1

For plasma to occur though, extremely harsh conditions are when two or more types of elements are used in fixed
required. As a result, we can only observe plasma on the surface proportion with one another to form a single substance, a
States of Matter of very hot objects, such as the stars. compound is formed.

Recent advances in science allow us to classify states of matter

more meticulously. To demonstrate how far we’ve come, there Types of Matter
are 22 known states of the matter today, and more are expected
to be discovered in the years to come. However, in this learning Matter can be classified into two general categories: pure
material, we will focus on the four most basic states of matter substance or mixture. The diagram below summarizes
(yes, four, not three!) and what separates them. The figure below the differences between the two types of matter.
gives you a headstart!

2. Mixture
The other general classification of the matter is mixture. A
mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the
substances retain their distinct identities.

Mixtures can be further subdivided into heterogeneous and

homogeneous mixtures. In a homogeneous mixture, the
1. Pure substance composition of the mixture is the same throughout. In other
words, if you cannot recognize the individual components of a
Let’s start with solids. During our elementary days, we were A substance is a form of matter with a definite composition and
mixture, then it is homogeneous. For example, dissolving a small
taught that solids have their shape and do not occupy the shape distinct properties. A pure substance can be further classified
amount of table salt in one glass of water results in a
of their container. That’s because solids are made up of into two categories: elements and compounds.
homogeneous mixture we usually call a solution.
molecules (or atoms) arranged in a regular, repeating manner.
Furthermore, the molecules or atoms are fixed in their position, A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
The solution is composed of two components: the solute(s) and
which confers shapes to solids. substances using any chemical means is known as an element.
the solvent. The component that exists in the greatest amount is
With the successful synthesis of Oganesson (Og), there are 118
the solvent, while solute is/are the component/s that exists in
Liquid and gasses, on the other hand, have molecules (or known elements to date. The introduction of Oganesson also
minor amount/s. When studying the chemistry of solutions, you
atoms) that can move freely, although liquid molecules are more completes the modern periodic table. Scientists are currently on
will often encounter the word “aqueous.” In most cases, an
compact and hence, have more restricted movement. One major their way to extending the periodic table of the elements.
aqueous solution means that water exists in the greatest
consequence of this property is the lack of shapes of liquids and proportion in the solution and hence, acts as a solvent.
gasses, therefore they are dubbed as the states of matter that
copy the shape of their container.
Meanwhile, If you can differentiate the components of a mixture,
then it is a heterogeneous mixture. Heterogeneous mixtures
Now, you are probably least familiar with the 4th state of matter can be further subdivided into suspension and colloids.
which is plasma. In my elementary and high school days, plasma
was not being taught as a state of matter (Can you guess my
Adding a scoopful of sand to a glass of water results in a mixture
age now?). To put it simply, plasma is just like gas; however, the
where you can distinguish sand from water (since water cannot
difference is that gasses are made up of neutral molecules or
dissolve sand). The sand-water mixture is a suspension.
atoms, while plasma is made up of charged molecules or atoms.
In other words, you can say that plasma is a charged gas!
 2
Colloids, on the other hand, are quite tricky because, at first
glance, it appears as if they are solutions. Let’s take for example
a glass of fresh milk. At first glance, milk appears as a solution Properties of Matter Sample Question:
since we know that milk is made up of multiple components, but
All matter has physical and chemical properties. If that property
we can only see a single liquid phase. However, under the
can be measured without changing the chemical composition of
microscope, milk appears as globules suspended in a certain
that matter, it is a physical property. The physical properties of
liquid matrix. Milk behaves like this because it is made of fats
matter can be further subdivided into extensive and intensive
and water, and we know these two do not mix completely.
properties.

If that is the case, then how do suspension and colloid differ

from one another? In terms of size, particles in the suspension
are so large that eventually, the particles settle at the bottom. In
contrast, colloids are composed of particles that are small
enough (usually from 1 to 1000 nanometers) for them to remain
dispersed in their matrix.

When studying the chemistry of colloids, you will often hear the
terms dispersed and continuous phase. The component/s of the
mixture that is/are being dispersed is the dispersed phase,
while the component where it is being dispersed is the
continuous phase or the dispersion medium.

Aside from microscopy, there is another simpler way to

differentiate colloids from solutions. This is done by just using a
flashlight! When a beam of light is passed through a colloid, the
dispersed phase scatters it. This phenomenon is known as the
Tyndall effect. Solutions do not exhibit this scattering effect; Intensive properties are independent of the amount of matter
instead, you will see a clean transmission of light from one end being considered. Examples of intensive properties are color,
of the glass to the other. melting point, boiling point, and density. The density of water,
regardless of whether you use 1 mL or 1 L of it, will be the same
at a certain temperature.
Lastly, there are different colloids depending on the
nature of the dispersed and continuous phases. You can
Extensive properties are those that depend on the amount of
also encounter the term “hydrocolloid,” a colloidal system matter being measured. The classic examples of extensive
physical properties are the mass, volume, and number of moles.
Decreasing the amount of matter being weighed will decrease
the mass of that matter.

Meanwhile, chemical properties describe the characteristic ability

of a substance to react to form new substances. Classic
examples of chemical properties include flammability and
susceptibility to corrosion.

wherein water acts as the dispersion medium.

 3
phenomenon in the 17th century using a bent glass tube and
The Concept of Ideal Gas Empirical Gas Laws mercury. By virtue of this law, it can be said that for a given
sample of gas under two different sets of conditions, the
relationship between its pressure and volume before and after
Let us do an experiment first before we discuss this topic. the change is given as
1. Boyle’s Law
Put your palm near your mouth, and with your mouth wide open,
try to blow some air towards your palm. How does it feel? Does it
feel hot or cold? Next, try to pout, and again, with your palm near
your mouth, blow some air into it. How does it feel now? It feels
colder, right? where P is the
pressure, and V is the volume of the gas under the two different
sets of conditions. Keep in mind that this formula is valid only
This phenomenon is called the Joule-Thomson expansion; under constant temperature and as long as the amount of
your breath feels cooler as it passes through a smaller exit the gas does not change.
because the air in your breath behaves like a real gas. If your
breath behaves as an ideal gas, there will be no difference in the
temperature of the gas between the two scenarios that we did. MNEMONIC: Boyle’s Law is the first of the numerous gas laws
you will encounter. To easily recall what parameter is constant in
Boyle’s law, just remember BOYLET (Boyle’s Law, constant T!)
For a gaseous system to become ideal, there are four conditions

that must be satisfied first, and these are the following: Sample Problem: A sample of oxygen gas exerts a pressure of
2.50 atm in a 20.0 L container. What will be the new pressure it
will exert if all of it will be transferred to a 16.0 L container at
When you were a child, did you also try to push the plunger of a
1. The gas particles have negligible volume. constant temperature? Assume that the gas behaves ideally.
needleless syringe while sealing the exit with your finger? Back
2. The gas particles are equally sized and do not then, my goal was to push the plunger to the tip of the syringe,
interact with neighboring gas particles. not knowing that there was air inside which prevented me from Solution: Initially, the volume occupied by the gas is 20 L and
doing so. exerts a pressure of 2.50 atm. Since the temperature and the
3. The gas moves in a random motion.
amount of gas are constant, and the gas was assumed to
4. Collisions between gas particles are perfectly behave ideally, we can use Boyle’s law to solve the new
Fast forward to my high school days, during my Chemistry class,
elastic. pressure after it was transferred to a 16 L container.
I recalled this experiment and realized, “AHA, it’s Boyle’s Law!”

Boyle’s law relates the pressure and volume of an ideal gas

As you can see from these assumptions, it is almost impossible under constant temperature. It states that at a constant
to have an ideal (or perfect) gas, right? That’s true, but we can temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of gas is inversely
Therefore, the new pressure is 3.125 atm.
“force” the gas to behave ideally under low-pressure and proportional to the volume of the gas.
high-temperature conditions.
If you also did the syringe experiment, try to recall that the
Low pressure means that the gas occupies a large volume, and plunger becomes harder to push as the tip of the plunger
high temperature provides high kinetic energy to gas molecules, approaches the tip of the syringe. This is because pushing the
which can minimize the interactive forces between gas syringe further decreases the volume occupied by the gas, which
molecules. Furthermore, the use of gases with low molar mass results in an increased pressure exerted by the gas towards the
(such as H2 gas) can further promote ideal behavior. In this plunger.
section, we will deal with equations that describe the properties
of ideal gases. Quite amazing, right? We didn’t know that at such a young age,
we had already demonstrated Boyle’s law!

