APP Lab Prelim Lec 3: The Cell

Cell
• Cells are the basic, living, structural, and functional units of the body.
• Cells carry out a multitude of functions that help each system contribute to the
homeostasis of the entire body.

Levels of structural organization in the human body:

• Chemical level – Atoms and molecules
• Cellular level – Cell
• Tissue level – Tissue
• Organ level – Organ
• System level – System
• Organismal level – Organism

(Atoms < Molecule < Cell < Tissue < Organ < System < Organism)

Major regions / Parts of the cell

• In general, all cells have three major regions or parts, readily identified with a light
microscope:
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus

Cell membrane
• Also known as plasma membrane
• Consists of a lipid bilayer

Functions:
1. Acts as a barrier separating inside and outside of the cell.
2. Controls the flow of substances into and out of the cell.
3. Helps identify the cell to other cells (e.g., immune cells).
4. Participates in intercellular signaling.

Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus
• Has two components: (1) the cytosol and (2) organelles, tiny structures that perform
different functions in the cell.
Cytosol
• The fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles; constitutes about 55% of
total cell volume.
• Varies in composition; generally, 75–90% water plus various dissolved and suspended
components (e.g., ions, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, proteins, lipids, ATP, and waste
products)

Organelles
• Specialized structures within the cell that have characteristic shapes, performing specific
functions in cellular growth, maintenance, and reproduction
• Each type of organelle has its own set of enzymes that carry out specific reactions;
• Each serves as a functional compartment for specific biochemical processes.
• Although they have different functions, organelles often cooperate to maintain
homeostasis

1. Centrosome
• The centrosome or microtubule organizing center, located near the nucleus, consists of
two components: a pair of centrioles and the pericentriolar matrix / material

Functions of the Centrosomes:

1. The pericentriolar matrix of the centrosome contains tubulins that build
microtubules in nondividing cells.
2. The pericentriolar matrix of the centrosome forms the mitotic spindle during cell
division.

2. Cilia and Flagella

• Microtubules are the dominant components of cilia and flagella, which are motile
projections of the cell surface.
• Cilia (singular is cilium) are numerous, short, hairlike projections that extend from the
surface of the cell.
• Flagella (singular is flagellum) are similar in structure to cilia but are typically much
longer.

Functions of the Cilia and Flagella:

1. Cilia move fluids along a cell’s surface.
2. A flagellum moves an entire cell.

3. Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis

Functions of Ribosomes:
1. Ribosomes associated with endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins destined for
insertion in the plasma membrane or secretion from the cell.
2. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins used in the cytosol.
4. Endoplasmic reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes in the form of flattened
sacs or tubules;
• It extends from the nuclear envelope (membrane around the nucleus), to which it is
connected and projects throughout the cytoplasm.
• Cells contain two distinct forms of ER, which differ in structure and function:

• Rough ER is continuous with the nuclear membrane and usually is folded into a series of
flattened sacs. The outer surface of rough ER is studded with ribosomes.

• Smooth ER extends from the rough ER to form a network of membrane tubules. Unlike
rough ER, smooth ER does not have ribosomes on the outer surfaces of its membrane.
However, smooth ER contains unique enzymes that make it functionally more diverse
than rough ER.

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

• Rough ER synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred into
cellular organelles, inserted into the plasma membrane, or secreted during
exocytosis.
• Smooth ER synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, such as estrogens and testosterone;
inactivates or detoxifies drugs and other potentially harmful substances; removes
the phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate; and stores and releases calcium
ions that trigger contraction in muscle cells.

5. Golgi complex
• Most of the proteins synthesized by ribosomes attached to rough ER are ultimately
transported to other regions of the cell. The first step in the transport pathway is
through an organelle called the Golgi complex.
• It consists of 3 to 20 cisterns, small, flattened membranous sacs or cavities:

1. The convex entry (cis) face is a cistern that faces the rough ER.
2. The concave exit (trans) face is a cistern that faces the plasma membrane.
3. Sacs between the entry and exit faces are called medial cisterns.

• Transport vesicles from the ER merge to form the entry face. From the entry face, the
cisterns are thought to mature, in turn becoming medial and then exit cisterns.

Functions of the Golgi Complex:

1. Modifies, sorts, packages, and transports proteins received from the rough ER.
2. Forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via exocytosis into
extracellular fluid; forms membrane vesicles that ferry new molecules to the plasma
membrane; forms transport vesicles that carry molecules to other organelles, such
as lysosomes.
6. Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from the Golgi complex
• Lysosomes contain several types of powerful digestive enzymes.

Functions of Lysosomes:
1. Digest substances that enter a cell via endocytosis and transport final products of
digestion into cytosol.
2. Carry out autophagy, the digestion of worn-out organelles.
3. Implement autolysis, the digestion of an entire cell.
4. Accomplish extracellular digestion.

7. Peroxisomes
• Another group of organelles similar in structure to lysosomes, but smaller.
• Peroxisomes, also called microbodies, contain several oxidases, enzymes that can
oxidize (remove hydrogen atoms from) various organic substances.

8. Proteasomes
• Perform continuous destruction of unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins.
• Contain proteases, enzymes that cut proteins into small peptides.
• Once the enzymes of a proteasome have chopped up a protein into smaller chunks,
other enzymes then break down the peptides into amino acids, which can be recycled
into new proteins.

9. Mitochondria
• Referred to as the “powerhouses” of the cell
• Within mitochondria, chemical reactions of aerobic cellular respiration generate ATP

Functions of Mitochondria:
1. Generate ATP through reactions of aerobic cellular respiration.
2. Play an important early role in apoptosis (the orderly, genetically programmed
death of a cell).
Nucleus
• A spherical or oval-shaped structure that usually is the most prominent feature of a cell

• Most cells have a single nucleus.

• Some, such as mature red blood cells, have none.
• In contrast, skeletal muscle cells and a few other types of cells have multiple nuclei.

• A double membrane called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm. Both layers of the nuclear envelope are lipid bilayers, similar to the plasma
membrane.

• Many openings called nuclear pores extend through the nuclear envelope. Nuclear
pores control the movement of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

• Inside the nucleus are one or more spherical bodies called nucleoli; function in
producing ribosomes

• Within the nucleus are most of the cell’s hereditary units, called genes, which control
cellular structure and direct cellular activities.
• Genes are arranged along chromosomes. Human somatic (body) cells have 46
chromosomes, 23 inherited from each parent.
• Each chromosome is a long molecule of DNA that is coiled together with several
proteins. This complex of DNA, proteins, and some RNA is called chromatin.
• The total genetic information carried in a cell, or an organism is its genome.
Summary: