fatigue failure is brittle like in nature even in normally ductile metals, in
that there is very little, if any, gross plastic deformation associated with
failure. The process occurs by the initiation and propagation of cracks, and
ordinarily the fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of an
applied tensile stress.

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CYCLIC STRESSES
The applied stress may be axial (tension-compression), flexural (bending),
or torsional (twisting) in nature. In general, three different fluctuating
stress–time modes are possible.
One is represented schematically by a regular and sinusoidal time
dependence in Figure 3.10 a, wherein the amplitude is symmetrical about a
mean zero stress level, for example, alternating from a maximum tensile
stress ( max) to a minimum compressive stress ( min) of equal magnitude;
this is referred to as a reversed stress cycle.

Figure 3.10 Variation of stress with time

that accounts for fatigue failures. (a)
Reversed stress cycle, in which the
stress alternates from a maximum tensile
stress (+) to a maximum
compressive stress (-) of equal
magnitude. (b) Repeated stress cycle, in
which maximum and minimum stresses
are asymmetrical relative to the zero-
stress level;
mean stress, m
range of stress r and

stress amplitude a are

indicated.
(c) Random stress cycle.

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Another type, termed repeated stress cycle, is illustrated in Figure 3.10b;

the maxima and minima are asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level.
Finally, the stress level may vary randomly in amplitude and frequency, as
exemplified in Figure 3.10c.
Also indicated in Figure 3.10b are several parameters used to characterize
the fluctuating stress cycle. The stress amplitude alternates about a mean
stress defined as the average of the maximum and minimum stresses in the
cycle, or

Mean stress for cyclic

loading—dependence
on maximum and
minimum stress levels

Computation of
range of stress for
cyclic loading

Stress amplitude ( a ) is just one half of this range of stress, or

Computation of
stress amplitude for
cyclic loading

Finally, the stress ratio( R) is just the ratio of minimum and maximum stress
amplitudes:

Computation of
stress ratio

By convention, tensile stresses are positive and compressive stresses are negative.
For example, for the reversed stress cycle, the value of R is ( -1) .

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THE S–N CURVE

As with other mechanical characteristics, the fatigue properties of
materials can be determined from laboratory simulation tests. A test
apparatus should be designed to duplicate as nearly as possible the service
stress conditions (stress level, time frequency, stress pattern, etc.).

Figure 3.11 Schematic diagram of fatigue-testing apparatus for making rotating bending
tests.

A schematic diagram of a rotating-bending test apparatus, commonly used

for fatigue testing, is shown in Figure 3.11; the compression and tensile
stresses are imposed on the specimen as it is simultaneously bent and
rotated. Tests are also frequently conducted using an alternating uniaxial
tension-compression stress cycle. A series of tests are commenced by
subjecting a specimen to the stress cycling at a relatively large maximum
stress amplitude ( max ), usually on the order of two thirds of the static
tensile strength; the number of cycles to failure is counted. This procedure
is repeated on other specimens at progressively decreasing maximum
stress amplitudes. Data are plotted as stress S versus the logarithm of the
number N of cycles to failure for each of the specimens. The values of S
are normally taken as stress amplitudes on occasion, max or min values
may be used.

Two distinct types of S–N behavior are observed, which are represented
schematically in Figure 3.11. As these plots indicate, the higher the
magnitude of the stress, the smaller the number of cycles the material is

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capable of sustaining before failure. For some ferrous (iron base) and
titanium alloys, the S–N curve (Figure 3.11) becomes horizontal at higher
N values; or there is a limiting stress level, called the fatigue limit (also
sometimes the endurance limit), below which fatigue failure will not
occur.
This fatigue limit represents the largest value of fluctuating stress that
will not cause failure for essentially an infinite number of cycles.
For many steels, fatigue limits range between 35% and 60% of the tensile
strength. Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum, copper, magnesium) do
not have a fatigue limit, in that the S–N curve continues its downward
trend at increasingly greater N values (Figure 3.12). Thus, fatigue will
ultimately occur regardless of the magnitude of the stress. For these
materials, the fatigue response is specified as fatigue strength, which is
defined as the stress level at which failure will occur for some specified
number of cycles (e.g., 107cycles). The determination of fatigue strength
is also demonstrated in Figure 3.12.
Another important parameter that characterizes a material’s fatigue
behavior is fatigue life It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a
specified stress level, as taken from the S–N plot (Figure 3.12).