Although we demonstrated it using a syringe, Robert Boyle, a

British chemist and natural philosopher, demonstrated this
 4
2. Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s Law observation can be explained by the expansion of the
where V1 and T1 are the initial volume and temperature, while gas. As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of
V2 and T2 are the final volume and temperature, respectively. gas molecules increases, which causes the gas to exert
more pressure against the container. However, since the
When working with temperatures in gas laws, make sure that the pressure is constant, the increase in pressure applied by
the gas is manifested as an increase in the volume
temperature is always on the Kelvin scale, as it was clearly
occupied by the gas.
stated in the law that the proportionality was associated with the
absolute temperature of the gas. Use the formula below to
convert temperatures in ℃ to Kelvin.
Gay-Lussac’s or Amonton’s law

What if we let the expanding gas exert more pressure on

its container while keeping the volume occupied by the
T (in K) = T (in ℃) + 273 gas constant? Doing so will lead us to the alternative form
of Charles’s law, which some references call
Gay-Lussac’s or Amonton’s law. This relates the
pressure and temperature of a fixed amount of gas under
constant volume
conditions and is
mathematically
expressed as:
After Robert Boyle successfully established the relationship
between volume and pressure in gasses, one question arose:

Why does the pressure-volume relationship hold true only at

constant temperature?

This was answered in the early 19th century by the separate

work of Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles and Joseph Louis where P1 and T1 are the initial volume and pressure,
Gay-Lussac. Their studies showed that at constant pressure, while P2 and T2 are the final volume and pressure,
there exists a linear relationship between temperature and the
respectively.
volume of gases. This means that a certain amount of gas I
expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Their
separate work led to the development of Charles’s and MNEMONICS: To avoid confusion on which property is
Gay-Lussac’s law or simply Charles’s law, which states that the constant, you can just remember CHARLES (Charles’
volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained at constant pressure Law, constant Pressure).
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.

What is the difference between Gay-Lussac's law and

The mathematical expression of Charles’ law will lead to the
Charles Law?Gay-Lussac's Law is very similar to
derived equation Charles's Law, with the only difference being the type of
This container. Whereas the container in a Charles's Law
experiment is flexible, it is rigid in a Gay-Lussac's Law
experiment.
 5
Sample Problem: What amount of an ideal gas must be and absolute temperature of a fixed amount of gas. The
3. Avogadro’s Law added to double the volume occupied by the same gas mathematical expression of the combined gas law will
Now, what if we add a certain amount of gas to the with an initial amount of 0.25 moles under constant lead to the derived equation shown below.
system at constant temperature and pressure? What do temperature and pressure?
you think will happen?
Solution: Since the system is subjected to constant
In this respect, let’s just say that ideal gases are like your temperature and pressure, we can use Avogadro’s law to
clothes. When you have so many clothes that they don’t solve this problem. However, we are not given the initial
fit your wardrobe anymore, normally, you (although most volume. For such cases, we can use arbitrary volume.
probably, it will be your mother) transfer your clothes to a
larger wardrobe, right? We want to compute the amount of gas that needs to be
added so that the volume will be doubled. Hence, if we Sample Problem: A fixed amount of an ideal gas is
arbitrarily select V1 = 1.0 L, then V2 = 2.0 L. We are given compressed to half of its original volume. If initially, the
The same is true for ideal gases. If you increase the
the n1, hence, we can already solve the problem. gas exerts 1.5 atm at a temperature of 300 K, what would
amount of gas under constant temperature and pressure
be the ratio of final temperature over the final volume
conditions, the tendency of the gas is to increase its
after compression if the pressure becomes 2.0 atm?
volume. This is known as Avogadro’s law, named after
Italian chemist Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo
Avogadro. Solution: It was stated that only the amount of gas is
constant. Hence, we should use the combined gas law.
Avogadro’s law states that at constant temperature and
pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional all Since the gas is being compressed to half of its initial
expressions of Avogadro’s law will lead to the derived volume, and there is no initial volume given, then we can
equation. Although we got 0.50 mol as the final answer, this assign arbitrary values. For simplicity, we let V1 = 2.0 L
and V2 = 1.0 L. Furthermore, P1 = 1.5 atm, T1 = 300 K,
number does not answer our question. We were asked
and P2 = 2.0 atm.
what amount of the gas must be added to double the
volume that the gas will occupy. Initially, there’s 0.25 mol Using the combined gas law:
of gas. To double the volume, the amount of the resulting
gas should be 0.50 mol. Hence, we need to add 0.25 What we have so far is the ratio of the final volume over
the final temperature. However, we are asked to
mol of the same gas to the system.
determine the ratio of the final temperature over the final
where V1 and n1 are
volume. We can get this by getting the reciprocal of the
the initial volume and number of moles, while V2 and n2 equation above, which gives us

are the final volume and number of moles, respectively. 4. Combined Gas Law
So far, we have considered cases wherein two variables
are always constant. However, there are cases wherein
the volume, temperature, and pressure all change at the
same time. In such cases, the combined gas law can be
used.

The combined gas law was obtained by combining

Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, and Amonton’s law. This law
expresses the relationship between the volume, pressure,
 6
units of the given that we need to use should cancel each
Ideal Gas Equation other out.
The ideal gas equation accounts for the behavior of all
ideal gas. This equation relates the pressure, absolute If we use R = 0.0821 L⦁atm/mol⦁K, this means that the
temperature, volume, and amount of the gas. This means unit of the amount should be in mole, the unit of
that if we know three out of four properties of the gas, temperature should be in Kelvin (K), and the unit of
then we can compute the missing property using the ideal pressure should be in atmosphere (atm). That being said,
gas equation. we need to convert 1 bar to atm first. We know that 1 atm
= 1.01325 bar. Therefore:
The mathematical expression of the ideal gas expression
is shown below:

PV = nRT

R is known as the universal gas constant, which is equal

Then, from the ideal gas equation:
to 0.0821 L⦁atm/mol⦁K, or 8.314 J/mol⦁K

IMPORTANT NOTE: A mole of ideal gases, regardless of

identity, occupies a molar volume of 22.414 L at 273.15 K
(or 0 ℃) with a pressure of 1 atm. This temperature and
pressure condition is known as the standard temperature
and pressure (STP). Another benchmark condition is the
standard ambient temperature and pressure (SATP). At
SATP, the temperature is 298.15 K (or 25 ℃), and the
pressure is 1 bar. 1 bar= 1.01325

Sample Problem:
Write an expression that will allow us to determine the
volume occupied by 0.67 mol SF6 (146 g/mol) at SATP if
it behaves as an ideal gas.

Solution: We need to use the ideal gas equation to be

able to address this problem. To easily visualize the
problem, let us first list what is known.

● R = 0.0821 L⦁atm/mol⦁K
● n = 0.67 mol
● T = 298.15 K
● P = 1 bar

Remember that we are asked to write an expression that

will enable us to solve the volume of the gas. Hence, the
 7

Atoms Properties of an Atom

All the substances found on Earth are made up of atoms. If that’s
An atom is the basic unit of an element that can enter into the case, then how come a lot of substances vary significantly
a chemical combination. Scientists are very interested in from one another?
studying atoms and atomic structures simply because
understanding atoms ultimately leads to understanding The answer is because of the difference in the properties of the
why certain elements behave or react in a certain atom, which can be ultimately attributed to the number of protons
manner. and neutrons, as well as the number and distribution of electrons
in the space around the nucleus.

Atomic Theory of Matter

Can you imagine studying chemistry without any notion about
atoms?
Simply put, this hypothesis suggests that hydrogen atoms are all
Well, people in the past have experienced this kind of problem. the same. If you obtain hydrogen atoms from different parts of
the world and in outer space, all the atoms will be the same in all
respects. In the same way, oxygen atoms are all the same;
However, this doesn’t mean that past civilizations did not have however, oxygen atoms differ from hydrogen atoms. This
an idea about the existence of atoms. The idea of an atom hypothesis explains why hydrogen atoms behave similarly
started as early as the 5th century B.C. when Democritus regardless of the source but differently with respect to oxygen
expressed his belief that matter is made up of smaller, atoms.
indivisible particles he called ‘atomos,’ meaning indivisible.

Hypothesis 3: Atoms of different elements may combine in fixed

The idea had been ignored for a long time until John Dalton proportions to form a compound
formulated a precise definition of indivisible building blocks that
The first atomic property covered in this review is the atomic
we now call atoms in 1808. Dalton’s work laid the foundation for
number (designated as Z). In the modern periodic table, an
the modern era of chemistry. His hypotheses are enumerated
atomic number is usually written on the upper left side corner of
below.
each element block. This number represents the number of
protons in the atom’s nucleus. It also gives us an idea about the
Hypothesis 1: All matter consists of indivisible particles reactivity of the atoms. For instance, all atoms with an atomic
called Atoms. Dalton’s first hypothesis simply states that atoms number of at least 84 are radioactive.
are the smallest particles, and it is impossible to divide atoms
even further. Of course, nowadays we know that this is not true,
If the number of neutrons is added to the atomic number, it
as many scientists have proven the existence of particles even
becomes the mass number (no. of protons + no. of neutrons).
smaller than the atom itself. We will discuss more of this in the
The mass number is usually designated as A and is not written in
next sections.
the modern periodic table of elements.

