PHYSICS FORM THREE GBHS DEIDO

MODULE I: INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS

CHAPTER 1: PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Measure distance, length, volume, time and temperature in their appropriate units
 Read, identify and understand labels on equipment
 Identify and use basic laboratory equipment
REAL LIFE SITUATION
Ayuk and Kamte are two Form three students of GBHS DEIDO. They are called to measure
the mass and the volume of an irregular object. The two students gave their results as follows:
Ayuk (m = 250 g, v = 75 cm3), Kamte (m = 0.25kg, v = 75 ml). Most of their classmates are
saying that one of the two students is wrong. You are called to help their classmates to solve
their misunderstanding in this issue. You have also to verify these results by designing your
experiments (materials, methods and precautions)
1- DEFINITION
A physical quantity is a physical property of an event, process, body or substance that can be
quantified by measurement. It is measured either directly or indirectly. Examples include mass,
volume, acceleration, length, power, energy, density, temperature, weight, force… A physical
quantity is expressed as the product of a numerical value (magnitude) and a unit.
Physical quantity = numerical value X unit, for example m = 75 kg, E= 200 J…
2- UNITS AND CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
A Unit is a standard of measurement. As example the metre is the unit of length.
There are rules to follow when writing units which include:
- Units named after a scientist do not begin nor written in capital letters: newton,
ampere, Pascal…
- The symbol of a unit named after a scientist is written in capital letters: N for newton,
A for ampere, Pa for Pascal
- A unit is always written in singular form: second not seconds…
- No punctuation marks are written after a unit
- Space is always allowed between the magnitude and the unit, same as between two or
more base units.

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The SI unit signifies the international system of units. It is the internationally agreed system of
coherent units used by scientist in the world.
There are two types of physical quantities namely: basic or fundamental quantities and
derived quantities.
 BASE QUANTITIES OR FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
These are quantities which are not obtained from any other quantities or cannot be expressed in
terms of any other physical quantity. Their units are called base units or primary units. There
are 7 basic physical quantities as illustrated on the table below

Base physical quantity S.I unit Symbol of unit

Length Metre M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela Cd

There are two supplementary base quantities which are:

 Plane angle of unit Radian of symbol rad
 Solid angle of unit steradian of symbol srad
 DERIVED QUANTITIES
These are quantities obtained from a combination of two or more basic quantities. They can be
expressed in terms of fundamental quantities. Their units are called secondary or derived units
some examples include:
Derived physical quantity Defining equation Derived unit
Surface area 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑚2
Volume 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑚3
Velocity 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚 𝑠 −1
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Density 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Acceleration 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚 𝑠 −2
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Force 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑠 −2
Pressure 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 Pascal (Pa) or
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑁 𝑚−2
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1 𝑠 −2
Energy (work done) 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Joule (J) or N m
𝐽 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2 𝑠 −2
Power 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 Watt (W)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2 𝑠 −3
Electric charge 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 Coulomb (C)
𝐶 =𝐴𝑠

NB: There are some physical quantities without unit (unit less) such as velocity ratio,
mechanical advantage, efficiency, strain, refractive index

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Some multiples and sub-multiples of SI units are used to express more effectively larger and
smaller quantities. These multiples are used as prefixes, some of them are given by the
following table
Name of Prefix Abbreviation Multiplying factor Example
Tera T 1012 Tera Hertz (THz)
Giga G 109 Gigabyte (GB)
Mega M 106 Megawatt (MW)
Kilo K 103 Kilogram (Kg)
Hecto H 102 Hectometre (Hm)
deca Da 10 Decametre (Dam)
Deci D 10-1 Decigram (Dg)
Centi C 10-2 Centilitre (Cl)
Milli M 10-3 Millimetre (mm)
Micro µ 10-6 Microampere (µA)
Nano N 10-9 Nano coulomb (nC)
Pico P 10-12 Pico farad (Pf)

3- SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Scalar quantity is a quantity which has only magnitude or numerical value but no direction.
Examples of scalar quantities are mass, volume, density, time, speed, temperature, energy…
A vector quantity is a quantity which have both magnitude and direction. Examples of vector
quantities are displacement, velocity, acceleration, weight, force, momentum…
4- SOME BASIC EQUIPMENT USED IN THE STUDY OF FORCE
Force can be a push or a pull of one body on another. It is not something you can see or touch,
but can see it in action. The SI unit of force is called Newton (N). In order to investigate or to
study a force many equipments can be used such as:
a) Newton meter or spring scale or dynamometer: It contains a spring connected to a
metal hook. The spring stretches when a force is applied to the hook which enables us
to read the value of the magnitude of the force. The bigger the force applied, the longer
the spring stretches and the bigger the reading.
 Balance: it is an instrument used to measure the mass of substances (liquid, solid and
gas). There are different types of balance namely: compression balance, lever-arm
balance, and top pan balance, beam balance, electronic balance.
 Spring: Springs come in many shapes. The most used is a relaxed coiled spring (spiral
spring) which responds elastically under compression as well as stretching.
 Standard masses: they are usually block of metals with the value of mass indicated
(10g, 20g. 50g, 100g, 200g…)

SAFETY RULES WHILE WORKING WITH THESE INSTRUMENTS AND SIGNS.

When using these instruments, some safety precaution must be observed to prevent damages of
equipments and less accurate results. Some of these safety rules are:
 Avoid installing the spring scale / balance in direct sunlight, this may cause
discoloration or malfunction especially in the case of an electronic balance
 Avoid overloading with spring scale, balance that could cause damages
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 Avoid overloading with springs that could cause a permanent stretching.

 Do not drop water, it will damage the inside if the balance for example is wet
 All apparatus must be cleaned and returned in the correct location of storage after
use
While using these instruments, we have to make proper use of the signs and manual use
provided by the manufacturer. Some examples of signs can be ON/OFF key (power on/off),
UNITS key (change weighing unit), low battery indicator…
5- MASS AND WEIGHT: Difference between mass and weight
The difference between mass and weight is given by the following table
Mass Weight
Mass is the quantity of matter in a Weight is the pull of gravity on a substance
substance
Mass is measured in Kilogram Weight is measured in Newton
Mass of an object is the same everywhere Weight varies from place to place
Instrument used to measure mass is the Instrument used to measure weight is the
balance Newton-metre
Mass is a scalar quantity Weight is a vector quantity

6- MEASUREMENT OF SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITIES USING

LABORATORY APPARATUS
Measurement is necessary to determine magnitude of a physical quantity; measurement is done
using measuring instruments.
Physical quantity Measuring instrument Some units
Distance and Metre rule, measuring tape, Vernier calipers m, mm, cm, km
displacement
Mass Scale balance, top pan balance, spring balance, t, kg, g, mg
electronic balance, triple beam balance
Time Stopwatch, clock s, min, h
Volume Measuring cylinder, beaker, burette…
Temperature Thermometer 𝐾, 0𝐶, 0𝐹
Force Newton meter or spring scale N, k N
Electric current Ammeter A, mA, µA
Voltage Voltmeter V, mV, µV

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MODULE II: MATTER: PROPERTIES AND TRANSFORMATION

CHAPTER 2: DENSITY

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Measure the density of objects
 Handle building materials from their densities
 Know why things float
REAL LIFE SITUATION
Your father wants to change the roof of his manufactory. For this purpose, he needs metal bars
of 7 m long and 10cm x 10cm cross-sectional area. Two types of metal bars are available namely
made of iron and aluminium. If he wants to make use of aluminium bars, 30 bars will be
sufficient and 20 bars is sufficient in the case of iron bars. In order to avoid the manufactory to
collapse, the weight of the bars that are used should be less than 60,000 N. You are called to
help your father to choose the appropriate material for this task.
1- DEFINITION

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. Its symbol is 𝜌 (“rho”) so,

Density (𝜌) = mass (m)/volume (v) i.e. 𝜌 =m/v.

Mass (m) = density (𝜌) * volume (v) or volume = mass (m) / density (𝜌)

The SI unit of density is Kg/m3. Another unit which is commonly used is g/cm3.

Kg / m3 = 1000 g / 1000000 cm3 = 0,001 g / cm3. The density of water is 1000 kg / m3 this
means that 1 m3 of water has a mass of 1000 kg. Equal volumes of iron and mercury have
different masses then different densities.

2- MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY
a- Density of regular objects
- Using a balance, the mass (m) of the object is measured.
- Using a ruler, relevant lengths are measured.
- The volume (v) of the object is calculated using the appropriate formula.
- Then the density of the object is calculated using the formula
Density (𝜌) = mass (m)/volume (v)

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𝒎 𝒎 𝒎
𝝆= 𝝆= 𝟒 𝝆=
𝑳𝑾𝑯 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉
𝟑
b- Density of an irregular object
 The mass (m) of the object is measured using a balance
 Partly fill a measuring cylinder with enough water and take the initial reading V1. Using
a fine wire or a tiny thread, gently immerse the object into the water so that it is
completely covered and take the reading V2.
The volume of the object is V=increased volume=V2-V1. Hence its density is Density
(𝜌) = mass (m)/volume (v)
I.e. 𝜌 =m/V2-V1.

c- Density of liquids
- The mass of an empty measuring cylinder is found on a balance (m1)
- The liquid is transferred into the measuring cylinder and the mass of liquid plus
measuring cylinder is measured (m2)
- The mass of the liquid is obtained by doing the subtraction m2 – m1
- The volume of the liquid (v) is read directly on the measuring cylinder
𝑚 −𝑚
- The density is then calculated as 𝜌 = 2 1
𝑣
d- Density of a gas
To measure the density of air, the mass of round bottomed flask is measured (m1) using a very
sensitive balance, this mass is actually the mass of air plus the flask. The air in the flask is
removed using a vacuum pump and the mass is measured again (m2). The difference m1 – m2
gives the mass of the air. The volume of the flask and therefore the air is found by filling the
flask with water and pouring it into a measuring cylinder and the volume (v) is recorded. The
𝑚 −𝑚
density of the air is then calculated from the formula 𝜌 = 1 𝑣 2

