ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

5th CED

CHAPTER FOUR
HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES IN HYDROPOWER STATIONS

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Hydraulic Structures I Mastewal T.
 4.1 Introduction
4.1 Preliminary
 Hydroelectric power (often called hydropower) is considered a renewable energy source.
A renewable energy source is one that is not depleted (used up) in the production of energy.
Through hydropower, the energy in falling water is converted into electricity without “using up”
the water.
Flowing water is directed at a turbine (remember turbines are just advanced waterwheels). The
flowing water causes the turbine to rotate, converting the water’s kinetic energy into
mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy produced by the turbine is converted into electric energy using a
turbine generator. Inside the generator, the shaft of the turbine spins a magnet inside coils of
copper wire. It is a fact of nature that moving a magnet near a conductor causes an electric
current.

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4.1.1 Energy and Hydropower

 Work

 Def: When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement of the object, it
is said that work was done upon the object. Three key ingredients to work -
force, displacement, and cause.

 In order for a force to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a
displacement and the force must cause the displacement.

W=Fxd

 Unit: the standard measurement of work is Joule (J)

 1 j = 1 N * m = Nm
 Energy
Def: Energy is the ability / capacity to do work.
Potential Energy (gravitational PE): Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in
an object as the result of its vertical position or height. The energy is stored as the result of
the gravitational attraction of the Earth for the object.
Kinetic Energy: It is the energy of motion. An object that has motion - whether it is vertical
or horizontal motion - has kinetic energy.
it has the unit of Joules
Power
Def: the rate at which energy is produced or consumed
it has the unit of Watt (KW, MW)
4.1.2 Sources of Energy

Conventional Unconventional

Hydropower Solar power

Thermal power Geothermal

power

Nuclear power Wind power

Tidal power
The above major sources of energy may also be classified as renewable and non-
renewable sources of energy.

Renewable Non-renewable
Hydropower Petroleum

Solar Coal

Biomass Natural Gas

Wind ETC

ETC

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 4.1.3 Power Resources
Resource Sources and efficiency Usage and availability
Fossil-Fuel Steam Coal, natural gas, oil or combination of fuels Base load service partly as intermediate load
30-40% of fuel energy converted to electricity units.
Several hours for start-up
Availability 65-85% of year
Nuclear Nuclear fission as fuel Exclusively base load service
33% of fuel energy converted to electricity Long start-up time
Availability 65-70% of year
Combustion Natural gas or distillate oil Peaking load service and standby reserve
turbines 25-30% of fuel energy converted to electricity Fast-start characteristics – few minutes
10-50% availability
Run-of-river River water used as a function of inflow Base load service with less possibility for
plants Energy conversion efficiency 80-90% intermediate service
Availability 95%
Storage hydro Water stored in reservoir used as a fuel Peak load and standby reserve
Energy conversion efficiency 80-90% Fast-start characteristics – few minutes
Availability 95%
Pumped storage Water stored in reservoir used as a fuel Peak load, standby reserve and grid regulation
Energy conversion efficiency 80-85% Fast-start and change production-pumping
Energy conversion by pumping 65-75% Availability 95%
Only effective electricity storage
Renewable Wind, geothermal steam, solar, bio-fuel, tidal In development and in experimental use
Less significant role in electricity production
4.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydropower
Advantages
 Hydropower has a ‘perpetual’ source of energy, while thermal power has a depletable
fossil fuel source;
 Hydropower does not consume water;
 Running cost of hydropower plant is very low compared to thermal and nuclear plants;
 Hydropower plants can be brought into operation in few minutes while thermal and
nuclear power plants lack this capability. Thus, hydropower plants are particularly useful in
taking up short period peak loads in a power grid system.
 Efficiency of hydropower system is very high (80 – 90%), while thermal power plants have
low efficiency, as low as 40%;
 Hydropower development also provides secondary benefits such as recreation, fishing,
flood control, etc, where storage is contemplated.
 Disadvantages
 It is capital intensive and therefore rate of return is low;

 The gestation period (about 10 to 15 years between initial idea and final project inauguration)
is long. This period is low for thermal power plants;

 Hydropower is dependent on natural flow of streams. Since this is very variable the
dependable or firm power is considerably low compared to total capacity.
 4.2 Types of Hydropower Plants

 Classification of Hydropower Plants

 Hydropower plants exhibit a great deal of variety. Almost every hydropower

project has some special features uncommon with other projects of the same
type.