Hypothesis 2: All atoms of the same element are identical in

terms of size, mass, and chemical properties. The atom of one Another property is the atomic mass, which is written below the
element is different from the atom of another element element name in the periodic table. Due to huge differences
To visualize this theory, imagine a water molecule that is between the mass of an electron, and proton and neutron,
chemically written as H2O. This chemical formula implies that atomic masses are mostly attributed to the mass of protons and
ALL molecules of water are composed of two atoms of hydrogen neutrons only (the mass of electrons is almost negligible
and one atom of oxygen. Varying the proportion of at least one compared to these two).
atom in the formula will give rise to a completely different
compound.
 8

Atomic Structure Mole, avogadro's

An atom is a complex arrangement of negatively charged
electrons arranged in defined shells about a positively
number
One mole of a substance is equal to 6.022 × 10²³ units of that
charged nucleus. This nucleus contains most of the
substance (such as atoms, molecules, or ions). The number
atom's mass and is composed of protons and neutrons 6.022 × 10²³ is known as Avogadro's number or Avogadro's
(except for common hydrogen which has only one constant. The concept of the mole can be used to convert
proton). All atoms are roughly the same size. A between mass and number of particles.. Created by Sal Khan.
convenient unit of length for measuring atomic sizes is
the angstrom (Å), which is defined as 1 × 10-10 meters.
The diameter of an atom is approximately 2-3 Å. Electron Configuration
The electron configuration is the distribution of
In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the existence of the
electrons among the various orbitals in an atom,
electron, marking the beginning of modern atomic
molecule, or ion. The electron configuration of hydrogen
physics. The negatively charged electrons follow a
can be written as follows:
random pattern within defined energy shells around the
nucleus. Most properties of atoms are based on the
number and arrangement of their electrons. The mass of n the orbital diagram, this electron configuration is
equivalent to:
an electron is 9.1 × 10-31 kilograms.

One of the two types of particles found in the nucleus is

the proton. The existence of a positively charged particle,
a proton, in the nucleus was proved by Sir Ernest
atomic mass
atomic mass, the quantity of matter contained in an atom of an
Rutherford in 1919. The proton's charge is equal but
element. It is expressed as a multiple of one-twelfth the mass of
opposite to the negative charge of the electron. The the carbon-12 atom, 1.992646547 × 10−23 gram, which is
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines assigned an atomic mass of 12 units. In this scale, 1 atomic
what kind of chemical element it is. A proton has a mass mass unit (amu) corresponds to 1.660539040 × 10−24 gram. The
of 1.67 × 10-27 kilograms. atomic mass unit is also called the dalton (Da), after English
chemist John Dalton
The neutron is the other type of particle found in the The observed atomic mass is slightly less than the sum of the
nucleus. It was discovered by a British physicist, Sir masses of the protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up the
atom. The difference, called the mass defect, is accounted for
James Chadwick. The neutron carries no electrical
during the combination of these particles by conversion into
charge and has the same mass as the proton. With a lack binding energy, according to an equation in which the energy (E)
of electrical charge, the neutron is not repelled by the released equals the product of the mass (m) consumed and the
cloud of electrons or by the nucleus, making it a useful square of the velocity of light in vacuum (c); thus, E = mc2. See
tool for probing the structure of the atom. also atomic weight.

Even the individual protons and neutrons have internal

structure, called quarks. Six types of quarks exist. These
subatomic particles cannot be freed and studied in
isolation. Current research continues into the structure of
the atom.
 9
To be able to write electron configuration correctly, it is orbital because we’re able to accommodate all of
important that you know three things: nitrogen’s seven electrons by just using up to 2p orbital.
Recall that mℓ pertains to the orientation of orbitals in
● the number of electrons present in a certain space and takes the value from -ℓ to +ℓ, including zero. The next question is probably how do we write the orbital
species For s orbital, ℓ = 0 so there is only one subshell (each diagram of nitrogen? To do this, we need to discuss
subshell can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons. several principles and rules first.
● the number of electrons each orbital can
For p orbitals, ℓ = 1, so there are 3 subshells (as shown
occupy above), and so on.
The Aufbau Principle
● the correct ordering of the orbitals.
Aufbau is a German term that means building up. This
Lastly, we need to know that we are writing the orbitals in
principle is named so because it dictates that as a proton
the correct sequence. To do this, you can use the
is being added one by one to the nucleus to build up the
mnemonics presented below:
You can easily determine the first one by looking at the element, electrons are likewise added to the orbital.
periodic table. Recall that the modern periodic table is
arranged based on increasing atomic number, and atomic For example, a hydrogen atom has 1 proton in its
number is equal to the number of protons, so you can nucleus, and its orbital is occupied by one electron.
also say that for a neutral atom, the atomic number is Adding one proton to hydrogen to form helium will entail
equal to the number of electrons. the addition of another electron. Such principle gives rise
to the question “As more electrons are added to the atom,
As for the number of electrons each orbital can occupy, what orbital will the electron fill up? Do we start with
just remember that s orbitals can occupy a maximum of 2 orbitals with the highest energy level, or do we start with
electrons, p orbitals can accommodate 6 electrons, d the orbitals with the lowest?”
orbitals can take 10 electrons, and f orbitals can have a
maximum of 14 electrons. The figure below shows why The (n + ℓ) rule answers the dilemma established by the
this is the case. Aufbau principle. According to the (n + ℓ) rule, the added
electrons must occupy an orbital with a lower (n + ℓ)
value first. In other words, the added electrons should
occupy the orbital with lower energy first. This means that
as electrons is being added, the 2s orbital (n + ℓ = 2 + 0 =
2) must be filled first before the electrons occupy the 2p
(n + ℓ = 2 + 1 = 3) orbital.

To have a better understanding of how to use this In cases wherein two different orbitals have the same (n +
mnemonic, let us consider the nitrogen atom (Z = 7). ℓ) value, say 3d (n + ℓ = 3 + 2 = 5) and 4p (n + ℓ = 4 + 1
Following the flow of arrows in the figure above, the first = 5), the orbital with the lower principal QN must be filled
orbital to use is 1s, followed by 2s, then 2p, 3s, and so first. These principles govern the mnemonics that we
on. used earlier.

We have 7 electrons to accommodate, so the first two When drawing the orbital diagram, we must adhere to
can be written as 1s2. The next two electrons occupy the Hund’s rule of multiplicity, which states that every
2s orbital, giving 2s2, and the remaining three will occupy orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron
the 2p orbital, giving 2p3. Therefore, the electronic before any orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in
configuration of nitrogen atoms is 1s22s22p3 (read as one singly occupied orbitals have the same spin.
s two, two s two, two p three). Note that we stopped at 2p
 10
With what we know so far, we can start to draw the orbital If we consider the two electrons in the 2s orbital, both Sample Problem 2: Write the electronic configuration
diagram of nitrogen! To do this, it’s best to use the have the same principal QN (n = 2), azimuthal QN (ℓ = 0 and orbital diagram for argon and assign quantum
electronic configuration as a guide. Previously, we’ve for s orbital), and magnetic QN (mℓ = 0). What numbers to the last entering electron.
identified it as: differentiates the two is the spin QN; one is +½, while the
other one is -½. This difference is manifested in orbital Solution: The atomic number of argon is 18, so we need
Nitrogen: 1s22s22p3 diagrams as upward or downward pointing arrows. There to distribute 18 electrons to different orbitals. Based on
is no convention as to which arrow pertains to +½ and -½
spin, although usually, +½ is given to the arrow pointing
We know that s orbitals have one subshell, and p orbitals
upward, and -½ to the arrow pointing downward.
have three subshells. Hence, we can convert this electron
configuration to the empty orbital diagram below.
Let us work with some examples to better understand
these rules and principles in writing electronic
configurations.

Sample Problem 1: Write the electronic configuration

and orbital diagram for the oxygen atom and assign
quantum numbers to the last entering electron.