EXAMPLES:
a) Calculate the density of a cuboid whose mass is 3205g and dimensions 10cm by 8cm
by 15cm

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b) Calculate the mass of a piece of iron if its density and volume are respectively 7.9g/cm3
and 10 cm3
c) 0.000001 m3 of lead (𝜌 = 11400 kg/ m3) and 0.000021 m3 of wood (density = 500 kg/
m3) are tied together and put on the surface of a pond of water (𝜌 =1000 kg/ m3)
i- Calculate the density of the bundle
ii- Explain whether the bundle will float or sink.
Assignment
1) Water has a density of 1000kgm-3, what does this mean?
2) A piece of a substance has a volume of 1cm3 and a mass of 27 g, what is i density
a) In g/cm3
b) In kg/m3
3) Calculate the mass of air in a room of floor dimensions of 10m  12m and height 4m.
(density of air =1.2kg/m3)
4) A bottle full of water has a mass of 45g; when full of mercury its mass is 360g. If the
mass of the empty bottle is 20g, calculate the density of mercury. (Take density of
water to be 1000kg/m3)
3- APPLICATIONS OF DENSITY IN ENGINEERING WORKS
 Architects and engineers refer to tables giving the densities of various building materials
when engaged in the design of bridges, buildings and other structures. From the plan
drawn up, they can calculate the volume of any part of the structure which when
multiplied by the density of the material, gives the mass and hence the weight.
 Floating: an object in a fluid will sink if it is denser than the fluid and will float when
less dense than the liquid. For an underwater boat (submarine) to sink, water is forced
into its tanks; this increase its weight and hence density making it to be denser than
water and for it to rise, water is pushed out of the tanks reducing its weight and hence
density making it to be less dense than water.
 Checking the purity of a substance: if the density of a pure substance is known, then
the substance purity is checked by measuring its density.

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CHAPTER 3: PRESSURE

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Know how manometers work
 Appreciate effects of pressure on boiling point
 Know why mountain climbers have nose bleeding
 Understand why foundations of bridges and buildings are larger than those of walls
REAL LIFE SITUATION
Your cousin living in Fako division have realised that it is more difficult to cook food in
mountain area than in valley or at foot of mountain. He doesn’t understand why. Help your
cousin by giving a scientific explanation to support these observations
1- DEFINITION
Pressure is defined as the force acting normally per unit surface area. “Normally” means at
right angles to the contact surface. Mathematically
𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑭) 𝑭
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝑷) = 𝒊. 𝒆 𝑷 =
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨
Pressure can be classified as solid pressure and fluid (liquid or gas) pressure. The SI unit of
pressure is newton per metre square (N/m2). This unit is equivalent to a common unit used
called Pascal (Pa). Then 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. One Pascal is defined as the pressure exerted on a
surface when a force of 1N act normally on a unit surface area (1m2).
Examples:
1- What is the pressure exerted when a force of 120 N acts on an area of 2 m2 normally?
2- Calculate the pressure exerted on the ground by a box weighing 120 N and base
dimensions of 4m by 3m.
3- A pressure of 1600 Pa is exerted on the ground by the 4 tyres of a car. Each tyre is
inflated such that it has an area of 5.10-3 m2 in contact with the ground. Calculate the
weight of the car.
Assignment

2- FACTORS AFFECTING PRESSURE

a- Force (normal force)
The pressure exerted on a surface area is directly proportional to the normal force applied. That
is the pressure exerted on a given surface increases with the normal force acting on it. For
example, a heavier cutlass cuts more readily than a lighter one of the same sharpness because
the heavier cutlass exerts more pressure on the surface area to which it is cutting than the lighter
one.
b- Surface area in contact

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The pressure exerted by a constant normal force on a surface is inversely proportional to the
surface area on which the force is applied. A given normal force applied over a large area
produces little pressure, whereas the same normal force applied over a smaller area produces a
higher pressure. This explains why a sharp knife cuts readily than when blunt. When the knife
is sharp, the area of the blade is small and a large pressure is exerted on the surface to be cut
for a given normal force. When it is blunt, the area is large and a small pressure is exerted
causing it to cut with difficulty.
Examples
1- Explain why one most important biological adaptation of animals living in muddy
region is having large feet
2- Explain why spacecraft that land on the moon and other planets are fitted with large
area feet.
3- A rectangular box of dimension 3m x 4m x 5m has a mass of 50kg and is lying on a
horizontal surface. Calculate the maximum and the minimum pressure that can be
exerted by the box on the surface.

3- PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
A- Definition
A fluid has weight and this weight exerts a pressure on its container and any object found in the
fluid. The pressure in a fluid has the following features or characteristics:
 Pressure in a fluid acts in all directions. A liquid under pressure pushes on every
surface in contact with it, no matter which way the surface is facing.
 Pressure in fluid increases with depth. The dipper into a liquid you go the greater
the weight of the liquid above and the higher the pressure, consider a container with
three holds A,B and C on the same side but at different depths as shown below

Water shoot out fastest at C because of the largest pressure exerted by water. It is followed by
B at lastly A. it is therefore wise to conclude that pressure increases with depth.
Assignment
Explain why:
i) Deep sea divers always wear protective suits
ii) Dams are constructed to be thicker at the bottom than at the top.

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 Pressure in a liquid depends on the density of the liquid. If water in a lake were
replace by a less dense liquid, the pressure at all points would be less.
 Pressure doesn’t depend on the shape of the container: the diagram below

When the top is opened water flow through the main tube into all the tube of different shapes
and sizes which are connected to each other and rises in each of the tube to the same level. This
indicates that pressure of water in each tube is the same. Hence, the shape of the container
doesn’t affect the pressure
B- Calculation of pressure in fluids.
The pressure at any point in a fluid can be calculated provided the depth (h) below the surface
and the density (⍴) of a liquid are known. Consider e diagram shown below
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝑷) = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚(⍴) 𝒙 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕(𝒉)𝒙 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒈)
i.e. 𝑷 = ⍴𝒈𝒉
Examples:
1- The density of mercury is 13500 kg / m3. Calculate the liquid pressure at a point
0.76m below the surface of mercury
2- The density of seawater is 1150 kg / m3. Calculate the pressure exerts on a fish 40 m
below the seawater due to sea water alone.
3- A tank 25m long and 10 m wide is filled to a depth of 2 m with salt water of density
1010 kg / m3.
a- What is the mass of the salt water in the tank?
b- What is the pressure exerted by the salt water at the bottom of the tank?
c- What is the force at the bottom?

C- Transmission of pressure in fluids

Pascal’s principle
Pascal’s law states that, “The pressure exerted in an enclosed liquid is equally transmitted in all
directions throughout the liquid”
Pressure applied to an enclosed liquid is transmitted to all parts of the liquid equally because
liquids are incompressible. The Pascal’s principle is used in hydraulic machines (hydraulic jack,
hydraulic brakes and hydraulic press) where a force called Effort (E) applied on a small piston
𝑬
(master) of cross sectional area A1 develop a pressure P given by 𝑷 = This pressure is
𝑨𝟏

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transmitted equally throughout the liquid to the large piston (slave) of area A2. The large piston
thus experiences an upward force called the load (L) which is equal to the pressure x its Area
A2. Load (L) = 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒙 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝑷 𝒙 𝑨𝟐 (𝑳 = 𝑷 ∗ 𝑨𝟐 )

Assignment
Remarks:
 Gases are not used in hydraulic machines because:
o They are compressible (cannot transmit pressure equally)
o Temperature change also greatly affects the pressure of gases
 Oil is more suitable in hydraulic liquid than water because:
o It does not cause rusting whereas water causes rusting
o It has less bubbles than water
o It is more incompressible than water
o It is more viscous than water
4- ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
a- Definition
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by atmospheric air on objects below it. This
pressure is due to the weight of the air column which extends several kilometres upward above
the earth surface. This pressure is affected by humidity, density, altitude and temperature.
 Altitude: atmospheric pressure reduces with the increase in height or altitude. That is
the greater the altitude the lower the atmospheric pressure, this implies that as one
climbs up a high mountain, the pressure acting on him due to atmospheric pressure
reduces.
 Density: atmospheric pressure increases with the increase in density of the air.
 Humidity: atmospheric pressure increases with increase in humidity of the air.
 Temperature: atmospheric pressure decreases with the increase in temperature.

b- Experiment to demonstrate atmospheric pressure: crushing tin can experiment

 Water is heated in the can
 The can is then removed from the heating source and closed. It is the then cooled down
rapidly by pouring cold water on it and it finally crushes or collapses instantly
 This is because as heat is lost, some of the steam is condensed and partial vacuum is
created in the can and the pressure inside becomes lower than the surrounding pressure
(atmospheric pressure) and hence the can collapses

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NB: we are not crushed by atmospheric pressure because the pressure in our blood stream
always balances with that of the atmosphere.
c- Measurement of atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure can be measured using instruments called barometers. A simple
mercury barometer is shown below. The glass tube (1 m long) is sealed at one end and all air
removed from it. The dish is open to the atmosphere and contains mercury with no air in the
tube, atmospheric pressure pushes mercury up the tube. Pressure at A = pressure at B (same
level) but pressure at A = atmospheric pressure.
While pressure at B is due to the mercury column = ⍴𝒈𝒉
Therefore, atmospheric pressure = ⍴𝒈𝒉
Where ⍴ = density of mercury
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = length of the mercury column
For convenience, atmospheric pressure is often expressed in millimetre of mercury (mm Hg).
At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg and it is known as standard atmospheric
pressure or 1 atmosphere (1 atm). Another unit is bar. 1 bar = 105 Pa, 760 mm Hg = 1 atm
= 101300 Pa.

When a liquid is exposed to the atmosphere, the total pressure at a given depth is given by
𝑷 = 𝑯 + ⍴𝒈𝒉 Where H = atmospheric pressure

⍴𝒈𝒉 = pressure due to the liquid column

Examples

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1- Calculate the atmospheric pressure which can support a mercury column of 76 cm in

mercury barometer. Density of mercury is 13600 kg.m-3
2- The following figure shows 2 small objects (A and B) in mercury of density 13600
kg.m-3.
Calculate the pressure exerted on each object and
at the bottom of the vessel given that the
atmospheric pressure is equal 100,000 Pa.