Figure(3.11):Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to fatigue

failure (N). a material that displays a fatigue limit

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Figure(3.12): Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to fatigue
failure (N) a material that does not display a fatigue limit.

Low & High cycle Fatigue

The fatigue behaviors represented in Figures 3.11 and 3.12 may be
classified into two domains:
One is associated with relatively high loads that produce not only elastic
strain but also some plastic strain during each cycle. Consequently, fatigue
lives are relatively short; this domain is termed low-cycle fatigue and
occurs at less than about 104 to 105 cycles.
For lower stress levels wherein deformations are totally elastic, longer
lives result. This is called high-cycle fatigue inasmuch as relatively large
numbers of cycles are required to produce fatigue failure. High-cycle
fatigue is associated with fatigue lives greater than about 104 to 105 cycles.

CRACK INITIATION AND PROPAGATION

The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps:
(1) crack initiation, wherein a small crack forms at some point of high

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stress concentration;
(2) crack propagation, during which this crack advances incrementally
with each stress cycle; and
(3) final failure, which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has
reached a critical size. Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost
always initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a component at some point
of stress concentration.
Crack nucleation sites include surface scratches, sharp fillets, keyways,
threads, dents, and the like. In addition, cyclic loading can produce
microscopic surface discontinuities resulting from dislocation slip steps
that may also act as stress raisers, and therefore as crack initiation sites.
The region of a fracture surface that formed during the crack propagation
step may be characterized by two types of markings termed beach marks
and striations.
Both of these features indicate the position of the crack tip at some point in
time and appear as concentric ridges that expand away from the crack
initiation site(s), frequently in a circular or semicircular pattern. Beach
marks are of macroscopic dimensions (Figure 3.13), and may be observed
with the unaided eye. These markings are found for components that
experienced interruptions during the crack propagation stage—for
example, a machine that operated only during normal work-shift hours.
Each beach mark band represents a period of time over which crack
growth occurred.

Figure(3.13):Fracture surface of a
rotating steel shaft that experienced
fatigue failure.
Beachmark ridges are visible in the
photograph.

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Often the cause of failure may be deduced after examination of the failure
surfaces. The presence of beach marks and/or striations on a fracture
surface confirms that the cause of failure was fatigue. Nevertheless, the
absence of either or both does not exclude fatigue as the cause of failure.
We can recognize the beach mark and rapid fracture area from figure (3.14)

Figure(3.14): Surface of a Fatigue fracture

Rapid failure may be either ductile or brittle; evidence of plastic deformation will
be present for ductile, and absent for brittle, failure. This region of failure may be
noted in Figure 3.15.

Fatigue (3.15):
failure surface. A crack
formed at the top edge.
The smooth region also
near the top corresponds
to the area over which the
crack propagated slowly.
Rapid failure occurred
over the area having a
dull and fibrous texture
(the largest area).

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

The fatigue behavior of engineering materials is highly sensitive to a
number of variables. Some of these factors include mean stress level,
geometrical design, surface effects, and metallurgical variables, as well
as the environment.
This section is devoted to a discussion of these factors and, in addition, to
measure that may be taken to improve the fatigue resistance of structural
components.

 Mean Stress
The dependence of fatigue life on stress amplitude is represented on the S–
N plot. Such data are taken for a constant mean stress m, often for the
reversed cycle situation ( m = 0 ). Mean stress, however, will also affect
fatigue life; this influence may be represented by a series of S–N curves,
each measured at a different as depicted schematically in Figure 3.16 As
may be noted, increasing the mean stress level leads to a decrease in
fatigue life.

Figure 3.16: Demonstration of the influence of mean stress on S–N fatigue behavior.