Solution: The atomic number of oxygen is 8, which

means that its electron is also eight. Hence, we need to
assign these 8 electrons to 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals to write our mnemonics, the correct order of orbitals would be 1s,
the electron configuration, which would be 1s22s22p4. 2s, 2p, 3s, and 3p. Filling these orbitals with electrons, we
Using this as a guide for drawing the orbital diagram, we will obtain 1s22s22p63s23p6. Then, using this electron
will have: configuration, we can draw the orbital diagram as follows:
Now, if we are to fill these subshells with electrons, there
are two possible scenarios to carry this out, like what is
Due to Hund’s rule of multiplicity, the last entering This time, the last downward arrow on the rightmost
shown below. Both cases use the correct number of
electron of oxygen is not the one on the rightmost subshell represents the last entering electron of argon.
electrons in each orbital; however, Case 1 violates
subshell (be very careful with this!), but the one Since it is located on the third subshell of the 3p orbital,
Hund’s rule of multiplicity! Case 2 demonstrates what is
represented by the blue downward arrow in the first then, n = 3, ℓ = 1, mℓ = +1, and ms = -½, or simply (3, 1,
meant by this rule.
+1, -½).

The next question that you might have is: “Why are there
arrows pointing upward and downward?” This is a direct
consequence of Pauli’s exclusion principle, which
states that no two electrons can have the same set of
four quantum numbers.

subshell of the 2p orbital. With this, we can say that n = 2,

ℓ = 1, mℓ = -1, and ms = -½, or simply, (2, 1, -1, -½). Now,
let’s try with slightly larger atoms.
 11
In solid metals, individual metal atoms are so close to one 3. Ionic Bond
Compounds another that the electron cloud of one metal atom
overlaps with its neighboring metal atom. This creates the
“sea of delocalized electrons.” In other words, the
Have you heard of any advertisement claiming their
electrons are free to wander within the crystal structure.
product is “chemical-free?” How did you react?

Well, for chemists, that is an example of a very bad and 2. Covalent Bond
misleading advertisement. Why? It’s because there’s no
such thing as “chemical-free.” A chemical is a substance
that can be represented using a fixed chemical formula
and possess characteristic properties.

A compound is a type of chemical which is defined as a

substance composed of atoms of two or more elements
chemically united in fixed proportions. The water we drink
and even the air we breathe are all considered An ionic bond is a chemical bond involving the complete
“chemicals.” A covalent bond is a chemical bond wherein the electrons transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. This bond
involved in bond formation are shared by the two atoms usually occurs between a metal and a nonmetal.
bonded with one another. As you know, a covalent bond
Types of Chemical Bonds is designated by a “dash” connecting one atom to
The transfer of electrons is made possible because
another. Each covalent bond is composed of two
metals tend to lose their valence electron(s) to become a
electrons, and each atom being bonded covalently
positively-charged cation. In contrast, the nonmetals tend
contributes one electron to that bond.
to gain the electron(s) lost by the cations to become
1. Metallic Bond A covalent bond can be a single (ex: F2), double (ex: O2),
negatively-charged anions.
or even triple (ex: N2) bond.

A. non-polar In writing ionic compounds, both ions are enclosed inside

Covalent bond is formed between the same atoms or a square bracket, with their charge and numerical
atoms with very similar electronegativities. coefficient (if there is any) written outside the bracket.
See the figure below.

B. Polar
Covalent bond is formed when atoms of slightly different
electronegativities share electrons.
This is a type of chemical bond that forms among metallic
substances and is a direct consequence of attractive
electrostatic forces between the negatively charged sea
of delocalized electrons and the positively charged
metal ions.
 12
4. Coordinate Covalent Bond 1. Binary Covalent Compounds Number Prefix Number Prefix
A binary covalent compound is a covalent compound
that is made up of exactly two elements only.

a. Naming Binary Covalent Compounds

1 mono- 6 hexa-

Rule 1: The first element in the chemical

formula is named first using the name of
that element.
The coordinate covalent bond is also known as a dative
bond. In this chemical bond, both electrons are supplied 2 di- 7 hepta-
by one of the two bonded atoms. This is commonly
observed among coordinate covalent compounds and
inorganic complexes and is written like a covalent bond. Rule 2: The second element in the chemical
formula is named as if it is an anion.
3 tri- 8 octa-
How To Name Compounds
and Write Compound Rule 3: Indicate the number of that element
using the appropriate prefix.
Formulas 4 tetra- 9 nona-
There are different types of compounds, but in this part,
we will only consider the nomenclature of binary covalent
and ionic compounds, as well as some inorganic acids.
Rule 4: The prefix mono– is never used in
denoting the number of the first element.
There are certain rules to follow in naming binary 5 penta- 10 deca-
compounds, and the figure presented below is an
excellent guide.

Rule 5: If the name of the element starts with a

vowel, drop the “a” or “o” in the prefix.

The following prefixes must be used to denote the

number of certain atoms in the compound’s formula.
 13
Examples: b. Writing Chemical Formula of Binary Examples:

Covalent Compounds
Chemical Name Chemical Formula
Chemical Chemical Name
Formula

Rule Identify the chemical symbol of the element. oxygen difluoride O is less electronegative than F; there is
1:
one O atom and two F atoms, hence the
N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide, not dinitrogen chemical formula is OF2, not F2O
pentatoxide
Rule Take note of the prefix used for each
2: element, and write the corresponding
number as a subscript of that element.
tetraphosphorus P is less electronegative than F; there are
PCl5 phosphorus pentachloride, not
monophosphorus pentachloride decoxide four atoms of P and 10 atoms of O, hence
Rule When writing the chemical formula, write the the chemical formula is P4O10, not O10P4
3: less electronegative element first. The most
electronegative element in the periodic table
is fluorine (F). Hence, you can make it a
CO carbon monoxide, not monocarbon
convention that the farther the element is sulfur S is less electronegative than F; there is
monooxide
from fluorine, the less electronegative it is.
hexaflouride one S atom and 6 F atoms, hence the

chemical formula is SF6, not F6S

In N2O5, the name dinitrogen pentaoxide is incorrect by

virtue of rule number 5, although if you will read older
references, this system of nomenclature was allowed and dioxygen O is less electronegative than F; there are
accepted. However, the common practice today is to drop
“a” or “o” in the prefix if the name of the element starts difluoride two O atoms and two F atoms, hence the
with a vowel. In PCl5, monophosphorus pentachloride is
chemical formula is O2F2, not F2O2
incorrect by virtue of rule 4. Lastly, for CO, monocarbon
monooxide is incorrect by virtue of rules 4 and 5.

Always remember to write first the symbol for the less

electronegative element in the chemical formula, followed
by the more electronegative species. Fortunately, it is not
a common mistake since most of the time, the less
electronegative element is written first in the
chemical name, so you can use it as a guide.
 14
2. Binary Ionic Compounds familiarize yourself with them by reading them repeatedly
ii. Type II Binary Ionic Compounds
A binary ionic compound is a compound that is every day (familiarization is the key!). The cation is always named first, while the
composed of a single type of cation and a single type of Rule anion is always named second.
anion. 1:

a. Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

Naming binary ionic compounds is a little more
complicated than the nomenclature of binary covalent In naming the cation using the systematic
Rule method, identify the oxidation state of the
compounds due to the presence of cations with multiple 2:
oxidation states. If the cation exhibits only one oxidation cation, and write the oxidation state (in roman
state, then the compound is a Type I binary ionic numeral) adjacent to the name of the cation
compound. In contrast, if the cation exhibits at least two
oxidation states, the compound is a Type II binary ionic
compound. In naming the cation using the stock system,
Rule identify the oxidation state of the cation. If the
3: oxidation state of the cation is less than the
i. Type I Binary Ionic Compounds
other oxidation state, the cation is named as
the element root name + –ous. On the other
Rule 1: The cation is always named first, while the hand, if the oxidation state of the cation is
anion is always named second. greater than the other oxidation state, the
cation is named as the element root name +
–ic.

Monoatomic cations are named as if they are

Rule 2: elements. Meanwhile, the monoatomic anion Name the monoatomic anion by taking the
takes the root of the element name + –ide. Rule root of the element name + –ide. Use
Examples:
4: corresponding names for polyatomic anions.

Polyatomic cations and anions have special

Rule 3: and unique names, and you should familiarize
yourself with them. The prefixes used in the nomenclature of
Rule covalent compounds are not usually used in
5: the nomenclature of ionic compounds.

The prefixes used in the nomenclature of

Rule 4: covalent compounds are not usually used in the
nomenclature of ionic compounds.
One of the most common mistakes committed when As you can see, it’s getting more complicated as we
naming ionic compounds is the use of prefixes used for proceed. First, you were asked to familiarize the prefixes,
naming binary covalent compounds. Keep in mind that then the polyatomic ions, and now, the stock and
The table below provides the list of the most common
those prefixes are NEVER used when naming ionic systematic names! It is challenging, but again,
polyatomic ions you can encounter. It will be hard to compounds. Hence, the correct name of Ba(OH)2 is familiarization is the key!
barium hydroxide and not barium dihydroxide. The same
remember them all at once, so it is suggested that you
is true for naming (NH4)2SO4.
 15
Let us now proceed with the nomenclature of inorganic
acids. By definition, acids are compounds that release H2SO4 there are oxygen atoms in the anion,
(directly or indirectly) free H3O+ in an aqueous solution. and the anion name is sulfate, hence,
The schematic diagram shown below efficiently describes the name of the acid is sulfuric acid
how the naming of inorganic acids is carried out.