5- MANOMETER
A manometer is an instrument used in measuring pressure or pressure difference of gases and
liquids. It consists of a U – tube made of transparent substance containing a suitable liquid
(water, mercury…). When a liquid is put into the U – tube it will settle at the same horizontal
(figure a) line since the two surfaces are exposed to the same atmospheric pressure (P 0).
If one end (A) of the arms of the manometer is connected to a gas supply, the liquid surface
level in both limbs changes (figure b). The pressure at A (P A) is that of the gas supply and at
C (PC) is the atmospheric pressure (Patm) that is PC = Patm. The pressure at levels A and B are
equal because they are at the same level in the liquid. Since 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉. Then the gas
pressure is
𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 where 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦 is the atmospheric pressure and 𝝆𝒈𝒉 gives the
excess of PA over atmospheric pressure.

Examples:
1- Figure a) shows mercury of density 13600 kg.m-3 in a manometer. Calculate the excess
pressure of the gas supply above atmospheric pressure
2- Figure b) shows a simple pressure gauge which is connected to a vessel containing a
gas. The gauge contains mercury of density 13600 kg.m-3, if the atmospheric pressure
is 760 mm Hg, what is the pressure of the gas supply?

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6- EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON BOILING POINTS, HAZARDS OF HIGH

ALTITUDES AND DEEP-SEA DIVING
a- Effects of pressure on boiling points: pressure pots
The boiling point of a substance increases with the increase of outside pressure. Then the lower
the pressure the lower the boiling point and the higher the pressure the higher the boiling point.
It is for example difficult to cook food at the mountain tops than at the valley (foot of the
mountain) since a decrease in atmospheric pressure reduces the boiling point of water which
may fall far below 1000C. In pressure pots, pressure is allowed to build up to about twice the
atmospheric pressure, so that water in the cooker can boil at about 1200C. At this higher boiling
point, the heat content of the water is higher and this makes food to cook faster.
b- Hazards of high altitudes
At higher altitude, the atmospheric pressure is less than the standard value and this causes the
pressure of the blood stream to be greater than the surrounding pressure. Blood may flow from
the region of the higher pressure (blood stream) to the region of lower pressure (surrounding)
and is referred to as nose bleeding. At higher altitude people may also suffer from breathing
difficulties, headache due to the reduction in the oxygen concentration of the air in upper
atmosphere.
For these reasons, mountaineers are always advised to put on helmets when climbing up
mountains. In the case of aircraft, the sealed cabin is gradually pressurised as it moves upward
and gradually depressurised during landing.
c- Deep – sea diving hazards
As a deep sea diver descends in water, the pressure on his body increases. This is due to increase
in column of water exerting pressure on him. This causes the surrounding pressure to be greater
than the pressure of his blood stream. To overcome this, the diver is fitted with a circular helmet
and an aqualung diving suit supplied with air from a compressed air cylinder carried on his
back; otherwise, the water pressure would crush his chest.

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CHAPTER 4: HOOKE’S LAW

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Understand the expansion gaps in bridges and rail way lines
 Appreciate the strength of materials
 Appreciate the use of springs in cars.
REAL LIFE SITUATION
A spring balance can be used to measure the mass of a given body. One of your classmate of
Form Three of GBHS DEIDO did not understand how does this measuring instrument function,
and is in need of your help. You are called to help your classmate in this regard.
1- ELASTICITY
Elasticity is the ability of a material to stretch when a stretching force is applied on it and return
to its original shape when the force is removed.
An elastic material is a material which regains its original shape and size when the stretching
force is removed. Examples of elastic materials are rubber, steel, springs. Copper…
The extension or deformation of a material is the difference between its stretched and
unstretched lengths. Deformation can either be elastic or plastic
 Elastic deformation if the material returns to its original shape and size after the
stretching force is removed
 Plastic deformation if the material doesn’t return to its original shape and size after
removing the stretching force.
Proportional limit: it is the maximum load or force beyond which the extension of a material
is no longer proportional to the applied force.
Elastic limit is the maximum load or force beyond which it does not regain its original shape
and size upon removal of the applying force.
2- HOOKE’S LAW
An important relationship between the extension of a material and the stretching force was
established by Robert Hooke in 1676. This relationship is known as Hooke’s law and it states:
“The extension of an elastic material is directly proportional to the applied force provided
the elastic limit is not exceeded”
That is F ∞ e ⇒ F = K e
Where e = extension (compression) or change in length in metre (m)
F = is the applied force in Newton (N)
K = constant of proportion called elastic constant (for elastic material) or spring
constant (for spring) in Newton per metre (N/m)

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𝐹 𝐹
Therefore, 𝑒1 = 𝑒1
1 2

A material that obey Hooke’s law is known as Hookian material.

Examples:
a) A spring extends by 20 mm when a load of 5 N is attached to it. What extension will it
produce when a load of 20 N is attached?
b) An unloaded spring is 10cm long and 25 cm long with a load of 15 N hung at its end.
Calculate its new length when a load of 20 N is applied
c) A load of 12 N applied to an elastic material to produce an extension of 80 mm. calculate
the weight of an object that would produce an extension of 60 mm.
3- EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF HOOKE’S LAW

Procedure:
- A spring and a pointer fixed at its lower end is hung on a support and a metre rule fixed
vertically closed to the pointer
- The initial (natural) length 𝑙0 of the spring is measured using a metre rule
- Standard masses are then loaded on the spring in steps and for each mass the extension
is measured using a metre rule from the stretched length
- The readings are recorded on a table as shown below
Calculations:
- Extension (e) = stretched length (l) – natural length (𝑙0 )
- Force (F) = Weight (W) = m*g
F/N
l / cm
e / cm
- A graph a Force against extension is plotted and is a straight line from the origin.
Therefore, Hooke’s law is verified

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Δ𝐹 𝐹 −𝐹
- The gradient of the graph gives the spring constant (k) that is 𝑘 = Δ𝑒 = 𝑒2 −𝑒1
2 1

NB: Rubber bands and plastics are elastic materials but don’t obey Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law has many applications such as
- Spring scale or spring balance
- Shock absorbers
4- FORCE EXTENSION GRAPHS OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS
These show the behaviour of some materials subjected to a stretching force

 Copper, steel… are ductile materials, which means that they can be drawn into long
thin wires without breaking. They are also malleable since they can be reshaped by
hammering and bending without breaking
 Rubber bands, plastics… don’t obey Hooke’s law, they remain elastic until they break
 Glass, concrete… are brittle materials, they follow Hooke’s law until they snap (break)

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MODULE III: ENERGY: APPLICATIONS AND USES

CHAPTER 05: FORMS OF ENERGY

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Understand how energy can be changed
 Understand that energy cannot be created nor destroyed
REAL LIFE SITUATION
Your grandfather is living in your village where the electrical energy supply from the company
ENEO is not available. Your grandfather is in need of power source to run his electrical
appliances. Suggest some solutions to your grandfather. It happens that the national strategy of
energy for isolated communities is only favourable to pollution free resource, restraint the
solutions given above.
1- DEFINITION
Energy is the ability or capacity to do work. It is a scalar quantity with SI unit joule of
symbol J.
2- FORMS OF ENERGY
There are many forms of energy which include:
A) Heat or thermal energy: this is the energy transferred due to temperature difference
between two points or two bodies. Some sources of heat energy are: sun, fire, friction,
electricity and living organisms.
B) Light energy: it is the energy produced by luminous objects. For example, fire, suns…
C) Sound energy: it is the energy produced by vibrating objects, examples include drum,
bell…
D) Chemical energy: it is the energy stored in the chemical bonds of compounds. It is
stored in fuels such as food, petrol, gas, wood…
E) Nuclear energy: this is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. It is released during
nuclear reactions or when the atom decays.
F) Solar energy: this is energy from the sun. It originates from the thermonuclear fusion
reaction that occurs inside the core of the sun.
G) Electrical energy: this is the energy due to the motion of charges in conductors.
H) Mechanical energy: it is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy.
a) Potential energy (P.E): it is the energy a body possesses because of its position or
location. It is simply known as the energy of position. There are two types of potential
energy namely: gravitational and elastic potential energy.

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The gravitational potential energy of an object at any height (h) can be calculated
using the following formula:
Potential energy=weight*height=mass*gravity*height i.e. P. E=mgh where m is the
mass of the object, h the vertical height and g the acceleration due to gravity.
Example: a boy of mass 60Kg is raised to a height of 3m above the ground. What is his
potential energy? Take g=10m/s.
Elastic potential energy: it is the potential energy stored in an object because of the
relative position of its parts. If a spring is stretched or compressed elastically, energy is
stored in the spring as elastic potential energy. It is calculated as
1 1
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒 2
2 2
𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
{ 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
b) Kinetic energy (K.E): it is the energy a body possesses because of its motion. It is
calculated using the formula kinetic energy=1/2*mass*(velocity)2 i.e. K. E=1/2*m*v2
Where m is the mass of the object and v its velocity.
EXAMPLE: 1) a car of 2.5 tonnes has a velocity of 36m/s. Calculate the K.E of the
car.
2) An object of mass 3 kg is thrown with a kinetic energy of 600 J. what is its velocity?

3- ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy sources can be primary energy source (energy consumed in the raw form e.g. coal, crude
oil…) or secondary energy source (energy supply in the refined state ready for consumption
e.g. kerosene, petrol…).
Generally, energy is classified as renewable and non-renewable source.
i) NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES:
These are sources of energy which cannot be replaced when used and they will eventually run
out. As example we have fossil fuel and nuclear energy.
a) Advantages of non-renewable resources
 High energy produced
 Easy to produce and use
 Efficiently converted from one form to another
 Low cost for consumers
 Easy to store
 Abundant and affordable
b) Disadvantages of non-renewable resources
 Limited in supply
 Produce greenhouse gases which lead to air, water and soil pollution
 High initial cost of exploitation
 Destruction of ozone layer
 Causes health problems due to toxic gases released
ii) RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

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Renewable energy is an energy which is infinite or a regenerative or an inexhaustible source.