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 Surface Effects
For many common loading situations, the maximum stress within a
component or structure occurs at its surface. Consequently, most cracks
leading to fatigue failure originate at surface positions, specifically at
stress amplification sites. Therefore, it has been observed that fatigue life
is especially sensitive to the condition and configuration of the component
surface. Numerous factors influence fatigue resistance, the proper
management of which will lead to an improvement in fatigue life. These
include design criteria as well as various surface treatments.
Design Factors
The design of a component can have a significant influence on its fatigue
characteristics. Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress
raiser and fatigue crack initiation site; these design features include
grooves, holes, keyways, threads, and so on. The sharper the discontinuity
(i.e., the smaller the radius of curvature), the more severe the stress
concentration. The probability of fatigue failure may be reduced by
avoiding (when possible) these structural irregularities, or by making
design modifications whereby sudden contour changes leading to sharp
corners are eliminated—for example, calling for rounded fillets with large
radii of curvature at the point where there is a change in diameter for a
rotating shaft (Figure 3.17).

Figure(3.17): Demonstration of how design can reduce stress amplification. (a) Poor
design: sharp corner. (b) Good design: fatigue lifetime improved by incorporating rounded
fillet into a rotating shaft at the point where there is a change in diameter.

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Surface Treatments
During machining operations, small scratches and grooves are invariably
introduced into the work piece surface by cutting tool action. These
surface markings can limit the fatigue life. It has been observed that
improving the surface finish by polishing will enhance fatigue life
significantly.
One of the most effective methods of increasing fatigue performance is by
imposing residual compressive stresses within a thin outer surface layer.
Thus, a surface tensile stress of external origin will be partially nullified
and reduced in magnitude by the residual compressive stress. The net
effect is that the likelihood of crack formation and therefore of fatigue
failure is reduced.
Residual compressive stresses are commonly introduced into ductile
metals mechanically by localized plastic deformation within the outer
surface region. Commercially, this is often accomplished by a process
termed shot peening. Small, hard particles (shot) having diameters within
the range of 0.1 to 1.0 mm are projected at high velocities onto the surface
to be treated. The resulting deformation induces compressive stresses to a
depth of between one-quarter and one-half of the shot diameter. The
influence of shot peening on the fatigue behavior of steel is demonstrated
schematically in Figure 3.18.

Figure 3.18: Schematic S–N fatigue curves for normal and shot-peened steel.

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Case hardening : is a technique by which both surface hardness and

fatigue life are enhanced for steel alloys. This is accomplished by a
carburizing or nitriding process whereby a component is exposed to a
carbonaceous or nitrogenous atmosphere at an elevated temperature. A
carbon- or nitrogen-rich outer surface layer (or ―case‖) is introduced by
atomic diffusion from the gaseous phase. The case is normally on the order
of 1 mm deep and is harder than the inner core of material.
The improvement of fatigue properties results from increased hardness
within the case, as well as the desired residual compressive stresses the
formation of which attends the carburizing or nitriding process.
The increase in case hardness is demonstrated in the photomicrograph
appearing in Figure 3.19. The dark and elongated diamond shapes are
Knoop micro hardness indentations. The upper indentation, lying within
the carburized layer, is smaller than the core indentation.

Figure 3.19: Photomicrograph showing both core (bottom) and carburized outer case (top)
regions of a casehardened steel. The case is harder as attested by the smaller micro
hardness indentation.

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ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Environmental factors may also affect the fatigue behavior of materials. A
few brief comments will be given relative to two types of environment-
assisted fatigue failure: thermal fatigue and corrosion fatigue.

Thermal fatigue : is normally induced at elevated temperatures by

fluctuating thermal stresses; mechanical stresses from an external source
need not be present.
The origin of these thermal stresses is the restraint to the dimensional
expansion and/or contraction that would normally occur in a structural
member with variations in temperature. The magnitude of a thermal stress
developed by a temperature change is dependent on the coefficient of
thermal expansion and the modulus of elasticity .
Of course, thermal stresses will not arise if this mechanical restraint is
absent. Therefore, one obvious way to prevent this type of fatigue is to
eliminate, or at least reduce, the restraint source, thus allowing unhindered
dimensional changes with temperature variations, or to choose materials
with appropriate physical properties.(have low thermal expansion
coefficient ).

