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All Psychopathology Questions

The document appears to be a psychology exam containing multiple choice and short answer questions about various topics in psychopathology including: 1. Definitions of abnormality and applying them to examples of abnormal behavior. 2. Cognitive behavioral therapy strategies for depression. 3. Evaluative statements about cognitive behavioral therapy. 4. Treatment of phobias using systematic desensitization. 5. Neural and genetic explanations for obsessive compulsive disorder with reference to a case study. 6. Distinguishing between obsessions and compulsions and analyzing a twin study on OCD heritability. 7. Identifying cognitive and behavioral characteristics of OCD from a case description. 8

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

279 views89 pages

All Psychopathology Questions

Uploaded by

Grace Parkinson

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as RTF, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 89

Mander Portman Woodward School

All Psychopathology Name: ________________________

Questions Class: ________________________

Date: ________________________

Time: 425 minutes

Marks: 325 marks

Comments:

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Mander Portman Woodward School

Q1.
Read the four definitions of abnormality below (A-D).

A Failure to function adequately

B Deviation from social norms

C Statistical infrequency

D Deviation from ideal mental health

In the table below, are descriptions of abnormal behaviour. Choose the definition that best
matches each description and complete the table by writing A or B or C or D in the box at
the end of the statement. Use any letter only once.

Behaviour which is rare and not exhibited by many

people

Behaviour which does not fit the rules of expected

behaviour

Behaviour which shows an inability to cope with

everyday life
(Total 3 marks)

Q2.
Describe at least one strategy that might be used in cognitive behaviour therapy for
depression.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q3.
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Mander Portman Woodward School
Below are four evaluative statements about the cognitive behaviour therapy. Which
statement is correct?

Shade one box only.

Cognitive behaviour therapy...

A can only be used in group situations.

B allows the client some control over the

therapy.

C has many side effects.

D does not need a trained therapist.

(Total 1 mark)

Q4.
Saira has a fear of cats. Her fear stops her from going anywhere she thinks she might see
a cat.

Explain how Saira’s phobia could be treated using systematic desensitisation.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q5.
Two students were discussing their friend David who has recently been diagnosed with
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Melanie says, “It wasn’t a surprise to me that David has OCD because his mum is always
tidying things, putting them in order and checking switches”.

Emma says, “Really, I didn’t know that. I always thought that people with OCD have
something in their brains that makes them behave in that way”.

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Mander Portman Woodward School
Outline and evaluate neural and genetic explanations for obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Refer to the conversation above in your answer.
(Total 12 marks)

Q6.
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.

Researchers analysed the behaviour of over 4000 pairs of twins. The results
showed that the degree to which obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is
inherited is between 45% and 65%.

(a) Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) With reference to the study described above, what do the results seem to show
about possible influences on the development of OCD?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(4)
(Total 6 marks)

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Mander Portman Woodward School

Q7.
Read the item and then answer the question that follows.

Steven describes how he feels when he is in a public place.

‘I always have to look out for people who might be ill. If I come into contact
with people who look ill, I think I might catch it and die. If someone starts to
cough or sneeze then I have to get away and clean myself quickly.’

Outline one cognitive characteristic of OCD and one behavioural characteristic of OCD
that can be identified from the description provided by Steven.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Q8.
Complete the diagram below, by filling in A and B, to show Beck’s negative triad as it is
used to explain depression.

Beck’s negative triad

(Total 2 marks)

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Mander Portman Woodward School

Q9.
Briefly outline one strength of the cognitive explanation of depression.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Q10.
Outline and evaluate the behavioural approach to treating phobias.
(Total 12 marks)

Q11.
What is meant by ‘statistical infrequency’ as a definition of abnormality?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Q12.
Gavin describes his daily life.

‘I sometimes get gripped with the thought that my family is in danger. In

particular, I worry about them being trapped in a house fire. I now find that I
can only calm myself if I check that every plug socket is switched off so an

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Mander Portman Woodward School

electrical fire couldn’t start. I used to switch each socket on and off, but now I
have to press each switch six times. It takes me ages to leave the house’.

Outline two characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Refer to Gavin in your

answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q13.
Read the item and then answer the question that follows.

Tommy is six years old and has a phobia about birds. His mother is worried
because he now refuses to go outside. She says, ‘Tommy used to love playing
in the garden and going to the park to play football with his friends, but he is
spending more and more time watching TV and on the computer’.

(a) A psychologist has suggested treating Tommy’s fear of birds using systematic
desensitisation. Explain how this procedure could be used to help Tommy overcome
his phobia.

______________________________________________________________

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Mander Portman Woodward School
______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(4)
(b) Explain why systematic desensitisation might be more ethical than using flooding to
treat Tommy’s phobia.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

Q14.
Outline and evaluate at least one cognitive approach to explaining depression.
(Total 12 marks)

Q15.
Which two of the following are examples of Jahoda’s criteria for ‘ideal mental health’?
Shade two boxes only. For each answer completely fill in the circle alongside the
appropriate answer.

A Dependence on others

B Environmental mastery

C Lack of inhibition

D Maladaptiveness

E Resistance to stress

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Mander Portman Woodward School

(Total 2 marks)

Q16.
Read the item and then answer the question that follows.

The following article appeared in a magazine:

Hoarding disorder – A ‘new’ mental illness

Most of us are able to throw away the things we don’t need on a daily basis.
Approximately 1 in 1000 people, however, suffer from hoarding disorder, defined
as ‘a difficulty parting with items and possessions, which leads to severe anxiety
and extreme clutter that affects living or work spaces’.

Apart from ‘deviation from ideal mental health’, outline three definitions of abnormality.
Refer to the article above in your answer.
(Total 6 marks)

Q17.
Read the item and then answer the question that follows.

Kirsty is in her twenties and has had a phobia of balloons since one burst near
her face when she was a little girl. Loud noises such as ‘banging’ and ‘popping’
cause Kirsty extreme anxiety, and she avoids situations such as birthday parties
and weddings, where there might be balloons.

Suggest how the behavioural approach might be used to explain Kirsty’s phobia of
balloons.

___________________________________________________________________

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Mander Portman Woodward School
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q18.
Outline cognitive behaviour therapy as a treatment for depression.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q19.
(a) Outline one definition of abnormality.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

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(b) Outline and evaluate one other definition of abnormality.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(6)
(Total 8 marks)

Q20.
The following statements are all linked to different definitions of abnormality.

Select the two statements that describe the deviation from ideal mental health definition of
abnormality.

Tick two boxes.

Behaviour that is different from the way most people in society act

Not achieving self-actualisation

Not following the standards set by society

Causing distress or discomfort to others

Behaviour that interferes with everyday life

Not being able to resist stress

(Total 2 marks)

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Q21.
Outline and evaluate the cognitive approach to explaining psychopathology.
(Total 8 marks)

Q22.
Mia has a phobia of eating in public. She is about to go to university where she knows that
she will have to eat her meals in a large dining hall surrounded by other students.

Describe how a therapist might use systematic de-sensitisation to help Mia overcome her
phobia of eating in social situations.

___________________________________________________________________

Extra space ________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q23.
Outline the characteristics of depression.
(Total 4 marks)

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Mander Portman Woodward School

Q24.
Outline and evaluate one biological explanation for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD).
(Total 16 marks)

Q25.
Outline and evaluate one biological explanation for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD).
(Total 12 marks)

Q26.
It has been suggested that the meeting of certain criteria indicates whether or not a
person has ideal mental health. Helen has been told that she has ideal mental health: for
example, she adapts well to her environment.