Some examples are hydro electrical power, wind, geothermal, tidal and biomass energy.

a) Advantages of renewable resources

 Unlimited in supply
 Low level of maintenance required
 Pollution free
 Lower reliance on foreign energy
b) Disadvantages of renewable resources
 Low efficiency level
 Large space required for some of them
 Geographic limited: number of suitable sites limited for some resources like wind and
hydro Electrical energy
 High cost of technology
 Intermittency due to the fact that resources are at time not available, such as absence of
wind and sun at a given moment.
4- ENERGY TRANSFORMATION

A transducer is a device used in converting energy from one form to another. Transducers
include, loudspeakers, microphones, battery, motor, heaters, and green plants.

Some energy transformations are:

- Chemical energy in dry cells can be converted to electrical energy when connected
to a bulb and later into light and heat energy by the bulb.
- Electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy by electric motor
- Heat energy is transformed to electrical energy by Thermopiles
- Loud speakers convert electrical energy to sound energy
- Photocells convert light energy into electrical energy
- Green plants convert light energy into chemical energy stored in crops during
photosynthesis.
Efficiency of energy (ղ)

To know how good a device is transferring energy, you need to calculate the efficiency given
𝐮𝐬𝐞𝐟𝐮𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭
by 𝛈 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭

5- ENERGY CONSERVATION

The law of conservation of energy state that “energy is neither created nor destroyed, it can
only be transformed from one form to another”. that is the total energy present is constant.
APPLICATIONS:

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When an object is falling from rest, its height reduces while its velocity increases, when moving
upward its height increases while its velocity reduces. This means the potential energy of a
falling body reduces while its kinetic energy increases. As it falls, its PE is gradually converted
to KE and some to overcome frictions. Just before the object strike the ground all its energy is
kinetic. Likewise, when the object is thrown upwards all its kinetic is converted to potential
energy at maximum height.
During falling, at maximum height KE = 0 as velocity is zero and PE =mgh is maximum
Just before the point of impact, all the PE is converted to KE i.e.
Loss of potential energy = Gain of kinetic energy i.e.
1 2
𝑣2
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑣 ⇒ 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ 𝑜𝑟 ℎ =
2 2𝑔
Examples:
1) a stone is dropped from rest at the top of a cliff 30 m high, calculate its velocity just
before it hits the ground.
2) A solid is projected vertically upward with a velocity of 20 m/s. calculate the highest
height it attains.

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CHAPTER 06: WORK AND POWER

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Understand the work done while moving loads
 Appreciate the power of car engines and other moving objects
REAL LIFE SITUATION
Talla wants to buy a car. He is embarrassed to do an appropriate choice between two cars. In
fact, the first car has a power of 12 hp and the second car can do a work of 149200 joules in 10
seconds. Talla wants the car that should be cheaper as far as the annual vignette is concerned.
You are called to help Talla to do the appropriate choice. Given that the annual vignette is paid
with respect to the power the car as follows:
 2 hp – 7 hp = 15,000 frs
 7hp – 13 hp = 25,000 frs
 More than 13 hp = 100,000 frs
1- WORK
Work is defined as the product of a force and the distance moved by the force in the direction
of the force. This means no work is done if the distance moved by the force is zero. For example
- A boy pushing a stationary object does no work
- A student reading a book does no work
Some examples of work done are:
- A boy lifts a brick weighing 50 N
- A man pushes his car for 10 metres with a force of 300 N
The SI unit of work is Joule (J) or Newton metre (Nm). One joule is then defined as the work
done when a force of 1 Newton (1N) moves an object through the distance of 1 metres.
Work done can be calculated using the formula:
Work (W) = Force (F) x distance (s) i.e. W = F s where F is the force and s the distance
moved. If the applied force (F) is at an angle ϴ to the direction of motion,

The work done is given by W = F.s.cos ϴ

EXAMPLES:
a) Calculate the work done when a man pushes a box with a force of 50 N along a
distance of 8 m in the direction of the force
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b) A girl pulls a box on a smooth floor with rope inclined at an angle of 60 0 to the horizontal
to cover a distance of 36 m. calculate the work done if the tension force in the rope is
100 N

2- POWER
Power is defined as the rate of doing work with respect to time. Power is mathematically
expressed as Power (P) = Work done (W) / time taken (t) i.e. P = W / t
The SI unit of power is Watt (W) or joule per second (J / s). Other units include:
- Kilowatt (1 KW) = 1000 W
- Megawatt (1MW) = 1000,000 W = 1000 KW
- Horsepower (1hp) = 746 W
Measuring human power: a man climbing a stair case

Procedure:
 The mass (m) of the man is measured using a balance
 The man is asked to run up the stairs as fast as possible. The time (t) for the boy to run up
all the stairs is measured using a stopwatch
 The height of one stair is measured using a metre rule
Calculations:
Total height climbed (H) = n x h where n = number of stairs
Work done by the boy against gravity (W) = Weight of man (m*g) x total height climbed (H)
W=mgH
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊) 𝑚 𝑔 𝐻
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 (𝑃) = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑡) 𝑡

EXAMPLES:

a) What power is produced by a machine in lifting a mass of 2 kg through a vertical height

of 10 m in 2 seconds
b) An electric motor lifts a box of mass 10kg in 2 minutes through a vertical height of 20
m. Calculate the power of the motor
c) A girl of mass 50 kg climbs up 10 stairs each of height 0.3 m in 9 s. What is her power?

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POWER RATING OF SOME DEVICES:

Every electrical appliance has a label on which we can read the power rating. The power rating
of an electrical appliance tells us the rate at which electrical energy is consumed by the
appliance. For example, a power rating of 100 W, on the bulb means that it will consume
electrical energy at the rate of 100 Joule per second.
Some common power ratings are given as follows: Electrical bulb (5 W – 100 W); Radio set
(80 W); Electric fan (100 W), TV set (120 W) and Electric iron (1500 W – 2500 W)

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CHAPTER 07: SIMPLE MACHINES

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Know how machines work
 Develop easy ways of lifting heavy loads
 Design and construct a simple machine
REAL LIFE SITUATION
Talla wants to buy a car to take part to a racing tournament. He is embarrassed to do an
appropriate choice between two cars. In fact, the first car has a power of 12 hp and the second
car does a maximum work of 149200 joules in 10 seconds. Talla wants the car that should be
cheaper as far as the carbon tax (pollution tax) in force allocated by the committee in charge of
the competition is concerned. You are called to help Talla to do the appropriate choice. Given
that the tax is paid with respect to the power of the car as follow (1hp = 746 W)
 2 hp – 7 hp = 15,000 frs
 7hp – 13 hp = 25,000 frs
 More than 13 hp = 100,000 frs
1- DEFINITION
Machine can be defined as a device used for doing work easily and conveniently. There are
commonly two types of machines which are:
- Simple machine: is a mechanical device that changes the direction and/or magnitude
of a force, examples include, lever, pulley and inclined plane
- Compound machine: is the association of two or more simple machine. Examples are
cars, aircrafts and grinders.
There are many advantages of using a machine such as:
- Machines help man to reduce his job
- Machines reduce the time taken to do a job
- Machines can do the work of more persons in less time

2- TERMS RELATED TO THE STUDY OF MACHINES

 Effort (E): this is the force applied to a machine to do work
 Load (L): this is the force to be overcome by the effort
 Mechanical Advantage (MA): this is the ratio of the load to the effort. That is
Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort i.e. MA = L / E. For, example, if an effort of
200 N is used to overcome a load of 1000 N, then MA = 1000 / 200 = 5. The mechanical
advantage of most machines is greater than 1, that is the effort is smaller than the load.
 Velocity Ratio (VR): it is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance
moved by the load at the same time

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Velocity Ratio = distance moved by effort / distance moved by load i.e. VR = XE / XL

 Work or energy input: this is the energy or work put into a machine. It is done by the
effort on the machine and it is given by
Work input = Effort x Effort distance i.e. Win = E XE
 Work or energy output: this is the useful work done by the machine given by
Work output = Load x Load distance i.e. Wout = L XL
 Efficiency (ղ): it is the ratio of the work output to the work input
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑴𝑨
𝜼= 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑹
For a perfect or ideal machine, MA = VR i.e. ղ = 100 %. However, for all practical machines
the energy output is always less than the energy input because part of the input energy is always
wasted either to overcome frictions and the work against the weight of the movable parts of the
machines; explaining why efficiency is never 100%.
3- SOME COMMON MACHINES AND USES
There are many simple machines amongst which we have: levers, pulleys and inclined planes
or ramp
a) Levers
A lever is a machine in which the effort turns about a fixed point called the fulcrum or pivot
to overcome a load. There are three classes (orders) of levers namely, first, second and third
classes.
i) First class lever: a first class lever is one in which the pivot is between the load
and the effort. Examples include scissors, see-saw, pliers…

ii) Second class lever: this is the type of lever in which the load is between the effort
and the pivot. Some examples are wheelbarrow, bottle opener, spanner…

iii) Third class lever: here, the effort acts between the pivot and the load. Examples
include human arm, fishing road, tongs…

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𝑬𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒎 𝑿
The velocity ratio of a lever is given by 𝑽𝑹 = = 𝑿𝑬
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒓𝒎 𝑳

Example: The diagram below shows a simple lever

i) Determine the velocity ratio
ii) What is the mechanical advantage by neglecting the frictional force at the pivot?
iii) Determine the load that can be raised by an effort of 20 N
iv) Suggest two ways to increase the velocity ratio of this lever

b) Pulleys and pulley system

A pulley is a wheel with a grooved rim, with the effort applied to a rope which passes over
the wheel.
i) The single fixed pulley

A single fixed pulley is often used to raise small loads

contained in a bucket or a basket to the top of a building during
construction. The effort moves through the same distance as
the load. That is XE = XL therefore, the velocity ratio of a
single pulley is given by VR =XE / XL = 1. Neglecting the
weight of the rope and friction at the wheel, Load =
Effort making MA = Load / Effort = 1 (MA = VR)

ii) Single movable pulley

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The pulley moves as the effort pulls the rope. The effort moves
through a distance which is two times the distance moved by the load.
That is XE = 2XL and the velocity ratio of a single moving pulley is
given by VR = XE / XL = 2. Neglecting the weight of the rope and
friction, MA = VR =2

iii) Block and tackle

This is the most important pulley system and is commonly used in lifts and cranes. It is made
up of many pulleys.
Example:

If the effort moves by 4 m, the supporting sections of the rope 1,

2, 3, 4 shorten by 1m each, then the load moves up by 1m that is
𝑋
XE = 4XL so, the velocity ratio is given by 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑋𝐸 = 4
𝐿

Practically, the velocity ratio of this kind of block and tackle is

found by counting the number of pulleys.

iv) System of fixed and movable pulleys

Example:

The effort distance is two times the load distance,

that is: XE = 2 XL, Then VR = 2
Generally, the velocity ratio of this kind of system
is given by VR = 2 n where n is the number of
moveable blocks.