 Thus, hydropower plants could be classified on the basis of:

A. Plant Capacity

B. Range of operating heads

C. Construction Features (layout)

D. Operating features of the plant

E. Hydraulic features of the plant

4.2.1 Classification based on Plant Capacity
 Classification of hydropower plants on the basis of plant capacity changes with time as
technology improves.
Present day classification:

Type Capacity
1 Pico < 5 KW
2 Micro 5 to 100 KW
3 Mini 100 KW to 1 MW
4 Small 1 MW to 10 MW
5 Medium 10 to 100 MW
6 Large > 100 MW
7 Super above 1,000 MW
4.2.2 Classification based on Range of Operating Head
 While any of the above classifications could be used to describe a power plant the most
popular & convenient classification is based on the head operating on the turbine.

Type Operating head

1 Low head plants < 15m
2 Medium head plants 15-50m
3 High head plants 50-250m
4 Very high head plants > 250m
4.2.3 Classification based on Constructional Features (layouts)
 In this category hydropower development could be classified based on the dominant
construction features of the plant as:

 Storage / Valley dam Plants (Medium to high head plants)

 Run-of-river Plants (low to medium head plants)

 Diversion Canal Plants (low to medium head plants)

 High head diversion plants (large head)

 Pumped Storage Plants

A. Valley dam plants
 A dam is the dominant feature, creating a storage reservoir.
 Power house is located at the toe of the dam
B. Run-off-river plants
 Normal flow of the river is not materially disturbed due to the construction of the plant.
 Neither have large reservoir nor have a diversion of the water away from the channel
The power house is located along the main course of the river
 Electric power is produced as and when flow is available
C. Diversion Canal plants
 The water from the river is diverted through a canal to the power house which is normally
situated sufficiently away from the diversion point.
 The water from the power house is returned back to the river
D. Pumped Storage Plants
 Main feature is the water for power production is recirculated. There are two reservoirs:
upper and lower reservoir. Normally used with areas with a shortage of water.
 During peak power demand period, water run down from the high reservoir through the
turbines to the lower reservoir.
 At off-peak period, water is pumped back from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir for
future use
4.2.4. Classification based on actual operation in meeting the demand
 Isolated Plant – Self Contained Systems(SCS)- operating independently

 mini and small hydropower scheme serving small community

 Interconnected into grids – Inter Connected Systems (ICS)

 In a grid system, a power station may be distinguished as a base load plant or peak load
plant.

 Hydropower plants are best suited as peak load plants, because hydropower plants can
start relatively quickly and can thus accept load quickly
4.2.5 Classification based on hydraulic features
The basic hydraulic principle governs the type of classification in this category.

i. Conventional Hydro-plants

 Use normally available hydraulic energy of the flowing water of the rivers.

 e.g. Run-off river plant, diversion plant, storage plant

ii. Pumped storage plants

 Use the concept of recycling the same water by using pumping selectively.

 Normally used with areas with a shortage of water.

 It generates energy for peak load, and at off-peak periods water is pumped back for
future use.

 A pumped storage plant is an economical addition to a system which increases the load
factor of other systems and also provides additional capacity to meet the peak load.
iii. Unconventional Hydro-plants
a) Tidal power plant

 Use the tidal energy of the sea water.

 Very few have been constructed due to structural complication.

b) Wave power plant

c) Depression power plant

 Hydropower generated by diverting an ample source of water (e.g. sea water) in the
natural depression which provides operating head for the plant

 Water level in the depression is controlled by natural evaporation process

 4.3. Principal Components of Hydroelectric Scheme
 To generate electric power from water, three basic elements are necessary
1. A means of creating head: Dams, Weirs, barrages etc
2. A means for conveying water from dam to turbine
 Intake: directs water from reservoir to penstock/power conduit
 Power canal,
 Forebay,
 Penstock: pressurized conduit conveying water to turbines
 Surge tank
 Scroll case,
 Draft tube:
 Tail race:
3. A power plant: power house to generate electric power
• Turbines: converts potential and kinetic energy of the water to mechanical energy
• Generators: converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
Forebay tank
 The forebay tank forms the connection between the channel and the penstock.
The main purpose is to allow the last particles to settle down before the water enters the penstock.
Depending on its size it can also serve as a reservoir to store water.
 A sluice will make it possible to close the entrance to the penstock.
 In front of the penstock a trashrack need to be installed to prevent large particles to enter the
penstock.
 A spillway completes the forebay tank. negative pressure generation, if there is no surge tank.