Give two other criteria for ideal mental health that you would expect Helen’s behaviour to
show.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Q27.
Outline two limitations of the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
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Mander Portman Woodward School
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Extra space ________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q28.
‘Behaviourists believe that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is learned through
processes such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.’

Discuss the behavioural approach to explaining phobias.

(Total 16 marks)

Q29.
‘Behaviourists believe that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is learned through
processes such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.’

Discuss the behavioural approach to explaining phobias.

(Total 12 marks)

Q30.
Outline the characteristics of obsessive compulsive disorder.
(Total 4 marks)

Q31.

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Mander Portman Woodward School
(a) Outline a behavioural explanation of phobias.
(2)

(b) Briefly discuss one limitation of the behavioural explanation of phobias that you
have outlined in your answer to part (a).
(3)
(Total 5 marks)

Q32.
Discuss biological explanations of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). Refer to
evidence in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)

Q33.
(a) One definition of abnormality is deviation from social norms. Identify and explain
one other definition of abnormality.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(3)

(b) Evaluate the definition of abnormality that you identified in your answer to (a).

______________________________________________________________

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Mander Portman Woodward School
______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Extra space ___________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(4)
(Total 7 marks)

Q34.
What is meant by a phobia?
(Total 2 marks)

Q35.
Briefly describe one study in which treatment for unipolar depression or bipolar
depression was investigated.
(Total 3 marks)

Q36.
Abnormality can be defined as ‘the failure to function adequately’.

Outline and evaluate this definition of abnormality.

___________________________________________________________________

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Mander Portman Woodward School
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Extra space ________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q37.
A researcher wanted to investigate the effectiveness of therapy as a treatment for
obsessive-compulsive disorder in children. Before the therapy started, the mothers of 10
children with obsessive-compulsive disorder each rated the anxiety of their child. They
used a rating scale of 1–10, where 1 meant not at all anxious and 10 meant extremely
anxious. Each child then attended a programme of therapy. At the end of the programme,
each mother rated her child again, using the same anxiety scale. The scores for each
child before and after therapy were used to calculate a median anxiety rating.

The data are shown in the table below.

Median ratings of children’s anxiety before and after therapy

Before therapy After therapy

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Median rating of anxiety 8.5 4.0

(a) Identify two symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder.

(2)

(b) Name and outline the experimental design used in this study.
(2)

(c) Explain one advantage of this experimental design.

(2)
(Total 6 marks)

Q38.
Sammy has a phobia of birds. This started when he was three years old. A seagull
frightened him when it swooped down and stole his sandwich as he was eating it.

Sammy is now eight years old. He is scared when walking to school and is so afraid of
birds that he will not play outside.

(a) Use your knowledge of the behavioural explanation of phobias to outline how
Sammy’s phobia might have developed.
(2)

(b) Describe and evaluate systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias. Refer
to Sammy in your answer.
(16)
(Total 18 marks)

Q39.
Sammy has a phobia of birds. This started when he was three years old. A seagull
frightened him when it swooped down and stole his sandwich as he was eating it.

Sammy is now eight years old. He is scared when walking to school and is so afraid of
birds that he will not play outside.

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Mander Portman Woodward School
(a) Use your knowledge of the behavioural explanation of phobias to outline how
Sammy’s phobia might have developed.
(2)

(b) Describe and evaluate systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias. Refer
to Sammy in your answer.
(12)
(Total 14 marks)

Q40.
Outline at least two ways in which a cognitive psychologist might explain depression in a
person who has recently become unemployed.
(Total 4 marks)

Q41.
Two different drug therapies were tested on a group of patients. All the patients suffered
with the same anxiety disorder. Half the patients were given Therapy A and the other half
were given Therapy B. Improvement was assessed on a scale from 0-25, where 0 = no
improvement.

The table below shows the improvement made between the start and the end of the
treatment.

Average and range of improvement scores

Average Range

Therapy 6.5 2 – 19
A

Therapy 6 4–9
B

Explain what these findings suggest about the different therapies?

___________________________________________________________________

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Mander Portman Woodward School
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Extra space ________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q42.
Diane is a 30-year-old business woman and if she does not get her own way she
sometimes has a temper tantrum. Recently, she attended her grandmother’s funeral and
laughed during the prayers. When she talks to people she often stands very close to
them, making them feel uncomfortable.

(a) Identify one definition of abnormality that could describe Diane’s behaviour.
Explain your choice.

Definition _____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Explanation of your choice ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(3)

(b) Explain one limitation of this way of defining abnormal behaviour.

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Mander Portman Woodward School
______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 6 marks)

Q43.
Outline what is involved in systematic de-sensitisation.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q44.
Identify one definition of abnormality and explain one limitation associated with this
definition.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

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Mander Portman Woodward School

Q45.
Describe systematic de-sensitisation as a method of treating abnormality.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q46.
Explain one weakness of systematic de-sensitisation.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Q47.
Outline characteristics of either phobic disorders or obsessive compulsive disorder.
(Total 4 marks)

Q48.
(a) Outline two definitions of abnormality.

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Definition One _________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Definition Two _________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(6)

(b) Choose one of these definitions and describe a limitation associated with it.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

Q49.
“Abnormality is very difficult to define. It can be hard to decide where normal behaviour
ends and abnormal behaviour begins.”

Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality.

(Total 12 marks)

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Q50.
Hamish has a phobia of heights. This phobia has now become so bad that he has difficulty
in going to his office on the third floor, and he cannot even sit on the top deck of a bus any
more. He has decided to try systematic de–sensitisation to help him with his problem.

Explain how the therapist might use systematic de-sensitisation to help Hamish to
overcome his phobia.

___________________________________________________________________

Extra space ________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

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Q51.
Outline characteristics of depression.
(Total 4 marks)

Q52.
One way of defining abnormality is to see whether or not someone meets the criteria for
mental health. Ivan has high self-esteem and a strong sense of identity.

(a) Describe two other criteria that you would expect Ivan to display if he were
psychologically healthy.

Criteria 1 ______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Criteria 2 ______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(4)

(b) Outline one weakness of defining abnormality in terms of mental health.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

Q53.

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Before leaving the house each morning, Angus has to go round checking that all the lights
are switched off. He has to do this several times before he leaves and it makes him late
for work.

(a) Give one definition of abnormality.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) Use this definition to explain why Angus’ behaviour might be viewed as abnormal.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 3 marks)

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M1.
[AO1 = 3]

Behaviour which is rare and not exhibited by

C
many people

Behaviour which does not fit the rules of

B
expected behaviour

Behaviour which shows an inability to cope with

A
everyday life

M2.
[AO1 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Knowledge of at least one strategy in CBT used to treat

depression is clear, mostly accurate and detailed. The
2 3–4
answer is generally coherent with effective use of
terminology.

There is limited/partial knowledge of at least one strategy in

CBT used to treat depression. The answer may lack
1 1–2
coherence. Use of terminology may be either absent or
inappropriate.

0 No relevant content.

Possible strategies:

• Challenging irrational thoughts by requiring the client to gather evidence of

behaviours/incidents etc and then comparing the evidence with the thought
expressed to check whether they match or not.
• The client as scientist/reality testing – homework assignments where the client’s
hypothesis/negative thinking is tested and the evidence evaluated.
• Diary records to monitor events and identify situations in which negative thinking
occurs so these can be targeted.

Credit other appropriate strategies.

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Mander Portman Woodward School

M3.
[AO3 = 1]

Answer: B allows the client some control over the therapy.