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Example:

Calculate the mechanical advantage, the velocity ratio and

the efficiency of the system below

c- The inclined plane or the ramp

A lesser force can be used in pulling a load up an inclined plane than lifting vertically.

The load is the weight of the object and it

move through a distance H, the effort is the
force needed to pull the load up to the plane
and it moves through the distance L. therefore,
the velocity ratio is given as
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝑉𝑅 = =
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝐻
Since sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝐻 = 𝐿 sin 𝜃 therefore,
𝐿
Where 𝜃 is the angle that makes the ramp with the
horizontal direction 𝐿 1
𝑉𝑅 = =
𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Example: An inclined plane at 36.870 is used to move a bag of cement of mass 50 kg. the
ramp is 2.5 m high
i) Determine the work output
ii) Given that the efficiency of the system is 60%, determine the effort applied, why
the efficiency is not 100%

d- Hydraulic machine
Hydraulic machines (hydraulic jack, hydraulic brakes and hydraulic press) are machines where
a force F1 called Effort (E) applied on a small piston (master) of cross sectional area A1 develop
a pressure, this pressure is transmitted equally throughout the liquid to the large piston (slave)
of area A2. The large piston thus experiences an upward force F2 called the load (L).
𝑋𝐸 𝐴2
Its velocity ratio is given by 𝑉𝑅 = =
𝑋𝐿 𝐴1

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MODULE IV: OPTICS

CHAPTER 08: REFLECTION OF LIGHT

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Appreciate how objects are seen
 Understand how images are formed
 Understand how to draw a ray diagram
REAL LIFE SITUATION
During a discussion between Manga and Tongo, Manga is sustaining that we are able to see
objects because of the light they produce and Tongo doesn’t agrees for him, a table for example
is not a light source and then would not produce light. Who is right between the two students?
Give them further explanations based in your scientific knowledges and skills.
1- INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT
Light is an electromagnetic wave which is produced by very hot objects during atomic
transition. Light can be detected by human eye. There are two types of light source:
 Luminous sources of light: they are seen because of the light they produce. Examples
include: sun, stars, electric bulbs...
 Non-luminous sources of light: these sources are seen because of the light they reflect
from the other sources and therefore cannot be seen in darkness. Some examples are table,
road, sky…
Light moves in a straight line and this property is known as rectilinear propagation of the
light. The path through which light moves is called ray of light and the collection of light rays
is called a beam of light. A beam of light can be parallel, convergent or divergent beam as
shown by the following diagrams

Some materials can let light to go through them while some others not.
 Materials which do not allow light to pass through them are called opaque materials.
Examples include wood, wall, floor…

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 Materials that can let light to pass through them can be transparent materials (you can
see clearly through such materials example are clear water, clear glass…) or translucent
materials (you cannot see clearly through such materials examples include, tissue paper,
oiled piece of paper…)
2- SHADOWS AND ECLIPSES
The shadow of an object is actually a region on a screen where light cannot reach because it
has been blocked by the opaque object. It appears dark and has the shape of the object. If an
opaque ball is placed between a light source and a wall, a shadow of the ball is cast on the wall.
There are two types or kinds of shadows namely umbra and penumbra
 Umbra (full shadow): which is completely dark with a sharp edge. It is produced by
small light source
 Penumbra (partial shadow) which is grey in colour with an indistinct edge. It is
produced by a large source of light

An eclipse occurs when either the moon comes between the earth and sun or when the earth
comes between the sun and the moon.
 Solar eclipse or eclipse of the sun: this occurs when the moon comes exactly between the
earth and the sun. this causes a huge shadow of the moon to be cast on the earth
 Moon or lunar eclipse: this occurs when the earth comes between the sun and the moon.
The total lunar eclipse is observed when the earth blocks all light from reaching the moon,
making the moon not to be visible and meanwhile a partial lunar eclipse is observed when
the moon is positioned in such a way that some light reaches the moon.

Example:

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On the 2nd December 2002, there was a solar eclipse in southern Africa countries at about
mid-day, it was however not observed in Cameroon
a) Explain how a solar eclipse occur
b) Explain why it was not observed worldwide but only in some countries
3- REFLECTION OF LIGHT
a) Definition
Reflection of light is the sending back of light when it strikes a surface or meet an obstacle.
We are unable to see anything in a dark room, on lighting up the room, things become visible.
An object reflects light that falls on it, this reflected light when received by our eyes enables us
to see things. There are two types of reflection namely diffuse reflection () and regular reflection
 Regular or specular reflection: this type of reflection occurs on smooth surface like plane
mirror where the reflected rays from a parallel beam of light is also parallel.
 Diffuse reflection: this type of reflection occurs on rough surfaces like a wall. The
reflected ray is scattered in all directions.

b) Laws of reflection

The laws of reflection are:

 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. That is i = r
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal
all lies on the same plane

Example:
The diagram shows a ray of light reflected from a mirror

a) Copy and complete the diagram

b) State the laws you used
c) State two characteristics of an image formed by a
plane mirror

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c) Experiment to show that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection

Requirements: cardboard, paper,

pencil, pins, protractor, a ruler, a plane
mirror, and LASER.

Procedure:
1- Place the paper on the cardboard and fix
2- Place the mirror vertically on the white sheet of paper and trace its edge.
3- Draw a line at right angle to the edge of the mirror to act as the normal- ON
4- Starting with a given angle of incidence i, draw the incident ray and place two pins P
and Q as shown in the figure above
5- With your eyes at position shown, place two other pins R and S to block out the image
of P and Q seen in the mirror
6- Remove pin R and S and join dots left with a straight line and record angle r.
7- Repeat procedure 4, 5 and 6 for other angles I and record the result in a table
i (0)
r (0)
8- Plotting a graph of angle of incidence with respect to the angle of reflection gives a
straight line passing through the origin with a slope equal one

Δ𝑖
Slope = Δ𝑟 = 1 that is i = r

d) Plane mirror image

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Characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror

 The image formed has the same size as the object
 The image is virtual, that is the image cannot be formed on a screen and neither do
light rays actually pas through it.
 The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front
 The image is erect that is upright
 The image is laterally inverted that is the left hand side of the image becomes the right
hand side of the object.

Example:
a) A boy sits 2 m away from a plane mirror. A chart is held 1.5 m behind his head. How far
from his eyes is the image of the chart seen in the mirror?
b) Distinguish between real and virtual image
e) Curved mirrors and applications
 Concave or converging mirror

It converges a parallel ray to a point called the principal focus, F.

The concave mirror produces:
 A real and inverted image which it is smaller than the object for very distant objects
 A real and inverted image which is bigger than the object for objects close to the mirror
but beyond F.
 A virtual and upright image which is bigger than object for objects very closed to the
mirror and between F and the mirror.
Some uses of concave mirrors include:
 Use in car headlamps to produce parallel beam
 Use in parabolic dishes to bring signals to a focus.
 Use as shaving and make up mirrors due to the magnified images produces
 Convex or converging mirror

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When parallel rays are reflected on a convex mirror surface, they appear to come from a point
called the principal focus, F.
A convex mirror always forms a virtual, an upright and diminished image.
Some uses of convex mirror include:
 Use as car driving mirrors to give a wider field of view for the driver
 Use as security mirrors in supermarkets, big shops, residence…

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CHAPTER 09: REFRACTION OF LIGHT

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Appreciate how eyes capture images
 Explain how to produce images (real, virtual, larger, same size, smaller)
REAL LIFE SITUATION
DONGA and HAKO have crossed a river where they saw a rod of wood partially immersed in
this river. At home, DONGA asked Hako to go and take the rod back to the house and when he
came back Donga replied that it is not the rod that they saw together saying that it was bend
and they are agreeing on that. Help them by providing suitable explanations on what happen.
I- REFRACTION OF LIGHT
1- Introduction
Refraction of light is the change in direction of light when it moves from one transparent
medium to another due to a change in the speed of light. It is illustrated by the following
diagram.

Refraction of light can be seen in

many situations in our everyday life,
it makes objects under a water
surface appear closer than they really
are. Likewise, a stick partially
immersed in water appear bend when
viewed from the outside due to
refraction effect, elsewhere, optical
lenses are based on refraction of light
and it is also used in tools such as
glasses, cameras, binoculars and
microscopes.

Transparent materials have different optical densities and the greater the density, the greater the
refracting effect it has on light. Generally, light moving into a denser medium bends towards
the normal, light moving into a less dense medium bends away from the normal.

2- Laws of refraction and refractive index

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a- Laws of refraction
The two laws of refraction are:
 The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie on the
same plane.
 The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a
constant. This second law is also called Snell’s law. It is mathematically expressed by
Sin i / sin r = a constant
This constant is called the refractive index.
b- Absolute refractive index
Absolute refractive index or simply refractive index of a transparent medium is the ratio of
the sine of the incidence angle to the sine of angle of refraction.
Refractive index (n) = sin i / sin r i.e. n = sin i / sin r
Refractive index is also defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of
light in the material
n = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in the material i.e. n = C/ V
Note: C = 3 x 108 m/s. and nair = 1
Examples:
1) Calculate the angle of refraction for a ray of angle of incidence 37 0 entering a block of
refractive index 1.66
2) A light’s ray passes from air into a liquid at an angle of incidence of 55 0. In the liquid,
the direction of the ray is turned through 130. Calculate
a- The angle of refraction in the liquid
b- The refractive index of the liquid
c- The speed of light in the liquid; if the speed of light in air is C = 3 x 108 m/s.

