42 MODULE 4: St a t i s t i c a l R e a s o n i n g i n E v e r y d a y L i f e

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE
• How are animal and human research participants protected?
their personal information confidentially, and to fully debrief all participants.
using human participants to obtain informed consent, to protect them from harm and discomfort, to treat
proposals. Ethical principles developed by international psychological organizations urge researchers
serve to protect animal and human welfare. At universities, Institutional Review Boards screen research
ANSWER: Animal protection legislation, laboratory regulation and inspection, and local ethics committees

MODULE

3 REVIEW Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES theory, p. 26

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE Take a moment to answer each of hypothesis, p. 26
these Learning Objective Questions (repeated here from within operational definition, p. 26
this module).
section). Then turn to Appendix C, Complete Module
ChapterRe-
Re- replication, p. 26
views, to check your answers. Research suggests that trying
to answer these questions on your own will improve your long- case study, p. 28
term retention (McDaniel et al., 2009). naturalistic observation, p. 28
1-3 How do theories advance psychological science?
3-1 survey, p. 30
1-4 How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic
3-2 population, p. 31
observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and random sample, p. 31
why is random sampling important? correlation, p. 31
1-5 What does it mean when we say two things are correlated,
3-3 correlation coefficient, p. 31
and what are positive and negative correlations?
scatterplot, p. 32
1-6 What is regression toward the mean?
3-4
regression toward the mean, p. 33
1-7 Why do correlations enable prediction but not cause–effect
3-5
explanation? experiment, p. 35

1-8 What are the characteristics of experimentation that make

3-6 experimental group, p. 35
it possible to isolate cause and effect? control group, p. 35
1-9 Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
3-7 random assignment, p. 35
3-8 Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical
1-10 double-blind procedure, p. 36
guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants? placebo [pluh-SEE-bo] effect, p. 36
How do human values influence psychology?
independent variable, p. 37
TERMS AND CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER confounding variable, p. 37
RETRIEVAL PRACTICE Test yourself on these terms by try- dependent variable, p. 37
ing to write down the definition before flipping back to the page informed consent, p. 40
number referenced to check your answer. debriefing, p. 41

Use to create your personalized study plan, which will

direct you to the resources that will help you most in .

Statistical Reasoning in
MODULE

Asked about the ideal wealth distri-

Everyday Life
bution in America, Democrats and In descriptive,, correlational
descriptive correlational,, and experimental research, statistics are
and experimental
Republicans were surprisingly similar. tools that help us see and interpret what the unaided eye might miss. Sometimes the
In the Democrats’ ideal world, the unaided eye misses badly. Researchers Michael Norton and Dan Ariely (2011) invited
richest 20 percent would possess 30 5522 Americans to estimate the percent of wealth possessed by the richest 20 percent
percent of the wealth. Republicans in their country. The average person’s guess—58 percent—“dramatically underesti-
preferred a similar 35 percent (Norton mated” the actual wealth inequality. (The wealthiest 20 percent, they reported, pos-
& Ariely, 2011). sessed 84 percent of the wealth.)
 MODULE 4: St a t i s t i c a l R e a s o n i n g i n E v e r y d a y L i f e 43