M4.
[AO2 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Knowledge of how systematic desensitisation can be

applied to the scenario is clear and comprehensive (the first
2 3–4
three bullet points are covered). The answer is generally
coherent with effective use of terminology.

There is limited/partial knowledge of how systematic

desensitisation can be applied to the scenario. The answer
1 1–2 may lack coherence. Use of terminology may be either
absent or inappropriate. OR the answer is generic and not
applied to this cat phobia

0 No relevant content.

Possible points:

• Saira must be taught to relax.

• An anxiety hierarchy must be drawn up – relevant examples should be given, such
as – saying the word 'cat', holding a picture of a cat, walking the street where cats
are roaming.
• Saira works through the hierarchy gradually being relaxed at each exposure until the
most feared step is responded to with relaxation.
• The bond between the CS (cat) and CR (fear) must be broken by replacing the fear
response with an antagonistic response – relaxation.

Maximum of 2 marks if no specific application to cat phobia.

M5.
[AO1 = 6, AO2 = 2 and AO3 = 4]

Level Marks Description

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Mander Portman Woodward School

Knowledge of both neural and genetic explanations is

accurate and generally well detailed. Evaluation is effective.
The answer is clear and coherent. Specialist terminology is
4 10 – 12
used effectively. Minor detail and/or expansion sometimes
lacking. Maximum 10 marks if no reference to the
conversation in the stem.

Knowledge of neural and/or genetic explanations is evident

but there are occasional inaccuracies/omissions. There is
some effective evaluation. There may be reference to the
3 7–9
conversation. There are occasional inaccuracies. The
answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist
terminology is mostly used appropriately.

Limited knowledge of a biological explanation is present.

Focus is mainly on description. Any evaluation and/or
application to the stem is of limited effectiveness. The
2 4–6 answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places.
Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.
OR knowledge of neural and genetic explanations is
answered at Level 3 or 4.

Knowledge of a biological explanation is very limited.

Evaluation is limited, poorly focused or absent. There may
be some attempt at application to the stem. The answer as
1 1–3 a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly
organised. Specialist terminology is either absent or
inappropriately used. OR knowledge of a biological
explanation is answered at Level 2.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:

Neural explanations include

• Low levels of neurotransmitters eg serotonin.

• Serotonin may be removed too quickly before it has transmitted its signal.
• The basal ganglia system and others has been implicated - communication within
these areas is disturbed and might account for the repetitive behaviours seen in
OCD.

Genetic explanations include

• Specific gene markers eg gene 9, COMT gene, SERT gene.

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• Looking for gene markers that might have been inherited – such as gene 9.
• Family studies indicate a higher percentage of first degree relatives have this
disorder, 10% compared to a prevalence rate of 2%.

Credit description of evidence for neural/genetic explanations.

Possible application

• Melanie suggests that David might have inherited OCD because his mother displays
similar behaviours and may have passed on a genetic marker to him as a first
degree relative – a genetic cause.
• Emma suggests that David could have OCD due to a biological factor which would
be in his brain – a neural cause.

Possible evaluation points

• The findings from neural explanations are problematic as drugs used to affect
serotonin such as SSRIs may decrease the symptom but that does not mean that an
imbalance of serotonin was he cause in the first place.
• Improvement rates from use of drugs are only at 50% so there must be other
causes.
• There is a time delay in which drugs affect levels of serotonin within hours /
immediately but the effect on OCD may take up to weeks.
• Some research into brain structure has suggested the involvement of structural
abnormalities such as dysfunction in the neuronal loop/lower grey matter density in
people with OCD.
• Neurophysiological factors are not consistent with specific areas/circuits in the brain
being implicated.
• Sometimes evidence relates only to one aspect of the disorder – the compulsions
rather than the obsessions.
• Findings from family studies could be explained by shared environments as well as
shared genes by SLT.
• Credit use of evidence in evaluation.

Credit other relevant information.

M6.
(a) [AO1 = 2]

2 marks for a clear and coherent answer emphasising internal vs external

distinction: obsessions are internal components because they are thoughts,
and compulsions are external components because they are behaviours.

1 mark for a muddled or vague answer in which the distinction is suggested

but is unclear or incomplete.

OR
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1 mark for straightforward definition of each component (obsessions are
intrusive thoughts, compulsions are repetitive behaviours / acts).

(b) [AO2 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Research findings are clearly explained in terms of both genetic and

2 3–4 alternative explanation(s) and are mostly accurate. The answer is
generally coherent with effective use of terminology.

Research findings are explained with some link to genetic and / or

1 1–2 alternative explanation(s). The answer lacks accuracy and detail. Use of
terminology is either absent or inappropriate.

0 No relevant content.

Content:

• results indicate development of OCD is at least partly genetic

• the findings suggest that heritability is high (between 45% and 65%)
• this means that there must also be other explanations (inherited
influence is not 100%)
• so other factors (eg environment or other bio factors) may also partly
account for OCD.

M7.
[AO2 = 2]

1 mark for outline of a cognitive characteristic of OCD from the stem: hypervigilance
– ‘looking out for people who are ill’; catastrophic thinking – ‘I might catch it and die’.

Plus

1 mark for outline of a behavioural characteristic of OCD from the stem: repetitive
cleaning – ‘I have to clean myself’.

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M8.
[AO1 = 2]

A – self 1 mark
B – future 1 mark

Terms must be in the correct position for credit.

M9.
Marks for this question: AO3 = 2

2 marks for a clear and coherent outline of one strength of the cognitive explanation
of depression with some elaboration.

1 mark if the strength is briefly outlined / vague / muddled.

Possible content:

• based on sound experimental research

• have provided effective treatments for depression
• acknowledges role of thoughts in behaviour / disorders.

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Credit other relevant strengths.

M10.
[AO1 = 6 and AO3 = 6]

Level Marks Description

Knowledge of the behavioural approach to treating phobias is accurate

and generally well detailed. Evaluation is effective. The answer is clear,
4 10 – 12
coherent and focused on treating phobias. Specialist terminology is used
effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.

Knowledge of the behavioural approach to treating phobias is evident. The

answer is mostly well focused. There are occasional inaccuracies. There is
3 7–9
some effective evaluation. The answer is mostly clear and organised.
Specialist terminology mostly used effectively.

Knowledge of the behavioural approach to treating phobias is present.

Focus is mainly on description. Any evaluation is of limited effectiveness.
2 4–6
The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist
terminology used inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge of the behavioural approach to treating phobias is limited.

Evaluation is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole
1 1–3
lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist
terminology either absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Outline – possible content:

• aims to replace a faulty association between CS and CR that has resulted in a

phobic response
• gradually using systematic desensitisation – relaxation technique, anxiety
hierarchy, exposure stages, imagined and or real / in vivo
• suddenly using flooding – no relaxation, visualisation, intensive exposure in
vivo or in vitro
• virtual reality exposure therapy as an in vitro form of systematic
desensitisation
• detail of studies illustrating aspects of behavioural therapies, eg Lang and
Lazovik (1963).

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Credit other relevant aspects of the behavioural approach to treating phobias.

Evaluation – possible content:

• issues related to suitability and effectiveness for different types of phobia

• success outside the clinical situation and long-term effectiveness
• ethical problems, eg with flooding
• side effects such as nausea for VRET
• comparison with alternative treatments
• use of evidence to support or refute effectiveness.

Credit other relevant evaluation points.

M11.
AO1 = 2

2 marks for a clear and accurate explanation of the term ‘statistical infrequency’ as
a definition of abnormality.

1 mark for a weak, muddled or very limited explanation.

Content: A person’s trait, thinking or behaviour would be considered to be an

indication of abnormality if it was found to be numerically (statistically) rare /
uncommon / anomalous.