Corrosion Fatigue :

Failure that occurs by the simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and

chemical attack is termed corrosion fatigue. Corrosive environments have
a deleterious influence and produce shorter fatigue lives. Even the normal
ambient atmosphere will affect the fatigue behavior of some materials.
Small pits may form as a result of chemical reactions between the
environment and material, which serve as points of stress concentration
and therefore as crack nucleation sites. In addition, crack propagation rate
is enhanced as a result of the corrosive environment. The nature of the
stress cycles will influence the fatigue behavior; for example, lowering the
load application frequency leads to longer periods during which the
opened crack is in contact with the environment and to a reduction in the
fatigue life.
Several approaches to corrosion fatigue prevention exist. On one hand, we
can take measures to reduce the rate of corrosion by some of the
techniques for example, apply protective surface coatings, select a more

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corrosion-resistant material, and reduce the corrosiveness of the

environment. And/or it might be advisable to take actions to minimize the
probability of normal fatigue failure, as outlined above—for example,
reduce the applied tensile stress level and impose residual compressive
stresses on the surface of the member.

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3. Creep Failure:
The term ― Creep Fracture‖ may be defined as the fracture , which
take place due to excessive creeping of materials under steady
loading .
It is always exhibited in metals like iron, nickel , copper ,and their
alloys at higher temperatures, but some metals like zinc , tin , lead
and their alloys also creep at room temperature.
Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and
exposed to static mechanical stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet
engines and steam generators that experience centrifugal stresses,
and high-pressure steam lines). Deformation under such
circumstances is termed creep. Defined as the time-dependent and
permanent deformation of materials when subjected to a
constant load or stress, creep is normally an undesirable
phenomenon and is often the limiting factor in the lifetime of a
part.
It is observed in all materials types; for metals it becomes important
only for temperatures greater than about 0.4Tm (Tm= absolute melting
temperature).

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 It has been observed that the tendency of creep fracture

increases with the increase in temperature , and higher rate of the
straining .
 It has been observed that the creep resistance may be increased
by addition of certain elements such as cobalt , nickel ,
manganese , tungsten etc.
 Creep takes place at a high temperature ( > 0.4 Tm ) .

Creep Testing :

A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant load

or stress while maintaining the temperature constant by furnace; as
shown in figure (3.20) , deformation or strain is measured and plotted
as a function of elapsed time. Most tests are the constant load type,
which yield information of an engineering nature; constant stress tests
are employed to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of
creep.

Figure (3.20): Creep Test

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GENERALIZED CREEP BEHAVIOR:

Figure (3.21) : Typical creep curve of strain versus time at constant stress and constant
elevated temperature.

Figure (3.21) is a schematic representation of the typical constant load

creep behavior of metals. Upon application of the load there is an
instantaneous deformation, as indicated in the figure, which is mostly
elastic. The resulting creep curve consists of three regions, each of which
has its own distinctive strain–time feature.

1. Primary stage : Primary or transient creep occurs first, typified by

a continuously decreasing creep rate; that is, the slope of the curve
diminishes with time. This suggests that the material is experiencing
an increase in creep resistance or strain hardening ,deformation
becomes more difficult as the material is strained.

2. secondary stage : Sometimes termed steady-state creep, the rate is

constant; that is, the plot becomes linear. This is often the stage of
creep that is of the longest duration. The constancy of creep rate is
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 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

explained on the basis of a balance between the competing processes

of strain hardening and recovery, recovery being the process
whereby a material becomes softer and retains its ability to
experience deformation. This stage is the most important stage ,
which indicates that the creep occurs at more or less constant rate .

3. Finally stage , for tertiary creep, there is an acceleration of the rate

and ultimate failure. This failure is frequently termed rupture and
results from microstructural and/or metallurgical changes; for
example, grain boundary separation, and the formation of internal
cracks, cavities, and voids. Also, for tensile loads, a neck may form
at some point within the deformation region. These all lead to a
decrease in the effective cross-sectional area and an increase in strain
rate.
For metallic materials most creep tests are conducted in uniaxial tension
using a specimen having the same geometry as for tensile tests . On the
other hand, uniaxial compression tests are more appropriate for brittle
materials; these provide a better measure of the intrinsic creep properties
inasmuch as there is no stress amplification and crack propagation, as with
tensile loads.