HNO2 there are oxygen atoms in the anion,

and the anion name is nitrite, hence,
the name of the acid is nitrous acid

H2SO3 there are oxygen atoms in the anion,

and the anion name is sulfite, hence,
the name of the acid is sulfurous
acid

Additional polyatomic anions you can commonly

encounter in the nomenclature of inorganic acids are
Examples: shown below.

Examples: Chemical Chemical Name

Formula

HCl there is no oxygen atom in the anion,

hence the name is hydrochloric acid

HBr there is no oxygen atom in the anion,

hence the name is hydrobromic acid
Nowadays, stock names are less preferably used
because of their ambiguity, specifically for cations with
more than two oxidation states. For example, Mn can
have oxidation states of +2, +3, +4, +6, and +7. The use HNO3 there are oxygen atoms in the anion,
of stock names for these cases makes the name and the anion name is nitrate, hence,
confusing since it is not known which among the Mn2+, the name of the acid is nitric acid
Mn3+, Mn4+, Mn6+, and Mn7+ is the manganous and
manganic ion.
 16
b. Writing Chemical Formula of Binary Ionic The trick here that you need to remember is always to
write the cation first (with its correct charge) followed by
Compounds
the anion (with its correct charge) like what was done in
Separately write the cation and anion, the second column.
Rule 1: indicating their correct charge.

Next, whatever the charge of the cation is, take its

absolute value and make it the subscript of the anion.
Using the criss-cross method, take the Then, take the absolute value of the charge of the anion
Rule 2: absolute value of the charge of the cation, and make it the subscript of the cation. Make sure to
and write it as a subscript of the anion. In the include parentheses if the ion is polyatomic! For example,
same way, take the absolute value of the in calcium hydroxide, there is a huge difference between
charge of the anion and write it as the Ca(OH)2 (the correct formula) and CaOH2 (non-existent).
subscript of the cation.
Another thing that you need to remember is to always
write the subscript of the chemical formula to the lowest
possible terms. For example, by following the rules
For polyatomic ions, write parenthesis if
Rule 3: described for calcium hydroxide, the formula of ferrous
necessary.
dichromate should be (Fe)2(Cr2O7)2. However, due to this
additional rule, the correct formula is FeCr2O7.

The subscripts of the anion and cation must But before you write in the lowest possible terms, always
Rule 4: be written in the lowest possible terms. As an
make sure that you are dealing with an ionic compound,
example, the formula of ferrous sulfate is
written as FeSO4, instead of Fe2(SO4)2 since because this rule does not apply to binary covalent
the subscripts of both ions are 2. In the same
manner, the formula of tin(IV) sulfate is compounds. For example, P4O10 (a binary covalent
Sn(SO4)2 instead of Sn2(SO4)4.
compound) cannot be written as P2O5! Try to name these

compounds, and you will see that these two are distinct

from one another!

Examples:
 17
Together with the alkali metals, groups 1 and 2 (except
Electronic Configuration The Periodic Table of H and Be) form strong inorganic bases when bonded with
– describes the manner in which electrons are
arranged in an atom Elements hydroxide ions. Furthermore, these two groups are
sometimes referred to as the s block elements.
Ground state electronic configuration- The development of the periodic table as we know it
lowest energy arrangement of electrons today started in 1829 when Johann Dobereiner
Excited state- allowed arrangements of Group 18 (noble gases) have filled p subshells (except
proposed the model of triads or the law of triads in some He). Aside from helium, all members of the group have 8
electrons other than the ground state references. The model states that the atomic weight of
Isoelectronic- same number of electrons electrons in their valence shell. As a result, noble gases
the middle element in a set of three elements (he called are chemically inert. They are also colorless, although
Rules to remember when writing ground state
triad) is approximately equal to the arithmetic mean of the ionizing them may cause these gases to emit bright
electronic configurations
two extreme elements in the set. colors. This is why noble gases (except Rn) are
¤ Aufbau Principle- the orbitals of an atom
are filled in order of increasing energy commonly used in neon signs.
- According to the (n+l) rule. The
lower the value of (n+l), the lower Groups and Families in the
the energy of the orbital. If the (n+l)
values of two orbitals are the same, Periodic Table
the one with lower n is filled first.

¤ Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity- the lowest

energy arrangement of electrons in a set of
degenerate orbitals is where there is a
maximum number of electrons of the same
spin. Electrons occupy degenerate orbitals
singly before pairing.

Unlike Mendeleev’s table which is arranged based on

atomic mass, the modern periodic table that we know Groups 3-12 comprise the transition metals. Elements
today is arranged based on atomic number. The rows in belonging to these groups are generally characterized by
the table are known as periods, while the columns are partially filled d subshells or those which can give rise to
known as groups or families. The table below shows the cations with an incomplete d subshell. Because of this,
outline of the modern periodic table of elements. transition metals are sometimes called the d block
elements.
Belonging to the representative elements, group 1 is
known as the alkali metals. Elements under this family Some transition metals can form cations with multiple
are highly reactive and possess a single electron in their oxidation states. For example, chromium can have an
outermost shell. As a result, these elements readily lose oxidation state of either +3 or +6, while manganese can
one electron to form ions with a +1 charge. Group 2, on take +2, +3, +4, +6, and +7 as their oxidation states.
the other hand, is known as alkaline earth metals. Other transition metals capable of having multiple
Elements under this family have two electrons in their oxidation states are labeled in the modern periodic table
valence shell which they readily lose to form cations with of elements shown previously.
+2 charges.
 18
Group 13 is the Boron group (or icosagens), which all that lanthanides are more abundant than other elements; a result, the electron cloud is larger in the vicinity of
have three electrons in their outermost shell. This group however, they are highly dispersed in the Earth’s crust, chlorine compared to the vicinity of hydrogen.
forms cations with a +3 charge upon ionization. making these elements “rare.” These elements have
incompletely filled 4f subshells or those that form cations Determining periodic trends in electronegativity is quite
Carbon group or crystallogens are those under group with incompletely filled 4f subshells. easy. You just need to remember that the most
14. Elements under this group are characterized by 4 electronegative element in the periodic table is fluorine.
electrons in their outermost shell. On the other hand, actinides are all radioactive. They are Hence, electronegativity increases as you approach
heavy elements that are not naturally occurring, some are fluorine (i.e., electronegativity increases across a period
Group 15 are the pnictogens, all of which have 5 even named after famous scientists. Elements in the from left to right and decreases down the group).
valence electrons. Aside from nitrogen, pnictogens are actinide series either have incompletely filled 5f subshells
solid at room temperature. or form cations with incompletely filled 5f subshells.
Definition of Chemical
Chalcogens or the group 16 elements are composed of Electronegativity Reactions
electronegative nonmetals and metalloids, all of which
have 6 electrons in their outermost shell. Chemical reactions are processes in which a substance
(or substances) is changed into one or more substances.
Next to chalcogens are the halogens (Group 17),
famously known as the only group in the periodic table In a chemical reaction, everything that is written on the
with members existing as gas (fluorine and chlorine), left side of the arrow is called reactants, while everything
liquid (bromine), and solid (iodine and astatine) at room that is written on the right side of the arrow is called
temperature. Halogens have 7 electrons in their products.
outermost shell; thus, these atoms readily accept an
electron to form anions with a –1 charge.
All chemical reactions obey the law of conservation of
matter proposed by Antoine Lavoisier in the 18th century.
Groups 13-18 are collectively known as the p block It states that “matter can neither be created nor
elements. The p block is made up of metals, nonmetals, destroyed.” This implies that mass is conserved in any
and the so-called metalloids, or those elements with chemical reaction. For example, if a 10 g reactant/s
properties that are intermediate to both metals and undergoes a reaction that proceeds to completion, then
nonmetals. B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te (enclosed in a square the product/s formed should weigh exactly 10 g.
border in the outline of the modern periodic table of
elements displayed earlier) are widely regarded as
metalloids; Po and At are irregularly accepted; while Al
and C are rarely recognized as metalloids. Because of
their unique properties, metalloids are used in the Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to draw
manufacturing of semiconductors. shared electrons in a chemical bond towards itself. The
figure above shows the difference in electron density
Aside from these families, there are also lanthanide and between bonded atoms in Cl2 (left) and HCl (right).
actinide series in the periodic table, collectively called the
f block transition metals due to their incompletely filled f Because Cl atoms have the same electronegativity, you
subshells. can see that the electron cloud in the two Cl atoms is
uniformly distributed. However, in HCl, the difference in
Lanthanides are rare earth elements, as they are electronegativity between H and Cl causes electrons in
naturally occurring but exist in extremely small amounts the covalent bond to be drawn nearer to the Cl atom. As
(less than 0.001 % of the Earth’s crust). Estimates show
 19
Also known as the single replacement reaction, this is a As we know, electrons are negatively charged. Therefore,
Types of Chemical type of reaction wherein one element in a compound is you will recognize the gain of electrons if the oxidation

Reactions substituted by another element. number decreases. In contrast, you will recognize the
loss of electrons if the oxidation number increases.
4. Double Displacement Reaction
1. Combination Reaction ROD (Reduction, Oxidation number Decreases)
Also known as the synthesis reaction, the combination
reaction is a type of reaction wherein at least two types of In some instances, only one species undergoes both
elements (or compounds) combine to form a single oxidation and reduction. Such a reaction is a special
product. redox reaction more commonly known as a
disproportionation reaction. An example is shown
below. Note that the oxygen atom undergoes both
2. Decomposition Reaction reduction (from -1 to -2) and oxidation (from -1 to 0).