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Surge tank
Surge tank (or surge chamber) is a device introduced within a hydropower water conveyance
system having a rather long pressure conduit to absorb the excess pressure rise in case of a
sudden valve closure.
The surge tank is located between the almost horizontal or slightly inclined conduit and steeply
sloping penstock and is designed as a chamber excavated in the mountain.
 It also acts as a small storage from which water may be supplied in case of a sudden valve opening
of the turbine.
 In case of a sudden closure of turbine valve, there are chances of penstock collapse due to a
pressure rise, if there is no surge tank.

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Penstock
The penstock is the pipe which conveys water under pressure from the forebay tank to the turbine.
 The penstock often constitutes a major expense in the total micro hydro budget, as much as 40
% is not uncommon in high head installations, and it is therefore worthwhile optimising the
design.
 The trade-off is between head loss and capital cost. Head loss due to friction in the pipe
decrease dramatically with increasing pipe diameter.
 Conversely, pipe costs increase steeply with diameter. Therefore a compromise between cost
and performance is required.
 The design philosophy is first to identify available pipe options, then to select a target head loss,
5 % of the gross head being a good starting point. The details of the pipes with losses close to
this target are then tabulated and compared for cost effectiveness
. A smaller penstock may save on capital costs, but the extra head loss may account for lost
revenue from generated electricity each year.
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 4.4 Hydraulic Turbines and classification
 The purpose of a hydraulic turbine is to transform the water potential energy to mechanical rotational
energy / shaft energy.
 Hydraulic turbines may be classified on the basis of
 Flow regime and energy conversion in the turbine
1. Impulse turbines
2. Reaction turbines
 Head
1. Very high head,
2. High head
3. Medium head
4. Low head
 Discharge
1. High discharge
2. Medium discharge
3. Low discharge 26
4.4.1 Classification based on flow regime and energy conversion
 Based on the way the hydraulic energy is converted in to mechanical energy:
 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine
4.4.1.1 Impulse turbines
 The water’s potential energy is converted to kinetic energy before entering the runner.
 The kinetic energy is in the form of a high speed jet that strikes the buckets mounted on
the periphery of the runner.
 The pressure distribution along the turbine runner is almost atmospheric
 E.g.
 Pelton turbine
 Turgo turbines
 Cross-flow turbines 27
A. Pelton Turbine: Patented by Lester Pelton 1880

Bucket
Disc
Turbine
Runner
Shaft

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 Pelton Turbine (Impulse Turbine)

Shaft (rotating)
connected to
generator

Hydraulic energy of the water is converted

to kinetic energy

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Suitable for high head, low discharge plants

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Nozzles
B. Turgo Impulse turbine
 The turbine is designed so that the jet of water strikes the buckets at an angle (20o)to
the face of the runner and the water passes over the buckets in an axial direction before
being discharged at the opposite side.

 A Turgo runner looks like a Pelton runner split in half.

Impulse turbine invented by Eric

Crewdson of Gilbert Gilkes and Co.
Ltd. of England in 1920.

Suitable for medium head,

medium discharge plants 33
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C. The cross flow impulse turbines
 The name "cross-flow" comes from the fact that the water crosses through the runner vanes
twice in producing the rotation.

 It is also called the Banki or Michell turbine.

It was developed by Michell, an Austrian engineer,

First strike in 1903. Professor Banki, a Hungarian engineer,
developed the machine further.

Suitable for medium to low head,

Second medium to high discharge plants
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strike
 Advantages of impulse turbines

 Are more tolerant of sand and other particles in the water

 Allow better access to working parts

 Are easier to fabricate and maintain

 Are less subject to cavitation

 Disadvantages

 They are mostly unsuitable for low head to power ratios.