M12.
AO1 = 2 AO2 = 2

Level Marks Description

Outline of characteristics of OCD is clear.

Application to the stem is clear. The answer is
2 3–4
generally coherent with effective use of
terminology.

1 1–2 There is limited / partial explanation of the

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Mander Portman Woodward School

characteristics of OCD and application to the

stem. Explanation of OCD characteristics is clear
but the application is missing or inaccurate OR
application is clear but the explanation is missing
or inaccurate. The answer lacks accuracy and
detail. Use of terminology is either absent or
inappropriate.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:
• A cognitive characteristic would be an irrational belief or persistent recurring
thoughts – catastrophic thinking such as: ‘my family is in danger and might get
trapped in a house fire’.
• An emotional characteristic would be feeling anxiety or the reduction of anxiety
such as: ‘worry about them’ or ‘feeling calm after making sure a fire cannot
start’.
• A behavioural characteristic would be performing a repetitive action such as:
switching plug sockets six times.

Credit for two characteristics of OCD, if student offers three, credit the best two.

M13.
(a) AO2 = 4

1 mark each for applied description of the following aspects of systematic

desensitisation: relaxation, hierarchy development, gradual exposure.

Plus 1 further mark for some elaboration of any of the three aspects.

Content:
• Tommy would be taught relaxation techniques he could use when he
encounters birds as part of the therapy.
• Tommy would devise his hierarchy so it reflects his least to most feared
bird situation (for example, small picture of a sparrow, then a small bird
through a window…).
• Tommy would then be exposed to birds gradually, ensuring he is relaxed
at each stage.

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(b) AO3 = 2

2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation of the benefits of systematic

desensitisation over flooding as a treatment for a phobia for a child.

1 mark for a very brief, weak or muddled explanation.

Possible points:
• SD is gradual so the anxiety produced in the treatment is limited
whereas in flooding the most feared situation is presented immediately
which would be too traumatic for a small child.
• Tommy may not fully understand that consent to flooding would mean
immediate exposure to his most feared situation so his consent to
systematic desensitisation increases his protection from harm.

M14.
(a) AO1 = 6 AO3 = 6

Level Marks Description

Knowledge of a least one cognitive explanation for

depression is accurate and generally well detailed.
Discussion is mostly effective. The answer is clear,
4 10 – 12
coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used
effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion sometimes
lacking.

Knowledge of at least one cognitive explanation for

depression is evident. Discussion is apparent and mostly
3 7–9 effective. There are occasional inaccuracies. The answer is
mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly
used appropriately. Lacks focus in places.

Knowledge of at least one cognitive explanation for

depression is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any
2 4–6 discussion is of limited effectiveness. The answer lacks
clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist
terminology used inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge of at least one cognitive explanation for

depression is limited. Discussion is limited, poorly focused
1 1–3 or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many
inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology
either absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

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Possible content:
• Underlying assumption of the cognitive explanation – depression is the
result of disturbance in ‘thinking’.
• Beck’s negative triad – childhood negative schemas develop providing a
negative framework for viewing events pessimistically. In adulthood
these become biases such as overgeneralisation; magnification;
selective perception and absolutist thinking.
• The negative triad is where people think consistently negatively about
the self, the world and the future.
• Ellis’s ABC model – developed to explain response to negative events –
how people react differently to stress and adversity.
• The model provides the sequence of the process: A – the adversity or
event to which there is a reaction; B – the belief or explanation about
why the situation occurred; C – the consequence – the feelings and
behaviour the belief now causes. In essence the external event is
‘blamed’ for the unhappiness being experienced.
• Both models explain depression as a consequence of faulty and
negative thinking about events and suggest it can be managed by
challenging this faulty thinking.
• Evidence to support either model such as Beck 1976.

Possible evaluation:
• The use of examples to illustrate the negative triad or the ABC model.
• The use of evidence to support cognitive explanation(s).
• The development of successful therapies based on cognitive
explanations: CBT and / or REBT.
• Cognitive explanation(s) do not explain the links between anger and
depression well.
• Cognitive explanations do not distinguish cause and effect factors.
• Cognitive explanations do not deal with the manic phases in bipolar I
and II.
• Comparison with alternative explanations eg biological evidence
suggests genetic, neurochemical and neuroanatomical influences are a
biological predisposition.

Credit other relevant information.

M15.
[AO1 = 2]

B and E.

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M16.
[AO1 = 3 and AO2 = 3]

1 mark for each correct outline, plus 1 mark for linking each outline appropriately to
the stem.

Definitions must be outlined rather than simply stated / identified for credit.

AO1 Outline:

• statistical infrequency / deviation from statistical norms – abnormal behaviour

is that which is rare / uncommon / anomalous
• deviation from social norms – abnormal behaviour is that which goes against /
contravenes unwritten rules / expectations (in a given society / culture)
• failure to function adequately – abnormal behaviour is that which causes
personal distress / anguish OR inability to cope with everyday life /
maladaptiveness.

AO2 Application to stem:

• statistical infrequency – ‘approximately 1 in 1000 people…’

• deviation from social norms – ‘most of us are able to throw away the things we
don't need on a daily basis…’
• failure to function adequately – ‘difficulty parting with items and possessions…
leads to severe anxiety’ OR ‘affects living or work spaces’.

M17.
[AO2 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Knowledge of relevant aspects of the behavioural approach is clear and

mostly accurate. The material is used appropriately to explain Kirsty’s
2 3–4
phobia of balloons. The answer is generally coherent with effective use of
behaviourist terminology.

Knowledge of aspects of the behavioural approach is evident although

not always explicitly related to the acquisition of phobias. Links to Kirsty’s
1 1–2
phobia are not always effective. The answer lacks accuracy and detail.
Use of behaviourist terminology is either absent or inappropriate.

0 No relevant content.

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Credit features of classical and / or operant conditioning (the ‘two process model’)
applied to Kirsty’s phobia of balloons.

Possible content:

• Kirsty’s phobia has developed through classical conditioning – she has formed
an association between the neutral stimulus (balloon) and the response of fear
• the conditioned response is triggered every time she sees a balloon (or hears
similar noises)
• her phobia has generalised to situations where balloons might be present,
such as parties and weddings, and to similar noises, ‘banging’ and ‘popping’
• her phobia is maintained through operant conditioning – the relief she feels
when avoiding balloons becomes reinforcing.

Credit other relevant features of conditioning applied to Kirsty’s phobia.

M18.
[AO1 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Outline of cognitive behaviour therapy is clear and mostly accurate.

Aspects of the therapy are appropriately linked to the treatment of
2 3–4
depression. The answer is generally coherent with effective use of
specialist terminology.

Outline of cognitive behaviour therapy is evident although not always

explicitly or effectively linked to treatment of depression. The answer
1 1–2
lacks accuracy and detail. Use of specialist terminology is either absent
or inappropriate.

0 No relevant content.

AO1 Possible Content:

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• general rationale of therapy – to challenge negative thought / negative triad
• identification of negative thoughts – ‘thought catching’
• hypothesis testing; patient as ‘scientist’
• data gathering through ‘homework’, eg diary keeping
• reinforcement of positive thoughts; cognitive restructuring
• rational confrontation as in Ellis’s REBT.

Credit other relevant aspects of cognitive behaviour therapy.