Accurate statistical
Accurate statisticalunderstanding
understandingbenefits
benefitseveryone.
everyone.ToTo bebeanan educated
educated person
per-
today
son today
is toisbe
to able
be able
to apply
to apply
simple
simple
statistical
statistical
principles
principles
to everyday
to everyday
reasoning.
reasoning.
One
needn’t
One needn’t
memorize
memorize
complicated
complicated
formulasformulas
to think more
to think
clearly
moreandclearly
critically
andabout
critically
data.
about
Off-the-top-of-the-head
data. estimates often misread reality and then mislead the public.
Someone
Off-the-top-of-the-head
throws out a big, estimates
round number.
often misread
Othersreality
echo and
it, and
thenbefore
misleadlong
thethe
public.
big, When setting goals, we love big round
round number
Someone throwsbecomes
out a big,
public
round
misinformation.
number. OthersA fewecho
examples:
it, and before long the big, numbers. We’re far more likely to
round number becomes public misinformation. A few examples: want to lose 20 pounds than 19 or 21
• Ten percent of people are homosexual. Or is it 2 to 4 percent, as suggested by various
pounds. We’re far more likely to retake
• Ten percent
national of people
surveys are homosexual.
(Chapter 11)? Or is it 2 to 4 percent, as suggested by various
the SAT if our verbal plus math score
national
• We surveys?
ordinarily use only 10 percent of our brain. Or is it closer to 100 percent is just short of a big round number,
• We ordinarily
(Chapter 2)? use only 10 percent of our brain. Or is it closer to 100 percent? such as 1200. By modifying their be-
• The human brain has 100 billion nerve cells. Or is it more like 40 billion, as havior, batters are nearly four times
suggested by extrapolation from sample counts?
counts (Chapter 2)? more likely to finish the season with a
The point to remember: Doubt big, round, undocumented numbers. That’s actually a .300 average than with a .299 average
lesson we intuitively appreciate, by finding precise numbers more credible (Oppenheimer (Pope & Simonsohn, 2011).
et al., 2014). When U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry sought to rally American support
in 2013 for a military response to Syria’s apparent use of chemical weapons, his argument
gained credibility from its precision: “The United States government now knows that at
least 1429 Syrians were killed in this attack, including at least 426 children.”
Statistical illiteracy also feeds needless health scares (Gigerenzer et al., 2008, 2009,
2010). In the 1990s, the British press reported a study showing that women taking a
particular contraceptive pill had a 100 percent increased risk of blood clots that could
produce strokes. This caused thousands of women to stop taking the pill, leading to a
wave of unwanted pregnancies and an estimated 13,000 additional abortions (which
also are associated with increased blood-clot risk). And what did the study find? A 100

©Patrick Hardin
percent increased risk, indeed—but only from 1 in 7000 to 2 in 7000. Such false alarms
underscore the need to teach statistical reasoning and to present statistical information
more transparently.
“Figures can be misleading—so I’ve
written a song which I think expresses
Describing Data the real story of the firm’s performance
this quarter.”
4-1 How do we describe data using three measures of central tendency, and what
1-11
is the relative usefulness of the two measures of variation?
Once researchers have gathered their data, they may use descriptive statistics to orga-
nize that data meaningfully. One way to do this is to convert the data into a simple bar
graph, as in FIGURE 1.8 4.1 on the next page, which displays a distribution of different
brands of trucks still on the road after a decade. When reading statistical graphs such
as this, take care. It’s easy to design a graph to make a difference look big (Figure 1.8a)
4.1a)
1.8b). The secret lies in how you label the vertical scale (the y-axis).
or small (Figure 4.1b).
The point to remember: Think smart. When viewing graphs, read the scale labels
and note their range.

Measures of Central Tendency

The next step is to summarize the data using some measure of central tendency, a single
score that represents a whole set of scores. The simplest measure is the mode, the most mode the most frequently occurring
score(s) in a distribution.
frequently occurring score or scores. The most familiar is the mean, or arithmetic aver-
age—the total sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores. The midpoint— mean the arithmetic average of a distri-
bution, obtained by adding the scores and
the 50th percentile—is the median. On a divided highway, the median is the middle.
then dividing by the number of scores.
So, too, with data: If you arrange all the scores in order from the highest to the lowest,
half will be above the median and half will be below it. median the middle score in a distribu-
tion; half the scores are above it and half
Measures of central tendency neatly summarize data. But consider what happens
are below it.
to the mean when a distribution is lopsided, when it’s skewed by a few way-out scores.
44 MODULE 4: St a t i s t i c a l R e a s o n i n g i n E v e r y d a y L i f e

Percentage 100% Percentage 100%

still functioning still functioning 90
after 10 years after 10 years
99 80

70
RETRIEVAL PRACTICE
▼ FIGURE 4.1
1.8 98 60
Read the scale labels 50
• An American truck manufacturer
offered graph (a)—with actual brand 97 40
names included—to suggest the much 30
greater durability of its trucks. What
does graph (b) make clear about the 96 20
varying durability, and how is this 10
accomplished?
makes clear. 95 0
functioning after 10 years, which graph (b) Our Brand Brand Brand Our Brand Brand Brand
rank as 95% and up, so almost all are still brand X Y Z brand X Y Z
for graph (b) is from 0 to 100. All the trucks Brand of truck Brand of truck
graph (a) is only from 95 to 100. The range
is labeled. The range for the y-axis label in (a) (b)
ANSWER: Note how the y-axis of each graph