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4.4.1.2 Reaction Turbine types:
 Reaction turbine:

 The water potential energy is converted to both pressure energy and kinetic
energy.

 The turbine runner is entirely submerged and both the velocity and pressure head
are varying while water flows through the runner.

 Depending upon the arrangement of flow pattern:

1. Francis turbines / radial flow turbines

 Water enters the runner radial and leaves axially

2. Mixed flow turbine (Deriaze) / Diagonal flow

3. Propeller and Kaplan turbines / Axial flow turbines

 Water enters the runner axially and leaves axially

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The Francis Turbine: Developed by James B. Francisari

Runner

Scroll case

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Francis Turbine (Reaction turbine)
Water enters radial
Water leaves axially 40
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 Kaplan Turbine

 Victor Kaplan ,1919,

designed and built the
first Kaplan turbine

 Water enters axially

 Water leaves axially

 The pitch of the blades is

adjustable

 Propeller Turbine

 The pitch of the blades is

not adjustable

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Francis Vs. Kaplan turbine

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4.4.2 Classification based on head

Low Head 1.5 – 15 m Reaction Propeller

Medium Head 16 – 70 m Reaction Kaplan
High Head 71 – 500 m Reaction Francis
Very High Head > 500 m Impulse Pelton

4.4.3 Classification based on discharge

Low Discharg Impulse Pelton

Medium Discharge Reaction Francis
High Discharge Reaction Kaplan

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3.3 Turbine selection criteria
We have seen several different types of turbines
Impulse turbines
Pelton
Turgo
Crossflow
Reaction turbines
Francis
Kaplan
Propeller
The type, geometry and dimensions of the turbine will be fundamentally conditioned by the
following criteria:
1. Net head
2. Range of discharges through the turbine
3. Rotational speed
4. Cavitation problems
5. Cost
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A. Net head
• The gross head is the vertical distance, between the water surface level at the intake and at
the tailrace for reaction turbines and the nozzle level for impulse turbines. Once the gross
head is known, the net head can be computed by simply subtracting the losses along its
path.
» Gross head = Headwater – Tailwater (Reaction turbines)
» Gross head = Headwater – Nozzle level (Impulse Turbine)
» Nethead = Grosshead – losses in the conveyance system
• The first criterion to take into account in the turbine selection is the net head. The following
tables specifies for each turbine type its range of operating heads. The table shows some
overlapping, so that for a certain head several types of turbines can be used.

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Reaction Turbines

Gross Head

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Impulse Turbines

Gross Head
B. Discharge
 Recall that the temporal variation of discharge in a stream for power development is captured
by Flow Duration Curve. Q100 , Q50, Q30, etc.

 Although a turbine can operate on a range of flow, it will operate at the maximum efficiency
for a single flow: rated flow. The corresponding head is the rated head. Often times the Q50
taken as the rated flow (design flow).

 Given the rated flow and net head, the set of turbines that are applicable for a given flow
environment are selected from Operational Envelopes .

A point defining a given flow and head will usually plot within several of these envelopes.
e.g Qd 2 m3/s and Hd = 20 m
 Francis
 Kaplan
 Crossflow
All of these turbines are appropriate for the job. Decision will be made once installed
power and energy output are computed against cost.

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C. Specific Speed
In all modern hydro-power plants, turbines are directly coupled to the generator to
reduce transmission losses. This arrangement of coupling limits the range of speed to be
used for the turbines.
Turbine runner speed = Generator rotor speed
e.g., if generator rotor speed is1500 rpm then turbine 1500rpm

Scaled Models
Turbine manufacturers use scaled models to study performance characteristics of
turbines.
The scaled models are developed based on hydraulic similitude (similarity laws). A
model is said to be hydraulically similar to its prototype:
Geometric similarity
Kinematic similarity
Dynamic similarity 51
 Given a turbine with a speed n (rpm), operating at head H (m) producing power P (KW),
the speed at which a geometrically similar turbine would rotate if it were so proportioned
that it would develop Power =1 kW when operating under a head of H=1m is known as the
specific speed and is given by

n= turbine rotation speed in rpm

n P
ns  5 / 4 P = Power in KW
H H = Net Head

Specific speed of various turbines

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