 Possibly the most important parameter from a creep test is the slope
of the secondary portion of the creep curve( Ԑ/ t in Figure 3.21); this
is often called the minimum or steady-state creep rate ( )It is the
engineering design parameter that is considered for long-life
applications, such as a nuclear power plant component that is
scheduled to operate for several decades, and when failure or too
much strain are not options. On the other hand, for many relatively
short-life creep situations (e.g., turbine blades in military aircraft and
rocket motor nozzles), time to rupture, or the rupture lifetime , is the
dominant design consideration; it is also indicated in Figure 8.28. Of
course, for its determination, creep tests must be conducted to the
point of failure; these are termed creep rupture tests. Thus, a
knowledge of these creep characteristics of a material allows the
design engineer to ascertain its suitability for a specific application.

Mechanisms of Creep :
Different mechanisms are responsible for creep in different materials and

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 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

under different loading and temperature conditions . The mechanism

include :
1. Stress assisted vacancy diffusion .
2. Grain boundary diffusion .
3. Grain boundary sliding .
4. Dislocation motion .
See figure (3.22).

Figure(3.22): Grain boundary sliding

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 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

STRESS AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS:

Both temperature and the level of the applied stress influence the creep
characteristics (Figure 3.23).

Figure (3.23) : Influence of stress and temperature on creep behavior.

At a temperature substantially below and after the initial deformation, the

strain is virtually independent of time.
With either increasing stress or temperature, the following will be noted:

(1) the instantaneous strain at the time of stress application increases,

(2) the steady-state creep rate is increased,
and (3) the rupture lifetime is diminished.

It may be noted that as the applied stress or temperature increase , the

creep curve shifts upwards and the time duration of the various stages
reduces as shown in figure(3.23).

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 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

This indicates that the value of creep increases with increase in

temperature as well as stress , therefore the material to be used at high
temperature must have high melting point .

DATA EXTRAPOLATION METHODS:

The need often arises for engineering creep data that are impractical to
collect from normal laboratory tests. This is especially true for prolonged
exposures (on the order of years). One solution to this problem involves
performing creep and/or creep rupture tests at temperatures in excess of
those required, for shorter time periods, and at a comparable stress level,
and then making a suitable extrapolation to the in-service condition. A
commonly used extrapolation procedure employs the Larson–Miller
parameter, defined as

where C is a constant (usually on the order of 20), for T in Kelvin and the
rupture lifetime in hours. The rupture lifetime of a given material
measured at some specific stress level will vary with temperature such that
this parameter remains constant.
Or, the data may be plotted as the logarithm of stress versus the Larson–
Miller parameter, as shown in Figure (3.24). Utilization of this technique
is demonstrated in the following design example.

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 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Figure 3.24 Logarithm

stress versus the
Larson–Miller parameter
for an S-590 iron.

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 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Factors Affecting Creep Resistance :

There are several factors that affect the creep characteristics of metals. These
Include:

1. Melting Point : the higher the melting temperature, the better is a

material’s resistance to creep.
2. Grain Size : smaller grains permit more grain-boundary sliding,
which results in higher creep rates. This effect may be contrasted to
the influence of grain size on the mechanical behavior at low
temperatures [i.e., increase in both strength and toughness ] So a
coarse grained structure has better creep resistance .
3. Elastic modulus : the higher the elastic modulus , the better is a
material’s resistance to creep.
4. Heat Treatment : The creep resistance of metal is greatly affected
by heat treatment .
5. Alloying Element : At low temperature , the creep resistance is
increased by the addition of cobalt , nickel , manganese, etc. But at
high temperature , the creep resistance is increased by the addition of
chromium ,tungsten , vanadium , etc .

So , creep is generally minimized in materials with :

- High melting temperature.
- High elastic modulus .
- Large grain size .

The following materials are especially used :

- Stainless steel
- Refractory metals ( containing elements of high melting point like
Nb, Mo, W , Ta .
- Super alloys (Co, Ni based )
- In addition, advanced processing techniques have been utilized; one
such technique is directional solidification, which produces either
highly elongated grains or single-crystal components (Figure 2.25).

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 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Figure (3.25): Increasing resistance to creep

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Assist. Prof. Dr. Suhair G. Hussein