Also known as metathesis reaction, this is a type of

reaction wherein the two reactants exchange one atom. Meanwhile, some redox reactions have reactants
containing the same element with different oxidation
5. Redox Reaction states but forming a product wherein the same element
has the same oxidation number. Such a reaction is known
This is a type of reaction that involves the transfer of
as a comproportionation (or synproportionation)
electrons between two species.
A reaction. An example is shown below. Note that two Ag
atoms with different oxidation states react with each other
Redox reaction, a shorthand term for reduction-oxidation to form a single Ag atom with an oxidation state of +1.
decomposition reaction is a type of reaction in which a
reaction, always occurs in pairs as there should be a Furthermore, Ag undergoes both reduction (from +2 to
single compound breaks down to form at least two types
species that will receive the electron/s lost by the other to +1) and oxidation (from 0 to +1).
of products.
maintain electroneutrality. An example of a redox reaction
is shown below.

3. Single Displacement Reaction 2Al(s) + 3Cu2+(aq) ⟶ 2Al3+(aq) + 3Cu(s)

You can see that the oxidation state of Al changes from 0

to +3 (rules in assigning oxidation states were discussed
in a previous article), which means that Al loses electrons
(oxidation). On the other hand, the oxidation state of Cu
changes from +2 to 0, which means that Cu gains
electrons (reduction). It is confusing to recognize which
species undergoes reduction and oxidation, but there are
two simple mnemonics that can help you:

GEROA (Gain of Electron/s, Reduction, Oxidizing Agent)

LEORA (Loss of Electron/s, Oxidation, Reducing Agent)

 20
6. Combustion Reaction 7. Precipitation Reaction number of distinct atoms on the reactant side and the
product side.
A combustion reaction is a reaction in which flammable This is a reaction in which the mixing of two solutions
compounds (usually organic compounds) react with results in the formation of solids, known as a precipitate.
oxygen from the atmosphere. An example is shown below: For beginners, it is a good idea to construct a table like
what is shown below.

If the atmosphere is oxygen-rich, complete combustion Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) ⇌ PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

occurs, and the sole products are CO2(g) and H2O(g) for
Atom Reactant Side Product
organic compounds containing only C and H (also known
as hydrocarbons). If the atmosphere is oxygen-deficient,
8. Neutralization Reaction Side

incomplete combustion occurs, and CO(g) and C(s) also Also known as an acid-base reaction, a neutralization
form in addition to CO2(g) and H2O(g). reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base. Such
reactions always result in the formation of water and salt.
An example is shown below:
Furthermore, nitrogen-containing organic compounds K 1 1
form oxides of nitrogen, mainly NO2(g) upon combustion;
sulfur-containing organic compounds form SO2(g); while HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
halogenated organic compounds form gaseous HX,
where X can be F, Cl, Br, or I. Some examples are shown You should have noticed that precipitation and
below. neutralization reactions are special types of double Cl 1 1
displacement reactions.
C6H14 + 19⁄2O2(g) ⟶ 6CO2(g) + 7H2O(g) + heat

Balancing Chemical O 3 2
C6H13Cl + 9O2(g) ⟶ 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) + HCl(g) + heat
Reactions
Balancing a chemical reaction is one of the fundamental
tasks that you need to do in chemistry. Some reactions
You can immediately see that the reaction is not balanced
are relatively easy to balance, while others are more
since there are only 2 oxygen atoms on the product side,
challenging. Let us work with some examples to
while there are 3 on the reactant side.
demonstrate how to balance chemical reactions.

Most references will recommend trial and error until you

Sample Problem 1 find the right combination of coefficients. However, during
Balance the following chemical reaction. an examination where time is of the essence, doing that
can be counterproductive and time-consuming, especially
if the reaction is complicated. A faster way to balance
KClO3 ⟶ KCl + O2
reactions like this is to use fractions at first to balance the
atoms that are not equal on the reactant and product
Solution side. In this example, I can use 3⁄2 as the coefficient of
All chemical reactions follow the law of conservation of O2 on the product side as follows:
matter which states that matter can neither be created
nor destroyed. Hence, the number of atoms of a certain KClO3 ⟶ KCl + 3⁄2O2
element in the reactant and product side must be the
same. With this, it is only logical that the first step in
balancing any chemical reaction is to count the total
 21
Reconstructing the table above, we’ll see that the Sample Problem 2 atoms on the reactant and 13 O atoms on the product
reaction is balanced already. side. What we can do to balance the O atom is to assign
Shown below is the reaction for the complete combustion
13/2 as the coefficient of O2 on the reactant side, which
of butane. Write the balanced chemical reaction.
gives us the balanced reaction shown below. Take note
Atom Reactant Side Product that heat is a form of energy, so it can never be balanced
Side C4H10 + O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g) + H2O(g) + heat in the manner we’ve discussed.

Solution 1C4H10 + 13⁄2O2(g) ⟶ 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) + heat

Following the steps given in the first problem:
If in case the coefficient above (printed in red) is nowhere
K 1 1
to be found in the choices, what you can do is convert all
Atom Reactant Side Product the coefficients to whole numbers, which can be done by
Side multiplying all the coefficients by 2. Doing so will give the
following balanced chemical reaction:
Cl 1 1
2C4H10 + 13O2(g) ⟶ 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g) + heat

C 4 1
Again, as much as possible, NEVER waste your time
doing trial and error in balancing chemical reactions.
O 3 (3⁄2)(2) = 3 Instead, use fractions first, then just do the multiplication
later to convert fractions to whole numbers, like what
H 10 3 we’ve done.

However, you will rarely see fractions as numerical

Unfortunately, some reactions are hard to balance using
coefficients of chemical reactions simply because there’s
the traditional method of counting the atoms. This is
no such thing as 1.5 oxygen gas (just like there’s no such
especially true for redox reactions. Furthermore, there are
thing as ½ human). To eliminate fractions, what you can O 2 2 cases wherein you will consider the pH of the reaction
do is multiply all the coefficients with the least common
matrix because the balanced chemical reaction of a
multiple of all the denominators.
certain redox reaction may vary depending on the
medium’s pH.
In our example, we can multiply all the numerical Even without constructing the table, it is very evident that
coefficients by 2. the reaction is not balanced. For cases like this, you As a result, special methods are usually used to balance
should first balance the atoms that appear only once on
2 [KClO3 ⟶ KCl + 3⁄2O2] 2 the reactant and product side. For example, C appears redox reactions, namely the half-reaction method (also
only once in the reactant (in C4H10) and product (in
known as the ion-electron method) and the change in
2KClO3 ⟶ 2KCl + 3O2 CO2). The same is true for H which appears only in
C4H10 in the reactant and H2O in the product. Hence, we oxidation number method.
should balance these atoms first, giving us the reaction
As you can see, we were able to balance the chemical
below:
reaction without actually going through the laborious
process of trial and error!
C4H10 + O2(g) ⟶ 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) + heat

We can now balance the O atom, which appears twice on

the product side (in CO2 and H2O). So far, we have 2 O
 22
Sample Problem 3 Step 3: Balance oxygen first by adding H2O.
Over 5C2O42—(aq) + 2MnO4—(aq) + 16H+(aq) ⟶
Balance the redox reaction shown below under acidic and all 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
basic conditions. rxn:
OHR: C2O42—(aq) ⟶ RHR: MnO4—(aq) ⟶
MnO4—(aq) + C2O42—(aq) ⟶ Mn2+(aq) + CO2(g) 2CO2(g) Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