3- Experiment to determine the refractive index of a glass block

Requirements: white sheet of

paper, card board, rectangular glass
block, pencil, pens, protractor and
ruler

Procedure:
1- The white sheet of paper is fastened onto the card board and the glass placed on it.
2- The edges of the glass block are traced on the paper with a pencil

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3- Two pins A and B are stuck as shown in the figure above

4- Two pins C, D are placed in the opposite side of the block from pins A and B such
they block out the images of A and B
5- Pins A, B, C and D are removed and the dots left are joined to meet the outline of the
glass at X and Y as shown
6- Normal are constructed at X and Y and by the mean of a protractor, the angle of
refraction and incidence angle are recorded
7- Steps 3 to 6 are repeated for several incident rays and the value of Sin i and Sin r are
calculated
i (0)
r (0)
Sin i
Sin r
8- A graph ‘’ sin i ‘’ against ‘’sin r’’ is plotted and the slope or gradient is the
refractive index

𝚫 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
n=
𝚫 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓

4- Some effects of refraction of light: Real and apparent depth

If you look into a clear pool of water, it appears to be shallower than it really is. When an object
is seen through a transparent medium, it appears closer than real. Rays of light coming from the
object are bent away from the normal as they leave the transparent medium (water…) as the
light travels in straight line, it appears to come from a virtual point higher up.

The refractive index of the medium can be

calculated using the real and apparent depth. This is
related as
Refractive index = Real depth / Apparent depth
Example: a swimming pool of 2m deep appears to
be 1.5 m deep when viewed from above, calculate
the refractive index of the water.

5- Total internal reflection and its applications

a- Definition
When a ray of light passes from an optically denser medium to an optically less dense medium,
it bends away from the normal. As the angle of incidence increases, a point is reaches where
the angle of refraction is 900 the corresponding angle of incidence is called the critical angle

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(C). If the critical angle is exceeded, there will be no refracted ray, then the light will be totally
internally reflected. This effect is called total internal reflection.

The conditions for total internal reflection to take place are;

 A ray of light must be travelling from a denser to a less dense medium
 The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle
From the Snell’s law, n sin i = sin r. for i = C, r = 900 since sin 90 = 1 thus n sin C = 1
Or sin C = 1 / n or C = sin-1 (1 / n)
Examples:
1- The index of refraction for Zircon is 1.92. What is the critical angle of Zircon for light
moving from Zircon to air?
2- The critical angle of a medium is 40.50. What is the index of refraction of the medium
when light leaves water to air?

b- Applications of total internal reflection

Total internal reflection is widely used in prism binoculars, periscopes and optical fibres.
 Periscope: it is an instrument used to see over obstacle. For example, it is used by
submarine to see over river surface of the sea and by the army to observe from their
hiding positions.

 Binoculars:

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 Optical fibres: these are thin flexible glass wires used in transmitting light signals.
Total internal reflection continuously occurs as light move along the fibres. Optical
fibres are used in medicine, communication...

Exercise (Homework)
1- In the following figure, a ray of light in air strikes a glass plate at an angle of incidence
of 600. The reflected ray is perpendicular to the refracted ray.

a- State the two laws of refraction

b- Calculate the angle of refraction
c- What is the refractive index of glass?

2- The figure below shows a square block of glass ABCD with a ray of light incident on
face AD. The refractive index of the block is 1.5

a- Calculate the angle of refraction

b- Calculate the critical angle of the glass
c- Explain why the ray shown cannot emerge from side
AB but will emerge from side BC

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CHAPTER 10: LENSES

1- Types of lenses
A lens is a piece of glass bounded by one or two curved surfaces. Lenses form images by the
refraction of light. The two main types of lenses are converging lens or convex lens and
diverging lens or concave lens.
 Converging lens is thick in the middle and thin at the edge. It is called a converging
lens because all parallel rays are brought to a focus after passing through the lens. A
converging lens can be double convex (biconvex), Plano - convex or convex meniscus
(positive meniscus).

 Diverging lens is thin in the middle and thick at the edge. It is called diverging lens
because it spreads out parallel rays so that they appear to come from the focus. A
diverging lens can be double concave (biconcave), Plano-concave or concave meniscus
(negative meniscus).

2- Some definitions
 Optical centre: it is the central point of the lens, usually represented by 0.
 Centres of curvature: each of the two spherical surfaces of a lens forms a part of a
sphere. The centre of these spheres are called centre of curvature of the lens
 Principal axis: it is a straight line passing through its two centres of curvature.
 Principal focus of a convex lens: is a point on its principal axis from which light rays
parallel to the principal axis converge after passing through the lens
 Principal focus of a concave lens: is a point on its principal axis from which light
rays, originally parallel to the principal axis appear to diverge after passing through
the lens.
 Focal length (f): it is the distance of the principal from the optical centre.

3- Experimental determination of focal length

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a- Auxiliary plane mirror

The object is a pair of cross wires placed in a

hole as shown. The position of screen is
adjusted until rays of light from the object are
parallel when they strike the mirror and so are
reflected as parallel ray back to the lens. Rays
leaving the lens as parallel rays should certainly
be coming from the principal focus of the lens.
Therefore, the distance between the screen and
lens corresponds to the focal length of the lens
and is measured using ruler.

b- Distance object method

This is a very quick method of getting the approximate value of the focal length of a converging
lens. The image of a bright distant object (candle…) is formed on a screen and then measuring
the distance from the screen to the lens using the ruler. This distance is approximately equal to
the focal length of the lens. This is because the rays from distant object reaching the lens are
nearly parallel, so the image is formed on the focal plane. This method is not accurate since the
rays reaching the lens are not exactly parallel.
4- Formation of images by lenses
a- Rules for tracing images by lenses
 A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the principal focus for a convex lens
or appears to pass through the principal focus for a concave lens.

 A ray passing through the centre of the lens leaves the lens undeviated

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 A ray passing through the principal focus (convex lens) or appears to meet the principal
focus (concave lens) will emerges parallel to the principal axis after refraction through
the lens.

Note: a real image is an image formed behind the lens while a virtual image is an image
formed in front of the lens.
b- Image formation by a convex lens

The characteristics of images formed above are summarized by the following table
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished Real and inverted
At 2 F1 At 2 F2 Equal size of object Real and inverted
At focus F1 At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted

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Between F1 and 0 Beyond F1 on the Enlarged Virtual and erect

same side of the
object

c- Image formation by a concave lens

The characteristics of images obtained here above are given by the following table
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
At infinity At focus F1 Highly diminished Virtual and erect
Between infinity and Between focus F1 Diminished Virtual and erect
0 and 0

d- Lens formula and magnification

Object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) are related by the following
equation called Lens equation: 1 / u + 1 / v = 1 / f.
All distances used here are measured from the optical centre of the lens.
 u is always positive
 v is positive for a real image and negative for a virtual image
 f is positive for a convex lens and negative for a concave lens.
In the lens formula,
- Making f the subject of the formula, f = u v / (u + v)
- Making v the subject of the formula, v = f u / (u – f)
- Making u the subject of the formula u = f v / (v - f )
Linear magnification (m): is a measure of how many times the image is bigger than the object
and is given by the formula:
Linear magnification = image height / object height = image distance / object distance
I.e. m = v / u
The power of a lens is given by P = 1/ f. Its SI unit is Dioptre (D)
Examples

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a- An object placed 24 cm from a lens forms a real image 8 cm away from it. What is the
focal length of the lens?
b- An object is 0.5 m from a convex lens of focal length 0.1 m. what is the image distance?
c- A virtual image is 25 cm away from a diverging lens of focal length 6 cm. Calculate the
object distance.
d- An object of height 0.1 m is placed in front of a converging lens to obtain an image 0.4
m tall. Calculate the magnification of the lens.

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MODULE V: ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

CHAPTER 11: DISPERSION AND ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Produce colours of the rainbow
 Remove the believe around the rainbow
 Prove that white light is made of many colours
REAL LIFE SITUATION
It is said in your community that rainbow occurs when an elephant is given birth somewhere in
the Savana. As a science student resolve this mystification by providing a scientific approach
of how and when rainbow occurs.
I- DISPERSION
1- Definition
Dispersion is the separation of white light into its constituent colours. We can observe
dispersion through a glass prism, a diffraction grating…
Dispersion (splitting of light) is mostly seen when light passes through a glass prism.
The colour band formed by this splitting is called visible spectrum. The colours that make up
this spectrum are Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet and have a useful
memory tip (ROYGBIV).

Dispersion occurs because the different colours of white light have different wavelengths which
vary with the refractive index of the glass. They therefore move with different speed in glass
and are refracted differently. Red colour with longest wavelength (highest speed) in glass is
deviated least and Violet with shortest wavelength (lowest speed) is refracted most.

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A diffraction grating is an optical element which

separates (disperses) white light (polychromatic) into
its constituent wavelengths (colours). The white light
incident on the grating is dispersed so that each colour
is reflected from the grating at slightly different angles.

2- Production of pure spectrum

A pure spectrum of white light is one in which its constituent colours are distinct from each
other on the screen. It can be obtained using the following set-up. The tiny slit is placed at the
principal focus of the first lens so that a parallel beam of light emerges from the lens and falls
on the prism. Refraction through the prism splits the light into separate parallel beams of
different colours on entering the second lens, each of the beams is brought to its own focus on
the screen placed at the principal focus of the second lens.

3- Rainbow
Rainbow is one of the natural occurrence of dispersion, reflection and refraction of light.