Transtock/SuperStock

With income data, data, for

forexample,
example,the themode,
mode,median,
median,and andmean
mean often
often
telltell
very
very
different
differ-
stories
ent (FIGURE
stories (FIGURE
1.9). This
4.2). This
happens
happens
because because
the mean
the mean
is biased
is biased
by a fewbyextreme
a few extreme
scores.
When Microsoft
scores. When Microsoft
co-founderco-founder
Bill Gates
Billsits
Gates
down
sitsindown
an intimate
in an intimate
café, itscafé,
average
its average
(mean)
customer
(mean) customer
instantlyinstantly
becomesbecomes
a billionaire.
a billionaire.
But the But
customers’
the customers’
median wealth
medianremains
wealth
unchanged.
remains unchanged.
Understanding
Understanding
this, you this,
can see
youhow
cana see
British
hownewspaper
a British newspaper
could accurately
could
The average person has one ovary and run the headline
accurately run the“Income
headline for“Income
62% Is Belowfor 62%Average”
Is Below (Waterhouse,
Average” (Waterhouse,
1993). Because 1993).
the
one testicle. bottom half
Because the bottom halfincome
of British of British
earners
income receive
earners
only a quarter
receive only aofquarter
the national
of the national
income
cake, most
income cake,
British
most people,
British people,
like most likepeople
most everywhere,
people everywhere,
make lessmakethanlessthe
thanmean.
the
Mean and
mean. Mean median
and median
tell different
tell different
true stories.
true stories.
▼ FIGURE 4.
1.92
The point to remember: Always note which measure of central tendency is reported.
A skewed distribution This graphic
representation of the distribution of a If it is a mean, consider whether a few atypical scores could be distorting it.
village’s incomes illustrates the three
measures of central tendency—mode, Measures of Variation
median, and mean. Note how just a few Knowing the value of an appropriate measure of central tendency can tell us a great deal.
high incomes make the mean—the ful-
But the single number omits other information. It helps to know something about the
crum point that balances the incomes
above and below—deceptively high. amount of variation in the data—how similar or diverse the scores are. Averages derived
from scores with low variability are more reliable than averages based on scores with high
variability. Consider a basketball player who scored between 13 and 17 points in each of
the season’s first 10 games. Knowing this, we would be more confident that she would
score near 15 points in her next game than if her scores had varied from 5 to 25 points.

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 180 950 1420

140

Mode Median Mean

One family Income per family in thousands of dollars

 MODULE 4: St a t i s t i c a l R e a s o n i n g i n E v e r y d a y L i f e 45
▼ TABLE 4.1
1.4
Standard Deviation Is Much More Informative Than Mean Alone
Note that the test scores in Class A and Class B have the same mean (80), but very different standard deviations, which tell us more
about how the students in each class are really faring.
Test Scores in Class A Test Scores in Class B
Deviation From Squared Deviation From Squared
Score the Mean Deviation Score the Mean Deviation
72 -8 64 60 -20 400
74 -6 36 60 -20 400
77 -3 9 70 -10 100
79 -1 1 70 -10 100
82 +2 4 90 +10 100
84 +4 16 90 +10 100
85 +5 25 100 +20 400
87 +7 49 100 +20 400
Total = 640 Sum of (deviations)2 = 204 Total = 640 Sum of (deviations)2 = 2000
Mean = 640 ÷ 8 = 80 Mean = 640 ÷ 8 = 80
Standard deviation = Standard deviation =