M19.
(a) AO1 = 2

Possible definitions:
• Statistical infrequency/deviation from statistical norms – abnormal
behaviour is that which is rare/uncommon/anomalous.
• Deviation from social norms – abnormal behaviour is that which goes
against/contravenes unwritten rules/expectations in a given
society/culture.
• Failure to function adequately – abnormal behaviour is that which
causes person distress/anguish or an inability to cope with everyday
life/maladaptiveness.
• Deviation from ideal mental health – abnormality is that which fails to
meet prescribed criteria for psychological normality/wellbeing: e.g.
accurate perception of reality, resistance to stress, etc.

(b) AO1 = 2 and AO3 = 4

Level Marks Description

Knowledge of definition of abnormality is clear and

accurate. Evaluation is relevant and well explained. The
3 5–6
answer is clear and coherent. Specialist terminology is used
effectively.

Knowledge of definition of abnormality is present though

there may be some inaccuracy/lack of clarity. There is some
2 3–4 relevant evaluation but there may be some omissions/lack
of detail. There are some inaccuracies. There is some
appropriate use of specialist terminology.

1 1–2 Knowledge of definition(s) of abnormality is briefly stated

with no elaboration. There is a brief attempt to evaluate or
this may be absent. The answer is brief, or has many

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inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology

is either absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

AO1 – possible content:

• Statistical infrequency/deviation from statistical norms – abnormal
behaviour is that which is rare/uncommon/anomalous.
• Deviation from social norms – abnormal behaviour is that which goes
against/contravenes unwritten rules/expectations in a given
society/culture.
• Failure to function adequately – abnormal behaviour is that which
causes person distress/anguish or an inability to cope with everyday
life/maladaptiveness.
• Deviation from ideal mental health – abnormality is that which fails to
meet prescribed criteria for psychological normality/wellbeing: e.g.
accurate perception of reality, resistance to stress, etc.

Note that definition chosen must be different from that outlined in the
question.

AO3 – Possible evaluation points:

• Statistical infrequency/deviation from statistical norms – fails to account
for behaviour that is statistically rare but desirable such as having a very
high IQ; some disorders are not statistically rare; issue of who decides
where the cut-off point is.
• Deviation from social norms – eccentric behaviours are not necessarily
abnormal; social norms vary with time and with culture.
• Failure to function adequately – many mental disorders do not cause
personal distress; many behaviours, e.g. smoking are maladaptive but
not a sign of psychological abnormality.
• Deviation from ideal mental health – the criteria are too demanding –
most people would be judged abnormal based on this definition; many of
the criteria reflect Western cultural norms of psychological ‘normality’.

Accept other relevant evaluation points.

M20.

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AO1 = 2

The correct boxes are the 2nd one and the 6th one.

M21.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

AO1 = 4

AO2 = 4

AO1: The cognitive approach believes that abnormality stems from faulty cognitions
about others, our world and us. This faulty thinking may be through cognitive
deficiencies (lack of planning) or cognitive distortions (processing information
inaccurately). These cognitions cause distortions in the way we see things; Ellis
suggested it is through irrational thinking, while Beck proposed the cognitive triad.
An outline of the ABC model would be one way to outline the cognitive approach.

AO1 Knowledge of the cognitive approach to explaining psychopathology

4 marks Accurate and reasonably detailed

Accurate and reasonably detailed answer that demonstrates sound knowledge and
understanding of the cognitive approach to explaining psychopathology. There is

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appropriate selection of material to address the question.

3 marks Less detailed but generally accurate

Less detailed but generally accurate answer that demonstrates relevant knowledge and
understanding. There is some evidence of selection of material to address the question.

2 marks Basic
Basic answer that demonstrates some relevant knowledge and understanding but lacks
detail and may be muddled. There is little evidence of selection of material to address
the question.

1 mark Very brief / flawed or inappropriate

Very brief or flawed answer demonstrating very little knowledge. Selection and
presentation of information is largely or wholly inappropriate.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

AO2: There are research studies to support this approach, e.g. Rachman. It has
provided some convincing explanations for disorders such as depression and also
some effective therapies such as CBT. However, it is not clear whether faulty
cognitions are a cause of the psychopathology or a consequence of it. Contrasting
this approach with others is one way to provide commentary. Students could also
comment on the view that sometimes these negative cognitions are in fact a more
accurate view of the world: depressive realism.

AO2 Evaluation of the cognitive approach to explaining psychopathology

4 marks Effective evaluation

Effective use of material to address the question and provide informed commentary.
Effective evaluation of research. There is appropriate selection of material to address the
question.

3 marks Less detailed but generally accurate

Material is not always used effectively but produces a reasonable commentary.
Reasonable evaluation of research.
There is some evidence of selection of material to address the question.

2 marks Basic
The use of material provides only a basic commentary.
Basic evaluation of research.
There is little evidence of selection of material to address the question.

1 mark Very brief / flawed or inappropriate

The use of material provides only a rudimentary commentary.
Evaluation of research is just discernible or absent.

0 marks

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No creditworthy material.

M22.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

AO2 = 4

First the therapist would teach Mia how to relax, using a technique that would allow
deep muscle relaxation. Then together the therapist and Mia would construct an
anxiety hierarchy, starting with the least feared situation, such as looking at pictures
of people sitting at tables in a café just talking and drinking coffee, working up to the
most feared situation, such as Mia eating in a restaurant full of people. The therapist
would start by showing Mia pictures and helping her to remain relaxed, then perhaps
getting her to sit in a café, but without eating anything, and then continuing up the
hierarchy until her phobia is gone.

For full marks there must be explicit engagement with the stem. Up to 2 marks for a
reasonable description of systematic desensitisation without any engagement.

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AO2
Analysis of unfamiliar situation and application of knowledge of systematic
desensitisation

4 marks Effective analysis of unfamiliar situation

Effective description that demonstrates sound knowledge of systematic
desensitisation including both the anxiety hierarchy and relaxation techniques.
There is explicit engagement, which relates to the stem.

3 marks Reasonable analysis of unfamiliar situation

Reasonable explanation that demonstrates knowledge of the systematic
desensitisation with some reference to the stem.

2 marks Basic analysis of unfamiliar situation

Basic explanation of systematic desensitisation with some reference to stem or
effective description without any engagement.

1 mark Rudimentary analysis of unfamiliar situation

Rudimentary, muddled, explanation of systematic desensitisation demonstrating
very limited knowledge.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

M23.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

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Note that candidates can legitimately cover unipolar and/or bipolar depression for this
question.

AO1 = 4

AO1 credit is awarded for an outline of the characteristics of depression.

It is acceptable for candidates to cover major depressive disorder or bipolar
disorder.
Depression is characterised by a range of symptoms and candidates could refer to
emotional, cognitive (suicidal thoughts) physical (weight loss or gain) or behavioural
symptoms (decrease in sexual activity). A diagnosis of MDD can be made when five
symptoms are present for at least two weeks.

To achieve top band marks at least one of two ‘core’ symptoms should be present:

• depressed mood for most of the day

• diminished interest or pleasure in activities.

Epidemiology i.e. prevalence, gender differences, prognosis etc., are creditworthy.

AO1 Mark bands Knowledge and understanding

4 marks Sound
Knowledge and understanding are accurate and well detailed.
Organisation and structure of the answer are coherent.

3 marks Reasonable
Knowledge and understanding are generally accurate and reasonably detailed.
Organisation and structure of the answer are reasonably coherent.

2 marks Basic
Knowledge and understanding are basic / relatively superficial.
Organisation and structure of the answer are basic.

1 mark Rudimentary
Knowledge and understanding are rudimentary and may be very brief, muddled
and / or inaccurate.
Lacks organisation and structure.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

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M24.
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and
4 13 – 16 effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused.
Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail
and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.