Solution At this point, you already obtained the balanced reaction

under acidic conditions. To obtain the balanced redox
What makes balancing redox reactions slightly Step 4: Balance hydrogen by adding H+. reaction under basic conditions, simply multiply both
challenging is aside from the number of atoms, you also
sides of the overall reaction by ―OH equal to the number
need to ensure that the charges and the number of
of moles of H+. That will give:
electrons lost and gained are balanced.
OHR: C2O42—(aq) RHR: MnO4—(aq) + 8H+(aq)⟶
⟶ 2CO2(g) Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) 16―OH [5C2O42—(aq) + 2MnO4—(aq) + 16H+(aq) ⟶
In using the half-reaction method, the following steps
2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)] 16―OH
must be followed:

5C2O42—(aq) + 2MnO4—(aq) + 16H2O(aq) ⟶ 2Mn2+(aq) +

Step 1: Assign oxidation numbers and separate the
Step 5: Balance the charge by adding e—. 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l) + 16―OH(aq)
oxidation half-reaction (OHR) from the reduction
half-reaction (RHR). Write the species that undergoes
oxidation as the OHR, while the species that undergoes Since there are 16 H2O on the reactant side and 8 H2O
reduction must be written as RHR (recall our mnemonics on the product side, the reaction can be further simplified
OHR: C2O42—(aq) RHR: MnO4—(aq) + 8H+(aq) + as follows:
earlier). ⟶ 2CO2(g) + 2e— 5e— ⟶ Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

5C2O42—(aq) + 2MnO4—(aq) + 8H2O(aq) ⟶ 2Mn2+(aq) +

10CO2(g) + 16―OH(aq)

Step 6: Combine OHR and RHR by multiplying both

And there you have the balanced redox reaction under
half-reactions by a certain factor that will allow the basic conditions. You can check if the reaction is a
balanced redox reaction by counting if the number of
cancellation of electrons on both reactions. atoms of all the elements on the reactant side is equal to
the number of atoms on the product side. Another
OHR: C2O42—(aq) ⟶ RHR: MnO4—(aq) ⟶
method that you can use is the change in oxidation
CO2(g) Mn2+(aq)
OHR: 5 [C2O42—(aq) ⟶ 2CO2(g) + 2e—] 5 number method.

Step 2: Balance all the atoms other than O and H.

RHR: 2 [MnO4—(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e— ⟶ Mn2+(aq)
+ 4H2O(l)] 2
OHR: C2O42—(aq) ⟶ RHR: MnO4—(aq) ⟶
2CO2(g) Mn2+(aq)
 23
method, you might find it difficult to use in some Properties of acids vs bases
Sample Problem 4 Bases have a slippery feel on fingers and taste bitter. They
reactions, like what was given in the previous sample
Balance the following redox reaction using the change in change litmus paper blue. Acids taste sour and create a
problem. So make sure to use appropriate methods to
oxidation number method. stinging feeling on the mucous membranes. They change
balance a given redox reaction.
litmus paper red. They can react with bases to produce salts
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) ⟶ Fe(s) + CO2(g) and water. They both conduct electricity depending on the

Solution
Acids and Bases dissociation of ions. Acids have a pH lesser than 7.0 and the
lower it is, the stronger the acid becomes. Bases have a pH
between 7 and 14. Higher the pH value, stronger will be the
Numerous definitions are being used by scientists when base. A pH level of 7 is a neutral substance which is water.
The first step in balancing redox reactions using this
describing acids and bases. The simplest (and probably
method is assigning oxidation numbers and identifying
the most inaccurate) among them is that acids are Litmus Test and Other Reactions
which species undergo oxidation and which undergo
generally sour, while bases are generally bitter. Litmus paper is made from dyes derived from lichens; it is
reduction. Then, we can connect these species by
water-soluble, meaning it can be fully dissolved in water.
drawing an arrow.
For instance, citrus fruits are sour because they have Acids turn blue litmus paper red, and bases turn red litmus
citric acid, which, as its name suggests, is an acid. paper blue. The following video shows how red and blue
Now that we have identified the reaction that undergoes Vinegar is also sour because it is actually a dilute solution litmus paper reacts to ammonia, hydrochloric acid, water, and
reduction and oxidation, the next step is to count the baking soda.
of acetic acid. Meanwhile, if you happened to accidentally
number of electrons lost in the oxidation reaction and the swallow toothpaste while brushing your teeth, you may Strong acids have a corrosive effect on metals. They react
number of electrons gained in the reduction reaction. have noticed that it tastes bitter. If you like baking, at with most of them to form hydrogen gas. Strong bases have a
Then, we multiply it by a certain factor so that the number some point you’ve probably tasted baked goodies with a caustic effect on organic matter.
of electrons lost will be equal to the number of electrons bitter aftertaste, which is probably due to excess baking
gained. soda added to the mix. This is because toothpaste and Differences in Applications for acids and bases
baking soda are both basic. Acids are often used to remove rust from metals, as an
The problem with this method of classifying acids and electrolyte in batteries, for mineral processing, to produce
bases is that it is inaccurate and can be life-threatening! fertilizers and gasoline and as additives in food and
beverages. Bases are used primarily in cleaning as
Imagine tasting unknown substances just to determine if
dishwashing and laundry detergents, oven cleaners and stain
it is sour or bitter. In addition, there is no guarantee that a
removers.
substance that tastes bitter will always be basic, while
substances that taste sour will always be acidic. For Types & Examples of Acids and Bases
example, brewed coffee tastes bitter, but when you Acids can be classified as Mineral acids, Sulfonic acids,
Then, place the multiplier as a coefficient of the species measure its pH, most probably you will find it acidic. Carboxylic acids, Vinylogous carboxylic acids and Nucleic
that undergoes oxidation and reduction reaction, but acids. Some common acids include Hydrochloric acid (HCl),
inspect if the number of atoms is the same on the Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric Acid (HNO3), Acetic acid, Citric
reactant and product side. There are cases wherein acid and Lactic acid amongst several others. Bases are of 2
affixing the multiplier as a numerical coefficient is not types – a base and an alkali (a soluble base). Some common
necessary, like the example below. Another problem with this definition is it does not offer bases include Potassium Hydroxide (KOH), Sodium
any definitive and significant chemical distinction between Hydroxide (NaOH) and Magnesium Hydroxide (Mg (OH)2).
acids and bases when compared to other groups of
substances. Hence, scientists have devised a more
As you can see, there is no need to put 2 in front of elaborate definition to differentiate acids and bases.
Fe2O3 since there are 2 Fe atoms on the reactant side There are numerous definitions so far, but in this chapter,
already. The last step is to check if the number of atoms we will focus our attention on the three most popular
on the reactant side is equal to the number of atoms on definitions in chemistry: Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and
the product side. Lewis’s definitions of acids and bases.
Also, please bear in mind that although the change in
oxidation method is relatively faster than the ion-electron
 24
Did Not tackle Chain Isomers
Isomerism Chain isomers are molecules with the
same molecular formula, but different
arrangements of the carbon ‘skeleton’.
Organic molecules are based on chains
of carbon atoms, and for many
molecules this chain can be arranged
differently: either as one, continuous
chain, or as a chain with multiple side
groups of carbons branching off. The
name of the molecule can be changed to
reflect this, but we’ll save the naming of
molecules for another post. Obviously,
there’s often more than one way of
branching off groups of carbons from
the main chain, which leads to the large
numbers of possible isomers as the
number of carbons in the molecule
increases.

Position Isomers
Position isomers are based on the
movement of a ‘functional group’ in the
Structural isomerism can quickly get quite
TRUCTURAL ISOMERISM molecule. A functional group in organic
out of hand in terms of the number of
Isomers can be split into two broad groups chemistry is the part of a molecule that
possible isomers; butane (four carbons) has
– structural (or constitutional) isomers, and gives it its reactivity. There are a range
two possible isomers, decane (ten carbons)
stereoisomers. We’ll consider structural of different functional groups, the more
has seventy-five, and a simple hydrocarbon
isomers first, which can be split again into common of which were summarised in
containing 40 carbon atoms has an
three main subgroups: chain isomers, a previous post here. Nothing else about
estimated 62,000,000,000 structural
position isomers, and functional group the molecule changes, simply where the
isomers.
isomers. functional group in it is, and the name
simply alters slightly to indicate
whereabouts in the molecule it is
located.
 25
Functional Isomers Geometric Isomers