√ Sum of (deviations) =
√ 204 = 5.0
√ Sum of (deviations)2 =
√ 2000 = 15.8
2

Number of scores 8 Number of scores 8

The range of scores—the gap between the lowest and highest—provides only a range the difference between the high-
crude estimate of variation. A couple of extreme scores in an otherwise uniform group, est and lowest scores in a distribution.
such as the $950,000 and $1,420,000 incomes in Figure Figure 4.2,
1.9, will create a deceptively standard deviation a computed mea-
large range. sure of how much scores vary around
The more useful standard for measuring how much scores deviate from one another the mean score.
is the standard deviation. It better gauges whether scores are packed together or dis- normal curve (normal distribution)
persed, because it uses information from each score. The computation (see TABLE 4.1 1.4 a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that
for an example) assembles information about how much individual scores differ from describes the distribution of many types
the mean. If your college or university attracts students of a certain ability level, their of data; most scores fall near the mean
(about 68 percent fall within one standard
intelligence scores will have a relatively small standard deviation compared with the
deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near
more diverse community population outside your school. the extremes.
You can grasp the meaning of the standard deviation if you consider how scores
tend to be distributed in nature. Large numbers of data—heights, weights, intelligence
scores, grades (though not incomes)—often form a symmetrical, bell-shaped distribu-
tion. Most cases fall near the mean, and fewer cases fall near either extreme. This
bell-shaped distribution is so typical that we call the curve it forms the normal curve.
As FIGURE 1.10
4.3 shows,
shows,aa useful
useful property
property of
of the
the normal
normal curve
curve is that roughly 68
percent of the cases fall within one standard deviation on either side of the mean.

Number of About 68 percent

of people score
scores within 15 points
above or below 100
About 95
percent of all
people fall within
30 points of 100
68%
▼ FIGURE 4.3
1.10
The normal curve Scores on aptitude
tests tend to form a normal, or bell-
95% shaped, curve. For example, the most
0.1% 0.1% commonly used intelligence test, the
2% 13.5% 34% 34% 13.5% 2%
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, calls
55 70 85 100 115 130 145
the average score 100.
Wechsler intelligence score
 46 MODULE 4: St a t i s t i c a l R e a s o n i n g i n E v e r y d a y L i f e

About 95 percent of cases fall fall within

within two
two standard
standard deviations.
deviations. Thus,
Thus, as about
Chapter
68 per-
10
cent
notes,ofabout
any group
68 percent
of people
of people
taking antaking
intelligence
an intelligence
test will test
scorewill
within
score±15
within
points
±15of
100.
points
About
of 100.
95 About
percent95will
percent
scorewill
within
score
±30within
points.
±30 points.

For an interactive tutorial on these statistical concepts, visit

LaunchPad’s PsychSim 6: Descriptive Statistics.

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE
• The average of a distribution of scores is the ______________. The score that shows up
most often is the ______________. The score right in the middle of a distribution (half
the scores above it; half below) is the ______________. We determine how much scores
vary around the average in a way that includes information about the ______________
of scores (difference between highest and lowest) by using the ______________
______________ formula.
ANSWERS: mean; mode; median; range; standard deviation
© The New Yorker Collection, 1988, Mirachi from cartoonbank.com.

Significant Differences
4-2 How do we know whether an observed difference can be generalized to other
1-12
populations?
Data are “noisy.” The average score in one group (children who were breast-fed as
babies, for example)
babies) could coulddiffer
conceivably conceivably differ
from the fromscore
average that in another group (children who
were bottle-fed as babies) not because of any real difference but merely because of
chance fluctuations in the people sampled. How confidently, then, can we infer that
All Rights Reserved.

an observed difference is not just a fluke—a chance result from the research sample?
For guidance, we can ask how reliable and significant the differences are. These infer-
ential statistics help us determine if results can be generalized to a larger population.
“The poor are getting poorer, but with the
rich getting richer it all averages out in When Is an Observed Difference Reliable?
the long run.” In deciding when it is safe to generalize from a sample, we should keep three principles
in mind:
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples. The best basis for general-
izing is not from the exceptional and memorable cases one finds at the extremes
but from a representative sample of cases. Research never randomly samples the
whole human population. Thus, it pays to keep in mind what population a study
has sampled.
2. Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable.
As we noted earlier in the example of the basketball player whose game-to-game
points were consistent, an average is more reliable when it comes from scores with
low variability.
3. More cases are better than fewer. An eager prospective student visits two uni-
versity campuses, each for a day. At the first, the student randomly attends two
classes and discovers both instructors to be witty and engaging. At the next cam-
pus, the two sampled instructors seem dull and uninspiring. Returning home,
the student (discounting the small sample size of only two teachers at each insti-
tution) tells friends about the “great teachers” at the first school, and the “bores”
at the second. Again, we know it but we ignore it: Averages based on many cases
are more reliable (less variable) than averages based on only a few cases.
The point to remember: Smart thinkers are not overly impressed by a few anecdotes.
Generalizations based on a few unrepresentative cases are unreliable.
 MODULE 4: St a t i s t i c a l R e a s o n i n g i n E v e r y d a y L i f e 47