Knowledge is evident. There are occasional

inaccuracies. Discussion / evaluation / application is
3 9 – 12 apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly
clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly
used effectively. Lacks focus in places.

Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

description. Any discussion / evaluation / application is
2 5–8 only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy
and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is
used inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The
1 1–4 answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies
and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either
absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most
mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a
bulleted list

AO1

The main biological explanations for OCD are as follows:

• genetics – there is some evidence of a tendency to inherit OCD, with a gene

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(Sapap3) recently identified
• neuroanatomy – dysfunctions of the orbital frontal cortex (OFC) over-activity in
basal ganglia and caudate-nucleus thalamus have been proposed

Also accept:

• biochemistry – serotonin deficiency has been implicated

• evolutionary – adaptive advantages of hoarding, grooming, etc.

AO3

Evaluation will depend on the explanation offered, but is likely to include supporting /
refuting evidence.

• genetics – relatives of sufferers are around 9 times more likely to be

diagnosed (Arbor 2006), with a CR of between 65% and 80% MZ twins
(Rasmussen 1986, Carey and Gottesman), sample sizes in twin studies,
difficulty separating genetic and environmental influences
• Difficulty establishing cause and effect
• Possibility of multiple factors
• neuroanatomy – some support for claims, eg Rauch et al 1994, PET scans
show over activity in basal ganglia, co-morbidity with Tourette’s which is also
linked to basal ganglia (Rapoport 1990).
• biochemistry – SSRI’s are only effective for about 50% of sufferers

M25.
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 6

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Discussion / evaluation / application is effective. The
4 10 – 12 answer is clear, coherent. Specialist terminology is used
effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of argument
sometimes lacking.

Knowledge is evident. There are occasional

inaccuracies. There is some effective discussion /
3 7–9 evaluation / application. The answer is mostly clear and
organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used
appropriately.

2 4–6 Knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description.

Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion /
evaluation / application is of limited effectiveness. The
answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in
places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on

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occasions.

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The
1 1–3 answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies
and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology is either
absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most
mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a
bulleted list.

AO1

The main biological explanations for OCD are as follows:

• genetics – there is some evidence of a tendency to inherit OCD, with a gene

(Sapap3) recently identified
• neuroanatomy – dysfunctions of the orbital frontal cortex (OFC) over-activity in
basal ganglia and caudate-nucleus thalamus have been proposed

Also accept:

• biochemistry – serotonin deficiency has been implicated

• evolutionary – adaptive advantages of hoarding, grooming, etc.

AO3

Evaluation will depend on the explanation offered, but is likely to include supporting /
refuting evidence.

• genetics – relatives of sufferers are around 9 times more likely to be

diagnosed (Arbor 2006), with a CR of between 65% and 80% MZ twins
(Rasmussen 1986, Carey and Gottesman), sample sizes in twin studies,
difficulty separating genetic and environmental influences
• neuroanatomy – some support for claims, eg Rauch et al 1994, PET scans
show over activity in basal ganglia, co-morbidity with Tourette’s which is also
linked to basal ganglia (Rapoport 1990).
• biochemistry – SSRI’s are only effective for about 50% of sufferers

M26.

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AO2 = 2

Jahoda suggested the following criteria necessary for ideal mental health:

• Resistance to stress

• Growth, development or self-actualisation

• High self-esteem and a strong sense of identity

• Autonomy

• Perception of reality.

Examiners should be aware that these terms are subjective / descriptive and that
students may name the concepts in slightly different ways.

M27.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

AO2 = 4

• Difficulty of meeting all criteria, very few people would be able to do so and this
suggests that very few people are psychologically healthy.

• The criteria are subjective and not operationalised, so being defined as abnormal is
not objective.

• These ideas are culture-bound, based on a Western idea of ideal mental health:
cultural relativism.

One mark for identification of each weakness and a further mark for elaboration.

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M28.
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Knowledge is evident. There are occasional

Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most
mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a
bulleted list

AO1

Remember not to credit information given in the quote

The emphasis of the behavioural approach is on the environment and how the
behaviour is acquired, through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and
social learning. For marks in the top two bands, the focus must be on explaining
psychological abnormality, rather than on behaviour in general.

AO3

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Discussion can include strengths; such as it has provided some convincing
explanations for some disorders such as phobias and has also led to some very
successful therapies (systematic desensitization). The weaknesses are that it
ignores the role of biology and there is plenty of evidence to support a genetic
transmission of some disorders. Studies (eg “Little Albert”) can be used as
commentary.

M29.
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 6

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Discussion / evaluation / application is effective. The
4 10 – 12 answer is clear, coherent.
Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail
and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.

Knowledge is evident. There are occasional

inaccuracies. There is some effective discussion /
3 7–9 evaluation / application. The answer is mostly clear and
organised.
Specialist terminology is mostly used appropriately.

Knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description.

Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion /
evaluation / application is of limited effectiveness. The
2 4–6
answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in
places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on
occasions.

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most
mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a
bulleted list.

AO1

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Remember not to credit information given in the quote

AO3

Discussion can include strengths; such as it has provided some convincing

explanations for some disorders such as phobias and has also led to some very
successful therapies (systematic desensitization). The weaknesses are that it
ignores the role of biology and there is plenty of evidence to support a genetic
transmission of some disorders. Studies (eg “Little Albert”) can be used as
commentary.

M30.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

AO1 = 4

AO1 credit is awarded for an outline of the characteristics of OCD. The main
diagnostic criteria include:

• the presence of obsessions (recurrent, persistent thoughts, impulses or images) and

/ or compulsions (repetitive behaviours that the person feels driven to perform) on
most days for a period of two weeks or more

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• obsessions & compulsions are repetitive and unpleasant and interfere with daily life.

For 4 marks, students should refer to both obsessions and compulsions. Examiners
should be mindful of the time constraints when awarding credit.

AO1 Mark bands

4 marks Sound
Knowledge and understanding are accurate and well detailed.
Organisation and structure of the answer are coherent.

3 marks Reasonable
Knowledge and understanding are generally accurate and reasonably detailed.
Organisation and structure of the answer are reasonably coherent.

2 marks Basic
Knowledge and understanding are basic / relatively superficial.
Organisation and structure of the answer are basic.

1 mark Rudimentary
Knowledge and understanding are rudimentary and may be very brief, muddled
and / or inaccurate.
Lacks organisation and structure.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

M31.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

(a) [AO1 = 2]

Award up to two marks for an outline of a behavioural explanation of phobias.

Likely content: the idea that phobias are learnt through classical conditioning;
fear is acquired when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a
frightening event; description of the two-process theory; reference to

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avoidance learning; reference to generalisation.
Credit descriptions based on social learning theory.
Both of these marks may be awarded for an accurately labelled ‘Pavlovian’
diagram of how a phobia might develop.
Maximum 1 mark if outline does not refer to fear / phobias.

(b) [AO1 = 1, AO2 = 2]

AO1

One mark for identifying an appropriate limitation.

Likely answers: not all phobias are triggered by a traumatic experience;
explanation cannot account for all phobias; fails to account for evidence that
phobias may have a biological basis; difficulty explaining why some phobias
are more common than others; the idea that the explanation can better
account for specific phobias.

AO2

Up to 2 marks for discussion of the limitation which might include analysis /

expansion; counter-argument; use of evidence; reference to alternative
explanations.
Possible answer: Not all phobias are triggered by a traumatic experience (1),
where the initial association (between the phobic object / situation and fear) is
formed (1), which suggests that alternative explanations are needed (1).