Also referred to as functional group Geometric isomerism is actually a term

isomers, these are isomers where the that is ‘strongly discouraged’ by IUPAC
molecular formula remains the same, (the International Union of Pure &
but the type of functional group in the Applied Chemistry), who prefer
atom is changed. This is possible by ‘cis-trans’, or ‘E-Z’ in the specific case
rearranging the atoms within the of alkenes. However, ‘geometric The two different nomenclatures are a little
molecule so that they’re bonded isomerism’ is still consistently used in confusing – cis/trans is now less commonly
together in different ways. As an many A Level courses to refer to both, used, with E/Z instead being favoured. E
example, a standard straight-chain so for that reason I’ve used that name stands for ‘entgegen’ (‘opposite’ in
alkane (containing only carbon and here. german) whilst Z stands for ‘zusammen’
hydrogen atoms) can have a functional (‘together’ in german). The letter is simply
group isomer that is a cycloalkane, This type of isomerism most frequently added in brackets at the start of the
which is simply the carbons bonded involves carbon carbon double bonds molecule’s name in order to indicate which
together in such a way that they form a (shown by two lines joining each isomer it is.
ring. Different functional group isomers carbon instead of one). Rotation of
are possible for different functional these bonds is restricted, compared to Optical Isomers (diastereomerism)
groups. single bonds, which can rotate freely.
This means that, if there are two Optical isomers are so named due to their
STEREOISOMERISM different atoms, or groups of atoms, effect on plane-polarised light, about which
attached to each carbon of the carbon you can read more here, and come in pairs.
There are two main types of carbon double bond, they can be They usually (although not always) contain
stereoisomerism – geometric arranged in different ways to give a chiral centre – this is a carbon atom, with
isomerism, and optical isomerism. different molecules. These atoms or four different atoms (or groups of atoms)
These, as the difference in name groups can be given ‘priorities’, with attached to it. These atoms or groups can be
suggests, aren’t to do with any large atoms with higher atomic numbers arranged differently around the central
scale rearrangements of the structure of given higher priorities. If the highest carbon, in such a way that the molecule
molecules; instead, they involve priority groups for each carbon are on can’t be rotated to make the two
different arrangements of parts of the the same side of the molecule, that arrangements align. Since one arrangement
molecule in space. They’re a little more molecule is denoted as the ‘cis’ or ‘Z’ can’t line up to look exactly like the other,
complicated to think about than the isomer. If they’re on opposite sites, it’s we refer to them as ‘non-superimposable
structural isomers, so let’s have a look denoted as the ‘trans’ or ‘E’ isomer. mirror images’ – one of the isomers is the
at each of them in turn. mirror image of the other. Think of it like
 26
your hands – you can’t exactly superimpose As previously mentioned, isomers of the pharmaceuticals have to go through years
one hand on top of the other, because your same molecule have the potential to have of rigorous tests, to ensure that they are
thumbs will stick out in opposite directions. different physical or chemical properties. safe.
These differences can have some important
These can be allocated an identifying implications. What is Adaptation?
letter, in much the same way as with
A change in the structure and function
geometric isomerism. The groups Let’s look particularly at the case of optical
around the carbon are given priorities, isomerism. The two possible isomers can of an organism that results from a
then the lowest priority group is also be referred to as ‘enantiomers’ of each natural process by which an organism
oriented pointing away. Looking at the other. A prime, and well cited example of
is better fitted to survive and also
remaining groups, if they decrease in enantiomers with differing properties is that
priority going in an anti-clockwise of the compound ‘carvone’. In its (R) form, multiply in an environment is called
direction, it’s the S isomer (from the it is found in mint leaves, and is the adaptation.
Latin ‘sinister’, meaning ‘left’). If they principle contributor to the aroma.
decrease in priority going in a However, in its S form, it is found in 1. Structural Adaptations
clockwise direction, it’s the R isomer caraway seeds, and has a very different Structural adaptations are the changes
(from the Latin ‘rectus’, meaning smell.
to the structure of a living organism to
‘right’). Again, this letter is simply
added in front of the isomer’s name in There can also be less benign differences. adapt better to an environment. These
order to indicate which one it is. By far the most well known example here is structural modifications affect an animal
that of thalidomide. This drug was
at many different levels and such
prescribed in the 1950s and 60s to treat
morning sickness in pregnant women; changes are highly visible adaptations,
however, unknown then was that the (S) one can fully identify these changes
enantiomer could be transformed in the
with naked eyes.
body into compounds that caused
deformities in embryos. The two Example - How desert plants have
There are other ways in which optical enantiomers also interconvert in the body,
meaning that even if just the (R)
adapted to the desert conditions where
isomerism can be exhibited, but this is
the simplest. enantiomer could be isolated, it would still there is a very little amount of water
produce the same effects. This emphasised available and the temperature is high.
The Importance of Isomerism the importance of testing all of the optical
Plants called succulents have adapted
isomers of drugs for effects, and is part of
the reason why present-day to the desert conditions by storing water
 27
within themselves to compensate for metabolism, thus usually can’t be seen To score good marks students can
the lower water availability. from the outside. Laboratory studies register at Vedantu.com. The teachers
that measure the contents of various are very much efficient in solving the
2. Behavioural Adaptation body fluids are often needed to trace queries of their students. The mentors
these types of Adaptations. believe in strengthening the foundations
Behavioural adaptation is the change in
and concept of their students so that
the behavior of an organism to survive Example - An animal which is living in
they can score good marks in the
better in an environment. Behavioural cold regions will have features like thick
exam.
adaptations are not easy to identify and fur and short ears to reduce the heat
many a time requires careful field and loss. The physiological adaptation here
laboratory studies to bring them to is the shivering to generate more heat
Ecological
board light. when it gets cold. Relationships
Example - Migration- bird migrates to ● competition—when two or more
4. Coadaptation
the south in winter as there is more organisms rely on the same
food available, but some birds also do Co-adaptation when two or more environmental resource
● predation—behavior of one animal
migrate for the purpose of reproduction. species are symbiotically bound to each
feeding on another
other for their survival and adapt ● symbiosis—the close relationship of
3. Physiological Adaptations together, it is called co-adaptation. two dissimilar organisms
● mutualism—a symbiotic relationship
Physiological adaptations are a body Example - Humming birds have long where both organisms benefit
process that helps an organism ● commensalism—a symbiotic
beaks which helps the bird capture
relationship where one organism
survive/reproduce better in an nectar from specific plants during which benefits and one does not benefit
environment. These adaptations could it gets dusted with pollen grains. In this but is unharmed
be the different ways in which an way, the pollen grains are distributed, ● parasitism—a symbiotic relationship
where one organism benefits and
organism responds to the stimuli from and the hummingbirds get their food.
one is harmed
the environment. These changes are Conclusion
typically based on body chemistry and
 28
Molecular Geometry definite space between the nuclei of the neutral atom is the ionization energy of
participating atoms. The space model that atom. It is easier to remove
electrons from atoms with a small
obtained by joining the points which
ionization energy, so they will form
represent the different bonds in a cations more often in chemical
covalent molecule accounts for its reactions. [4] Metals tend to have a
smaller ionization energy, and alkali
shape.
metals (with their single valence
electron) have the lowest ionization
energy as a group. Thus, we most often
Ionization find alkali metals as positive ions in
chemical compounds - like the sodium
Ionization is the process by which ions cation in table salt, NaCl.
are formed by gain or loss of an Ionization energy is also related to the
electron from an atom or molecule.[2] If work function of a metal - the minimum
an atom or molecule gains an electron, energy needed to eject electrons from a
The study of the three-dimensional
it becomes negatively charged (an metal surface. The work function of a
arrangement of the atoms that anion), and if it loses an electron, it metal is important in electronics and in
constitute a molecule is called becomes positively charged (a cation). creating scientific instruments such as
Molecular geometry. Energy may be lost or gained in the electron guns. Read more about work
formation of an ion. functions and the photoelectric effect
on metals here.
Molecular geometry gives information
The trends in ionization energy and
about the general shape of the molecule Ionization of Atoms electron affinity, combined with effects
as well as bond lengths, bond angles,
from the electron structure of an atom,
When an atom gains an electron, energy
torsional angles and any other influence the type and strength of
is usually released. This energy is
geometrical parameters that determine chemical bonds that form between
called the electron affinity of that atomic
atoms.[5]
the position of each atom. species. Atoms that have a large
electron affinity are more likely to gain
In covalent molecules the bonds are of an electron and form negative ions.[3] Ionizing Radiation
directional nature because the shared Loss of an electron from an atom
Main Page
pairs of electrons remain localized in a requires energy input. The energy
needed to remove an electron from a
 29
Radiation can be classified as
"ionizing" if it has enough energy to
eject an electron from an atom. The
energies of alpha and beta decay
particles and gamma ray photons are
higher than the ionization energies of
most atoms and molecules, so when
these types of radiation collide with an
atom or molecule, electrons are
removed, creating a positive ion
(cation). For molecules, exposure to
ionizing radiation may also break
chemical bonds, fragmenting the
molecule. [6] Since these types of
radiation ionize the atoms and
molecules they interact with, they are
collectively known as ionizing radiation.
Ionizing radiation is used to create the
ions used in mass spectrometry,[6] a
powerful technique for identifying
chemical compounds. It is also the
basis of the operation of a Geiger
counter, which emits "clicks" for every
particle of ionizing radiation detected. [7]