When Is an Observed Difference Significant? statistical significance a statistical

Perhaps you’ve compared men’s and women’s scores on a laboratory test of aggression, statement of how likely it is that an ob-
and found a gender difference. But individuals differ. How likely is it that the differ- tained result occurred by chance.
ence you observed was just a fluke? Statistical testing can estimate that.
Here is the underlying logic: When averages from two samples are each reliable mea-
sures of their respective populations (as when each is based on many observations that
have small variability), then their difference is likely to be reliable as well. (Example:
The less the variability in women’s and in men’s aggression scores, the more confi-
dence we would have that any observed gender difference is reliable.) And when the
difference between the sample averages is large, we have even more confidence that
the difference between them reflects a real difference in their populations.
In short, when sample averages are reliable, and when the difference between them
is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance. This means that
the observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the samples.
In judging statistical significance, psychologists are conservative. They are like
juries who must presume innocence until guilt is proven. For most psychologists, proof
beyond a reasonable doubt means not making much of a finding unless the odds of its
occurring by chance, if no real effect exists, are less than 5 percent.
When reading about research, you
should remember that, given large

Reprinted by permission of United Features

enough or homogeneous enough sam-
ples, a difference between them may be
“statistically significant” yet have little
practical significance. For example,
comparisons of intelligence test scores

Syndicate, Inc.
among hundreds of thousands of first-
born and later-born individuals indicate
a highly significant tendency for first-
born individuals to have higher average scores than their later-born siblings (Kristensen
& Bjerkedal, 2007; Zajonc & Markus, 1975). But because the scores differ by only one
to three points, the difference has little practical importance.
The point to remember: Statistical significance indicates the likelihood that a result
will happen by chance. But this does not say anything about the importance of the result.

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE
• Can you solve this puzzle?
The registrar’s office at the University of Michigan has found that usually about 100
students in Arts and Sciences have perfect marks at the end of their first term at the
University. However, only about 10 to 15 students graduate with perfect marks. What
do you think is the most likely explanation for the fact that there are more perfect
marks after one term than at graduation (Jepson et al., 1983)?
extremely low and high marks at the end of the first term.
ANSWER: Averages based on fewer courses are more variable, which guarantees a greater number of For a 9.5-minute
video synopsis of psychology’s
• ______________ statistics summarize data, while ______________ statistics determine if scientific research strategies, visit
data can be generalized to other populations. LaunchPad’s Video: Research
ANSWERS: Descriptive; inferential
Methods.
48 MODULE: 4: St a t i s t i c a l R e a s o n i n g i n E v e r y d a y L i f e

MODULE

4 REVIEW Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life

LEARNING OBJECTIVES TERMS AND CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE Take a moment to answer each of RETRIEVAL PRACTICE Test yourself on these terms by trying
these Learning Objective Questions (repeated here from within to write down the definition before flipping back to check your
this module).
section). Then turn to Appendix C, Complete Module
ChapterRe-
Re- answers.
views, to check your answers. Research suggests that trying mode, p. 43
to answer these questions on your own will improve your long-
term retention (McDaniel et al., 2009). mean, p. 43
median, p. 43
4-1 How do we describe data using three measures of
1-11
central tendency, and what is the relative usefulness of the two range, p. 45
measures of variation? standard deviation, p. 45
4-2 How do we know whether an observed difference can be
1-12 normal curve, p. 45
generalized to other populations? statistical significance, p. 47

Use to create your personalized study plan, which will

direct you to the resources that will help you most in .