Accept limitations based on the methodology of individual studies eg Little

Albert, but for full marks, these should be made relevant to discussion of the
explanation.

M32.
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Evidence is clear. Discussion / evaluation / application is
thorough and effective. The answer is clear, coherent
4 13 – 16
and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively.
Minor detail and / or expansion of argument sometimes
lacking.

3 9 – 12 Knowledge is evident. There are occasional

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inaccuracies. Evidence is presented. Discussion /

evaluation / application is apparent and mostly effective.
The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist
terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in
places.

Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most
mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a
bulleted list.

AO1

Marks for description of biological explanations of OCD. Credit can be awarded for
any or all of the following explanations:
Genetic explanation - some people are predisposed to develop the disorder as a
result of inherited familial influence.
Biochemical explanation – low levels of serotonin associated with anxiety; high
levels of dopamine linked to compulsive behaviour / stereotypical movements.
Physiological explanation - basal ganglia in the brain responsible for psychomotor
functions, hypersensitivity of the basal ganglia may result in repetitive movements;
linked to abnormality / excessive activity in the orbital frontal cortex.
Limited credit for simply naming / listing explanations.
Likely studies: McKeown and Murray (1987), Bellodi et al. (2001), Pauls et al.
(1995), Rapoport and Wise (1988), Aylward et al. (1996).

AO3

Marks for discussion of biological explanations of OCD. Likely points include: the
effectiveness of biological / drug therapies and how this supports the (biochemical)
explanation eg anti-depressants that increase serotonin levels reduce OCD
symptoms in many patients; problem that not all sufferers respond to drug

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treatment; issue of causation; treatment fallacy; contradictory evidence in brain scan
studies; alternative explanations for findings from family / twin studies such as
shared environments; brain structural accounts tend to explain repetitive behaviour
but not obsessional thoughts. Credit discussion of broader issues such as
reductionism, determinism and reasoned comparison with alternative explanations
e.g. cognitive. Only credit evaluation of the methodology used in studies when made
relevant to discussion of the explanation.
Credit use of evidence.

M33.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

(a) AO1 = 3

Candidates may choose any definition: deviation from ideal mental health and failure
to function adequately are named on the specification. However, other definitions
such as statistical infrequency are also creditworthy.

1 mark for identifying the definition and a further 2 marks for elaboration.

(b) AO2 = 4

The evaluation must be relevant to the definition given in (a).

Failure to Function Adequately:

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• Context is very important when deciding whether someone is functioning
adequately; what may seem irrational in one context can be seen as rational in
another. Thislimits the definition.

• Cultural relativism is an issue, what is considered adequate in one culture is

notnecessarily adequate in another. This also makes it difficult for this to be a
universal definition.

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health:

• The characteristics are very strict and it is unlikely that many people would be
able to meet them all, thus being defined as abnormal.

• The definition was based on Jahoda’s views of psychological health and

therefore represents a very Western view.

Examiners should be aware of depth / breadth trade-off.

Credit any other relevant point of evaluation.

AO2 Evaluation of one definition of abnormality

4 marks Effective evaluation

Evaluation demonstrates sound analysis and effective use of a range material to
evaluate one definition of abnormality.

3 marks Reasonable evaluation

Evaluation demonstrates reasonable analysis and use of material to evaluate one
definition of abnormality.

2 marks Basic evaluation

Evaluation demonstrates basic analysis and superficial evaluation of one definition
of abnormality.

1 mark Rudimentary evaluation

Evaluation demonstrates rudimentary, muddled analysis of one definition of
abnormality.

0 Marks
No creditworthy material

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M34.
[AO1 = 2]

Up to 2 marks for a description of features of a phobia.

Likely points:
An extreme fear of an object / situation / activity (1)
An irrational fear (1)
Fear that is disproportionate (to the actual danger) (1)
A fear that leads to avoidance (1)
A fear that is disruptive to everyday life / maladaptive (1)
For two marks there must be some reference to fear.

M35.
[AO1 = 3]

Credit any details of relevant study including the aim, method, result or conclusion.
Note for full marks there must be some information about what was done and what
was found. Vague descriptions without detail eg which disorder / which medication /
length of treatment / measurement of depression / symptoms maximum 1 mark.
Likely studies include: Elkin (1985) comparison of therapies for depression using
four conditions; Robinson (1990) meta-analysis of different therapies for depression;
Hollon (2006) comparison of cognitive and drug treatment for depression.

M36.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

AO1 = 3

AO2 = 3

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Failure to function adequately (FFA) refers to abnormality that prevent the person from
carrying out the range of behaviours that society would expect from them, such as getting
out of bed each day, holding down a job etc. Rosenhan & Seligman suggested a range of
criteria that are typical of FFA. These include observer discomfort, unpredictability and
irrationality among others.

1 mark for a basic outline of FFA and a further two marks for elaboration.

Evaluation of FFA:

• Cultural relativism – what is considered adequate in one culture might not be so in

another.

• FFA might not be linked to abnormality but to other factors. Failure to keep a job
may be due to the economic situation not to psychopathology.

• FFA is context dependent; not eating can be seen as failing to function adequately
but prisoners on hunger strikes making a protest can be seen in a different light.

M37.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

(a) [AO1 = 2]

Up to 2 marks for description of both obsessions – recurrent / persistent

thoughts / ideas / images / impulses and compulsions – repetitive behaviours /
ritual acts / behaviour that reduces anxiety.
Accept physiological symptoms of anxiety.

(b) [AO3 = 2]

1 mark for naming repeated measures design.

1 further mark for an elaboration of repeated measures design.
Possible answers:
Repeated measures design means that the same participants are used in both
conditions of the study.

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If the answer is related to the study described: This means that the children
whose anxiety ratings are taken in the before therapy condition are the same
children as those who provide the anxiety ratings for the after therapy
condition.

Up to 2 marks for an explanation of one advantage of using repeated

measures design.
The advantage of repeated measures design (in this study) is that there will be
no participant variables (1) so any differences in performance (the median
anxiety ratings before and after therapy) are more likely to be due to the
manipulated variables / variables under test (therapy programme) than other
variables so the validity of the results is increased.
Answers based on the idea that fewer participants are required than in other
designs are relevant.

Note:
If the answer to (b) is incorrect full credit can be awarded for (c) if the
advantage given matches the experimental design identified in the answer to
(b).

M38.
(a) AO2

Outline of an appropriately applied behavioural explanation Sammy’s phobia.

This might include reference to: the learning by association of a UCS with a
CS producing a CR – a fear is acquired when a previously neutral stimulus
(bird) is associated with a frightening event (sudden theft of sandwich) and a
fear response results; a description of the two-process theory; reference to
avoidance learning; reference to generalisation to all birds.

(b) Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO2 = 4, AO3 = 6

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

3 9 – 12 Knowledge is evident. There are occasional

inaccuracies. Discussion / evaluation / application is

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apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly

clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly
used effectively. Lacks focus in places.

Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

description. Any discussion / evaluation / application
2 5–8 is only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity,
accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist
terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The
1 1–4 answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many
inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist
terminology either absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on
most mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content
appears as a bulleted list

AO1

Description of key elements of systematic desensitisation.

Likely points: hierarchy, graduated steps, training in relaxation techniques,

gradual exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli from the hierarchy. Credit
reference to virtual reality exposure therapy: in VRET the systematic
desensitisation takes place in a virtual world.