When white light from the sun enters a raindrop in the

sky, it is refracted. At this point of refraction, the
white light is dispersed into its seven colours, as the
dispersed light strikes the water on the other side, the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle,
then total internal refraction occurs, as it leaves the
raindrop going from water to air it is refracted again.
These colours land onto the white sky which acts like
a screen and are seen as rainbow

II- COLOURS OF LIGHT

1- Primary and secondary colours of light
A primary colour of light cannot be produced by mixing different colours of light. They
include Red, green and blue. The three primary colours add up in equal proportions to give
white. Red + Blue + Green = White light

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A secondary colour of light is made by mixing two primary colours. Mixed in equal
proportions;
Red + Blue = Magenta
Red + Green = Yellow
Blue + Green = Peacock blue or Cyan
Therefore, magenta, yellow and cyan are secondary colours.
Adding a primary colour and a secondary colour always gives white light.
As Red + Blue + Green = White and Blue + Green = Cyan ⇒ Red + Cyan = White
Similarly, Green + Magenta = White; Blue + Yellow = White
Two colours are said to be complementary if they produce white light when mixed. A
complementary pair of colour include a primary colour of light and a secondary colour of
light (red and cyan; green and magenta, blue and yellow)

Mixing the colours of light

2- Colours of objects
Most objects around are visible because they reflect light which comes from the sun or other
sources. The colour of an object is determined by the sum of the colours it reflects. Under white
light, an object is:
 White if it reflects all the seven colours of white light
 Red if it absorbs all the seven colours and reflects only red
 Black if it absorbs all the seven colours Etc…
III- ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
1-Definition
Electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (wavelengths) of electromagnetic
radiations. The electromagnetic spectrum is commonly divided into seven regions in order of
decreasing wavelength and increasing energy and frequency. The common designation from
low frequency to high frequency or from long wavelength to short wavelength are radio waves,
microwaves, infrared (IR) ray, visible light, ultraviolet (UV), X-rays and Gamma (γ) –
rays.

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 Radio waves: produced by the oscillation of electrons in an antenna and are detected
by radio receivers. With wavelength between (1mm – 100 km) and frequency between
(3 kHz – 300 GHz)
 Microwaves: produced by inversion and rotation of molecular arrangement and are
detected by microwaves receivers. With wavelength between (1mm – 1m) and
frequency between (300 MHz – 300 GHz)
 Infrared waves: produced by low energy changes in the electron structure of atoms and
are detected by thermopiles, skin and black bulb thermometer. With wavelength
between (1μm – 1 mm) and frequency between (300 GHz – 1 THz)
 Visible light: produced by sun, fire, lamps and can be detected by human eye. With
wavelength between (390 nm–750 nm) and frequency between (400 THz–790 THz)
 Ultraviolet light: produced during atomic transition and are detected by fluorescent
materials (zinc sulphide), photoelectric cells and photographic film. With wavelength
between (10nm – 400 nm) and frequency between (7.5 .1014Hz – 3 .1016Hz)
 X- rays: produced when fast moving electrons are stopped by a metal and are detected
by Geiger Muller tubes, cloud chambers… With wavelength between (0.1nm – 10 nm)
and frequency between (3 .1016Hz – 3 .1019Hz)
 Gamma- rays: produced during radioactive decay. And are detected by by Geiger
Muller tubes, cloud chambers… With wavelength between less than3 pm and frequency
greater than 1020Hz

2- Detection of UV and IR radiation and X-rays

Ultraviolet radiations and infrared radiations are not visible by the human eyes. Infrared can
be detected by the skin as heat, a thermopile, a phototransistor or the darkened bulb
thermometer. Ultraviolet radiations are detected by photographic films and fluorescent
materials such as rock salt, quinine sulphate and zinc sulphide which are florescent when
brought near.
 Thermopiles are designed to measure the temperature by detecting an object’s IR
energy. The higher the temperature, the more IR energy is emitted. The thermopiles
composed of small thermocouples which absorb the IR energy and produce an output
signal.
 The phototransistor circuit can detect IR in a flash light beam. Shining the beam onto
the phototransistor lights the LED. The emission spectrum of flash light bulb contains
both IR and visible radiation. To exclude visible light, the phototransistor is covered
with a small piece of the IR filter material and the LED’s brightness increases
substantially.
 In a liquid-in-glass thermometer with a black bulb, heat is absorbed by the bulb and the
liquid level rises.

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X-rays is one of the most important radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum. It has many uses
in engineering (checking defects in materials) and in medicine (treatment of cancer and
diagnostic of bone and tissues). They have many properties such as
- They can pass through many materials more or less unchanged
- They can cause fluorescence in materials such as rock salt
- They cannot be refracted
- They affected by photographic plates causing fogging
- They can cause photoelectric emission

3- Health hazards caused by electromagnetic waves

In our daily life, we are surrounded by electromagnetic radiations, they are emitted from the
environment, radio, television, cell-phones, Wi-Fi-rooters… a high dosage of electromagnetic
waves leads to many health hazards such as:
- Cancer risks
- Effect on reproduction system
- Neurotoxic effect (neuronal activities disturbed)
- Effects on cardiovascular system
- Sleep disturbances
- Oxidative stress
- Effects on environment (plants and animal’s growth)

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MODULE VI: PROJECTS AND ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 12: TECHNICAL DRAWING AND TECHNICAL PROJECT

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Read construction plans
 Realise a plan
 Realise, supervise and evaluate a project
REAL LIFE SITUATION
At the end of the academic year, students of Form Three of GBHS DEIDO are called to build
up suggestion boxes for all the blocks of the school. All the boxes will have a rectangular shape
(30 cm long, 15 cm wide and 20 cm high) with a rectangular hole centred in the front side with
a length of 10cm and a width of 2 cm. You are taking part of this project and you have as task:
provide a three dimensional diagram of the boxes, project planning (materials, financial studies,
human resources, plan of activity…)
1) TECHNICAL DRAWING
a) Definition
Technical drawing, drafting or drawing is the act and discipline of composing drawings that
visually communicate how something functions or is constructed.
To make the drawing easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of
measurement, notation system, visual styles and page layout. We have to distinguish artistic
drawing from technical drawing since artistic drawing are subjectively interpreted while
technical drawings are understood to have one intended meaning.
Sketching is a quickly executed, freehand drawing that is usually not intended as a finished
work. In general, it is a quick way to record an idea for later use.
b) Drawing equipments
 Drawing board: the drafting paper is attached and kept straight on it.
 Pencil: they come in different harnesses and freehand drawing is generally done using
the range of 2B (softer) to 2H (harder) pencil.
 Drawing pen: for permanent lines
 Protractor: to draw accurate angle
 Compass: to draw circles and curves
 T-square: to draw parallel lines and right angles
 Ruler: to draw and measure the length of lines
 Template: contains pre-dimensioned holes to draw symbols, digits and letters.
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 Drawing paper or sheet:

It is the paper on which a drawing is to be done. All technical drawings are made on
sheets of paper of defined and standard sizes. The paper vary from 𝐴0 𝑡𝑜 𝐴5 . 𝐴3 and
𝐴4 are the most commonly used paper sizes. The sizes of some drawing papers are
given by the table below (all dimensions are in mm)

Sheet size Dimension

𝐴4 210 x 297
𝐴3 297 x 420
𝐴2 420 x 594
𝐴1 594 x 841
𝐴0 841 x 1189

Layout of a drawing sheet

A drawing sheet layout shows the title block and the border lines. The layout should
facilitate easy reading of the drawing and easy location of essential drawing references.

Drawing sheet layout

Sheet size C (mm) d (mm)
𝐴4 10 20
𝐴3 10 20
𝐴2 10 20
𝐴1 20 20
𝐴0 20 20
The required dimensions for title block for a 𝐴4 paper is 170 mm x 60 mm
Drawing sheet title block
It is a rectangular frame that is located at the bottom right hand corner of the sheet. The
title block contains the following informations:
o Title of the drawing
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o Name of the enterprise or firm

o Drawing scale and units of measurement
o Projection type used
o Name of draughtsman
o Name of the person who checked the drawing and checker’s signature
o Date of drawing and subsequent modifications
PROJECTION DRAWN BY: REMARKS
TYPE SCALE: GROUP:
DIMENSION: CHECKED BY:
GBHS DEIDO DATE: DRAWING N°: PAPER
TITLE OF DRAWING: FORMAT:

Example of a title block

c) Scale in technical drawing
Scale is used to illustrate items that are not useful or convenient to draw at their actual size.
There are three types of drawing scales namely:
 Reducing scale when the dimension on the drawing are smaller than the actual
dimensions of the object. E.g. 1:100
 Full scale the actual dimensions of the object is adopted on the drawing. The scale here
is given as 1:1
 Enlarging scale: the dimensions adopted on the drawing is larger or bigger than the
actual dimensions of the object. E.g. 5:1
d) Types of lines in technical drawing
Types of lines Name according to Uses / Applications
application
Continuous thick Visible line For visible outlines and
visible edges

Continuous thin Dimension line For imaginary lines,

Extension line hatching lines, dimension
Leader line lines.

Continuous thin freehand For limits of partial or

… interrupted views and
sections
Dashed thick line Hidden line For hidden outlines and
hidden edges
-----------
Chain thin Center line For center lines, lines of
symmetry

Precedence of lines:
Frequently in orthogonal drawing visible outlines, hidden outlines and centre lines coincide.
The order of importance of the lines is given as:

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𝐕𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 → 𝐇𝐢𝐝𝐝𝐞𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 → 𝐂𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞

 Visible outlines are always shown in preference to hidden outlines or centre lines
 Hidden outlines are shown in preference to centre lines

e) Lettering
Writing of titles, dimensions, notes and other important particulars on a drawing is
called lettering. For this purpose, two styles of letters are available; the vertical letters
and the inclined letters.
o ABCEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890
o ABCEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890
o All letters should be uniform in shape, slope, size, shade and spacing. The shape
and slope of every letter should be uniform throughout a drawing.
o For maintaining uniformity in size, thin and light guide lines may first be drawn
and lettering may then be done between them.
f) Dimensioning
A dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and
used to define the size, location, orientation, form or other geometric characteristics of
a part.
Dimension basic terminology
 A dimension line: it is a thin continuous line often broken at the middle to allow the
placement of dimension line
 A note: it refers to the written word used along with a dimension or explanatory
information
 An extension line: it is a thin continuous line drawn to extend an outline of an object
to the dimension line.
 An arrowhead: it is placed at each end of a dimension line
 A leader line: it is a thin continuous line used to connect a dimension with a particular
area. It starts from a size or a note ends.
Fundamental rules of dimensioning
 The size and position of each feature is defined only once.
 Place dimensions outside of the views except for large circles.
 Keep dimensions at least 10 mm from the view.
 Place longer dimensions outside of shorter ones.
 Use arrow heads at the end of the dimension lines.
 Units are omitted from the dimension numbers since they are normally understood to
be in millimetres
 All overall dimensions for the object are shown.
 Dimensions are not duplicated in two views

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 Whenever possible, dimensions are not given to hidden lines.