TEST
YOUR-
SELF THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Test yourself repeatedly throughout your studies. This will not 6. You wish to survey a group of people who truly represent
only help you figure out what you know and don’t know; the the country’s adult population. Therefore, you need to ensure
testing itself will help you learn and remember the information that you question a sample of the population.
more effectively thanks to the testing effect.
7. A study finds that the more childbirth training classes
MODULE
women attend, the less pain medication they require during
2 The Need for Psychological Science childbirth. This finding can be stated as a
(positive/negative) correlation.
1. refers to our tendency to perceive
8. A provides a visual representation of the
events as obvious or inevitable after the fact.
direction and the strength of a relationship between two
2. As scientists, psychologists variables.
a. approach research with negative cynicism. 9. In a correlation, the scores rise and fall together;
b. assume that an article published in a leading scientific in a correlation, one score falls as the other
journal must be true. rises.
c. believe that every important human question can be a. positive; negative
studied scientifically. b. positive; illusory
d. are willing to ask questions and to reject claims that c. negative; weak
cannot be verified by research.
d. strong; weak
3. How can critical thinking help you evaluate claims in the
10. What is regression toward the mean, and how can it
media, even if you’re not a scientific expert on the issue?
influence our interpretation of events?
MODULE  esearch Strategies: How Psychologists Ask
R 11. Knowing that two events are correlated provides
3 and Answer Questions a. a basis for prediction.
b. an explanation of why the events are related.
4. Theory-based predictions are called .
c. proof that as one increases, the other also increases.
5. Which of the following is NOT one of the descriptive methods
psychologists use to observe and describe behavior? d. an indication that an underlying third factor is at work.

a. A case study
b. Naturalistic observation
c. Correlational research
d. A phone survey
 MODULE 4: St a t i s t i c a l R e a s o n i n g i n E v e r y d a y L i f e 49

12. Here are some recently reported correlations, with 18. In defending their experimental research with animals,
interpretations drawn by journalists. Knowing just these psychologists have noted that
correlations, can you come up with other possible a. animals’ physiology and behavior can tell us much about
explanations for each of these? our own.
a. Alcohol use is associated with violence. (One b. animal experimentation sometimes helps animals as well
interpretation: Drinking triggers or unleashes aggressive as humans.
behavior.)
c. advancing the well-being of humans justifies animal
b. Educated people live longer, on average, than less- experimentation.
educated people. (One interpretation: Education lengthens
d. all of these statements are correct.
life and enhances health.)
MODULE
c. Teens engaged in team sports are less likely to use drugs, Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life
4
smoke, have sex, carry weapons, and eat junk food
than are teens who do not engage in team sports. (One 19. Which of the three measures of central tendency is most
interpretation: Team sports encourage healthy living.) easily distorted by a few very large or very small scores?
d. Adolescents who frequently see smoking in movies are a. The mode
more likely to smoke. (One interpretation: Movie stars’ b. The mean
behavior influences impressionable teens.)
c. The median
13. To explain behaviors and clarify cause and effect,
d. They are all equally vulnerable to distortion from atypical
psychologists use .
scores.
14. To test the effect of a new drug on depression, we randomly
20. The standard deviation is the most useful measure of
assign people to control and experimental groups. Those in
variation in a set of data because it tells us
the control group take a pill that contains no medication. This
is a . a. the difference between the highest and lowest scores in
the set.
15. In a double-blind procedure,
b. the extent to which the sample being used deviates from
a. only the participants know whether they are in the control
the bigger population it represents.
group or the experimental group.
c. how much individual scores differ from the mode.
b. experimental and control group members will be carefully
matched for age, sex, income, and education level. d. how much individual scores differ from the mean.

c. neither the participants nor the researchers know who is 21. Another name for a bell-shaped distribution, in which most
in the experimental group or control group. scores fall near the middle and fewer scores fall at each
extreme, is a .
d. someone separate from the researcher will ask people to
volunteer for the experimental group or the control group. 22. When sample averages are and the difference
between them is , we can say the difference has
16. A researcher wants to determine whether noise level affects
statistical significance.
workers’ blood pressure. In one group, she varies the
level of noise in the environment and records participants’ a. reliable; large
blood pressure. In this experiment, the level of noise is the b. reliable; small
. c. due to chance; large
17. The laboratory environment is designed to d. due to chance; small
a. exactly re-create the events of everyday life.
b. re-create psychological forces under controlled conditions.
c. provide a safe place.
d. minimize the use of animals and humans in psychological
research.

Find answers to these questions in Appendix D, in the back of the book.