 Dimension lines do not cross other dimension lines or witness lines.
Types of dimensioning
 Parallel dimensioning: It consists of several dimensions originating from one
projection line.

 Chain dimensioning:

 Combined dimensioning:

Some examples of dimensioning

 Dimensioning in general

 Dimensioning diameters

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 Dimensioning radii

2) PROJECTION
Projection is a process in which the rays of sight are taken in a particular direction from
an object to form an image on a plane
a) Perspective projection
Perspective drawing requires that the object should be positioned at a finite distance and
viewed from a single point (station point). Objects are represented more realistically
than other drawings. Perspective drawings show three-dimensional objects in a single
as they appear to our eye.

b) Parallel projection
Requires that the object should be positioned at infinity and viewed from multiple
points on an imaginary line parallel to the object.

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c) Orthographic projection
Orthographic projection is a method of producing a number of separate two-
dimensional inter-related views, which are mutually at right angles to each other. Using
this projection, even the most complex shape can be fully described.
Orthographic projection is based on two principal planes one horizontal (HP) and one
vertical (VP) intersecting each other.

d) Standard orthographic projection

Two standards are commonly in use in orthographic projection of drawing:
 The First Angle Projection (European projection)
Here the front view is the reference and others views are drawn as shadows of that view.
That is the left hand side view for instance is drawn on the right side of the front view;
similarly, the top view (plan) is drawn at the bottom of the front view…
 The Third Angle Projection (American projection)
Here the front is the reference as in first angle projection, and the other views are drawn
as reflections of that view. The left hand side view is drawn on the left hand side of the
front view. Similarly, the top view (plan) is drawn at the top of the front view.

Symbol of first angle projection Symbol of third angle projection

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The two standards are compared in the table below:

First angle projection Third angle projection
The object is kept in the first quadrant The object is kept in the third quadrant
The object lies between the observer and the The plane of projection lies between the
plane of projection observer and the object
The plane of projection is assumed to be The plane of projection is assumed to be
non-transparent transparent
The top view comes below the front view The top view comes above the front view

e) Orthographic views
In orthographic projection there are six views and three views are usually drawn. The
orthographic view depends on relative position of the object to the line of sight.
 The Front View (FV): this view generally serves to represent the object in the most
common position in which it is used. It is the first view to be drawn, other views
following thereafter.
 The Rear View: it is directly opposite the FV at the back of the object.
 Right Hand Side View (RHSV) and Left Hand Side View (LHSV) appear on the right
and the left sides of the object respectively
 The Top and Bottom views are at the top and bottom sides of the FV.
The laying out of orthographic views depends on the standard used (first or third angle
projection). Examples of laying out are shown for the figure giving below.

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First angle projection

Third angle projection.

Example:
The figure shown below is isometric pictorial drawing, study the drawing and using 1st and
3rd angle of projection with scale of 1:1 draw the following:
• A front view in direction "A".
• Side view in direction "B".

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• Top view in direction "C"

CROSS SECTION OF AN OBJECT

I- TECHNICAL PROJECT
1- Definition
A project is a way of organizing resource. A project is a unique and temporary endeavour. It
has beginning and end. The main purpose of a project is to create a specific product or service
or to make changes to a specific product or service.
2- Types of technical project
The following are some of the types of projects:
 Security: security is one of the most talked about topics in any industry or company
 New equipment / refreshes
 Software upgrades
 Network infrastructure
 Office moves / relocation
3- Elements involve in a project
a- Characteristics of a project
There are five mains features of a project which are:
 Defined beginning, end, schedule and approach
 Use resources specifically allocated to the work
 End results have specific goals
 Follows planned and organized approach
 Usually involves a team of people
b- Resources and constraints of a project
For a project to be successfully handle, we must take care of the following elements: time,
people, money, equipment and facilities.
Then these lead to the following characteristics of successful project:
 Organized and well planned approach
 Project team commitment
 Good management of time
 Good management of resources (human and materials)
 Good results

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 Customer satisfaction
c- Budget
A budget is an organizational plan stated in monetary terms. Budget helps to aid the planning
of actual operations and to consider problems before they arise. Other essentials of budget
include:
 To control resources
 To communicate plans to various responsibility centre manager
 To motivate managers to strive to achieve budget goals
 To evaluate the performance of managers
 To provide visibility into company’s performance
4- Planning and steps involved in planning a project
a- Definition
Project planning refers to everything you do to set up your project for success. It is also a way
to establish the steps required to define your project objectives, clarify the scope of what need
to be done and develop the tasks list to do it.
b- Steps involved
 Identify and meet with stakeholders. Stakeholders is anyone who is affected by the
results of your project
 Set goals, these should outline project objectives and benefits you hope to achieve.
 Define deliverables. What are the specific outputs you are expected to produce, estimate
due dates for each deliverable.
 Create the project schedule
 Identify issues and complete a risk assessment since n project is risk free
 Present the project plan to stakeholders
c- Feasibility study
Feasibility analysis is used to determine the viability of an idea. Such as ensuring a project is
legally and technically feasible as well as economically justifiable. It tells us whether a project
is worth the investment. There are basically five types of feasibility study:
 Technical feasibility: is the project technically feasible? Are the materials available?
 Economic feasibility: this typically involves a cost and benefits analysis of the project.
How much will cost the project? Is the financial resource available? How will it be
financed (loan…)? Is the project matching with the needs of the consumers on the field?
 Operational feasibility: it analyses and determine how well the project will be put into
action
 Scheduling feasibility: it estimates how much time the project will take to complete
 Legal feasibility: this investigates whether any aspect of the proposed project conflicts
with legal requirements like social media laws.
Example: build-up of a laboratory stool made of wood.
Resources available: plank (50cm x 30cm x 3cm), rod of wood (500cm x 5cm x 5cm), hammer,
craw bar, measuring tape, nails…
- Budget of the project
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Designation (resources) how to obtain it Quantity Unit cost Total cost

Plank (50cmx30cmx3cm),
Wood (500cmx5cm x5cm),
Nails
Hammer
Measuring tape
Transport
Total

- Operational and scheduling

Activity Period (from… to…) Duration
Conception of the project 2 days
Collection of materials
Cutting of the various parts of stool
Assembling of the parts and evaluation
Duration of the project

5- Theoretical knowledge of a simple technical object: a flashlight

A flash light often called a torch outside or by lay man is a portable hand-held electric light.
The source of light is usually an incandescent light bulb (lamp) or light-emitting diode (LED).
A typical flashlight consists of the light source mounted in a reflector, a transparent cover
sometimes combined with a lens to protect the light and reflector, a battery and a switch. These
are supported and protected by a case

6- Technical studies
7- Guide, reducing friction
Movable parts of a machine are always guided. Guide can be complete or partial. The guide is
said to be complete when the guided object is allowed to follow only and only the established
pattern to be followed by the former and it is said to be partial elsewhere.
When a part of an object is movable, there are always frictions between surfaces in contact and
the guide. In order to reduce friction on movable parts of a machine, we need:
 Polish surfaces
 Lubrication which is the process or technique used to apply oil or greasy substance to
movable parts. This substance is called lubricant.
 Do appropriate choice of materials in the manufacturing of the parts.

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8- Understand the use of measuring instruments and their limitations

CHAPTER 13: FORCES: investigation

TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
 Use a good or appropriate scale
 Observe and explain why things move
REAL LIFE SITUATION
Your junior brother at home saw in a scientific TV channel a program that will be broadcasted
in the evening titled “why and how things move”. Unfortunately, in the evening, a
disconnection of the electrical line supplying your town occurs and your brother refers to you
to have the answer of the question posed by this problem. Help your junior brother in this regard
I- WHY AND HOW THINGS MOVE?
Everything on earth is subject to the law of inertia. It states that an object at rest will stay at rest
until an outside force causes it to move. If you kick the soccer ball, you become the outside
force that causes the ball to move.
A force is a push or pull that cause an object to start moving, stop or change speed or
direction. When an object doesn’t moves in response to a push or a pull, it is because other
sized forces are counteracting the push or pull. Thus when I push or pull on something then I
am applying a force to it. Force makes things move or more accurately make things change
their motion, two natural forces that we have experienced are the force of gravity and
magnetic forces.
II- RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS AND VOLUME THROUGH
MEASUREMENT
Mass is the amount of matter an object contains, while volume is how much space it takes up.
To investigate experimentally the relationship between mass and volume of liquids and solids,
data should be recorded, analysed and interpreted. The variables are volume and mass of the
object.
Prediction: as the volume of the material increases the mass will also increases
Requirements: six regular objects of the same material but with different volume, a ruler, a
balance.
Experiment:
1- Select an object, measure the relevant lengths and calculate its volume in cm3 in the
table.
2- Place the object on the balance and record the mass in g in the table.

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Repeat the procedures 1 and 2 for the other five objects.

Object 1 2 3 4 5 6
Volume in
cm3
Mass in g

Results: plot a graph of mass on the y-axis against volume on the x-axis and then calculate
the gradient of the graph.
Conclusion: we can see from the graph that as the volume of the object increases its mass
also increases. We can say that the mass is directly proportional to the volume. The gradient
of the graph equals the Density of the material (mass = density * volume or density = m ass/
volume).

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