AO2 / AO3

Evaluation and application of systematic desensitisation. Discussion of the

strengths / weaknesses of the therapy: usually effective, phobia is removed at
completion of the programme; gradual exposure is considered to be less
traumatic than other therapies eg flooding; discussion of merits of in vivo (real-
life exposure) rather than in vitro (imagined exposure). Discussion of the
limitations: difficulty in generalising improvement from the therapeutic situation
to real life; expense of VRET equipment; therapy may not be suitable for other
types of phobia. Credit comparison with alternative therapies.

Credit use of evidence to support / refute arguments./p>

Application of SD to the Sammy – how it would be used in his case of bird

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phobias.

M39.
(a) AO2

Outline of an appropriately applied behavioural explanation Sammy’s phobia.

(b) Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO2 = 2, AO3 = 4

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Discussion / evaluation / application is effective. The
4 10 – 12 answer is clear, coherent. Specialist terminology is
used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of
argument sometimes lacking.

Knowledge is evident. There are occasional

inaccuracies. There is some effective discussion /
3 7–9 evaluation / application. The answer is mostly clear
and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used
appropriately.

Knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

description. Any discussion / evaluation / application
2 4–6 is of limited effectiveness. The answer lacks clarity,
accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist
terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The
1 1–3 answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many
inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist
terminology is either absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on
most mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content
appears as a bulleted list.

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AO1

Description of key elements of systematic desensitisation.

Likely points: hierarchy, graduated steps, training in relaxation techniques,

gradual exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli from the hierarchy. Credit
reference to virtual reality exposure therapy: in VRET the systematic
desensitisation takes place in a virtual world.

AO2 / AO3

Evaluation and application of systematic desensitisation. Discussion of the

Credit use of evidence to support / refute arguments.

Application of SD to the Sammy – how it would be used in his case of bird

phobias.

M40.
[AO2 = 4]

Up to 4 marks to be awarded for application of two different concepts or ideas from

the cognitive explanation for depression to the novel situation. Many different
aspects of cognitive theory can be applied here. Credit should be given for any valid
application. Candidates may focus on just two concepts or ideas in some detail or
on several separate points in less detail. Possible content will probably come from
Beck’s theory:

• cognitive triad - person will have negative thoughts about self, world, future eg
I’m useless, the world is horrid, I’ll never get a job
• the person may overgeneralise ‘no-one wants me’
• person may show selective perception of negatives eg focus on loss of job and
ignore the many good things in life
• person may magnify significance / catastrophise eg loss of job will take on
extraordinary significance and will be seen as major disaster
• person makes negative attributions – person will blame themselves for loss of
job and negate the influence of external factors eg world economy
• person shows absolutist thinking ‘if I can’t have that job then it’s a disaster, no
other job will do’.

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Up to 2 marks if the explanation is relevant to depression but relevance to
unemployment may not have been made explicit.

Maximum 2 marks if only one concept or idea is offered

M41.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

AO3 = 4

• The two averages are very similar, suggesting that both therapies are as good as
each other.

• The range of each group is very different. This suggests that for some people
Therapy A was very beneficial, but for others it had little benefit. For Therapy B,
there was a much smaller range, suggesting that it has a similar effect on
improvement for all the patients.

4 marks Effective interpretation of data

Effective interpretation that demonstrates sound knowledge of what the data shows,
with reference to both the average and the range.

3 marks Reasonable interpretation of data

Reasonable interpretation of what the data shows; or effective interpretation of either

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the average or the range.

2 marks Basic interpretation of data

Basic interpretation of what the data shows.

1 mark Rudimentary interpretation of data

Rudimentary, muddled interpretation of the data, demonstrating very limited
knowledge. Or reference to, for example, larger range/higher average/similar range.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

M42.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

(a) AO2 = 3

Several definitions could be applicable: deviation from social norms; failure to

function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health. Candidates need to
engage with the question in order to explain their choice. However, they can make a
case for any of the definitions. For example, deviation from social norms (1 mark): It
is not the norm for someone who is 30 to have a temper tantrum, even though it is
normal for a 3 year old,
so she is breaking an age-related social norm (2 marks for explanation).

1 mark for identification of a definition of abnormality and further two marks for the
explanation why it has been chosen.

(b) AO2 = 3

The limitation must refer to the definition offered in part (a). For example, a limitation
of the deviation from social norms definition is that social norms can vary from
culture to culture. This means that what is considered normal in one culture may be
considered abnormal in another. 1 mark for identification of a limitation and a further
2 marks for elaboration.

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M43.
AO1 = 3

SD involves teaching the client deep muscle relaxation, client and therapist constructing
an anxiety hierarchy, and then working through the hierarchy while remaining relaxed.

For each therapy, 1 mark for a basic answer and a further two marks for elaboration.

M44.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

AO1 = 1

AO2 = 2

The definitions on the specification are:

• Deviation from social norms

• Failure to function adequately

• Deviation ideal mental health.

However, other definitions are also credit-worthy (eg statistical infrequency).

AO1 = 1 mark for correct identification of a definition of abnormality.

The limitation must be appropriate to the definition given. For example, one limitation of
the deviation of social norms definition is that norms can vary over time. This means that
behaviour that would have been defined as abnormal in one era is no longer defined as

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abnormal in another. With failure to function adequately, there is a cultural limitation in that
the definition does not take account that ‘adequate’ behaviour varies from one culture to
another.

The main limitation with ideal mental health is that the criteria are so demanding that very
few people will be able to meet all the criteria.

AO2 = 1 mark for identifying the limitation and a further mark for elaboration.

M45.
AO1 = 3

SD involves the client and therapist designing a list or hierarchy of frightening / stressful
events or objects. The client is then taught deep muscle relaxation. Finally the therapist
helps the client to work their way up the hierarchy while maintaining this deep relaxation.
At each stage, if the client becomes upset they can return to an earlier stage and regain
their relaxed state.

1 mark for a basic statement and a further 2 marks for elaboration.

M46.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

AO2 = 2

One weakness of SD is that it relies on the client’s ability to be able to imagine the fearful
situation. Some people cannot create a vivid image and thus SD is not effective.
Another weakness is that while SD might be effective in the therapeutic situation, it may
not work in the real world.

1 mark for a basic statement and a further mark for elaboration.

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M47.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

AO1 = 4

The outline might include:

• physiological, behavioural, emotional and cognitive signs / symptoms

• incidence and prevalence

• course and prognosis.

Examiners should be mindful that this part of the question is only worth 5 marks and so
candidates are not expected to cover all these points to access the top marks. However,
top band answers should refer to some diagnostic criteria – in particular there must be
some reference to the underlying anxiety that characterises these anxiety disorders. It is
acceptable to refer to different types of phobia but these distinctions on their own are not
credit-worthy – they must be accompanied by a description of the characteristics of each
type.

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AO1 Mark bands

4 marks
Outline is accurate and coherent.

3 – 2 marks
Outline is limited, generally accurate and reasonably coherent

1 mark
Outline is weak and muddled or very limited

0 marks
No creditworthy material

M48.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

(a) AO1 = 3+3

The definitions given on the specification are: deviation from social norms, failure to
function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health and these are the most
likely ones to be used. However, other definitions (such as statistical infrequency)
are also acceptable. Note: models of abnormality are not acceptable.

1 mark for identification of the definition and a further two marks for elaboration. For
example, deviation from ideal mental health (1 mark) is a list of criteria that state
what is healthy (2nd mark) eg self actualisation (further mark).

(b) AO1 = 2

There are several limitations candidates could consider, but whichever they select it
must apply to their chosen definition. For example:

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• Deviation from social norms – limitations = changes with time; who decides on
the norm, role of context, culturally specific.

• Failure to function adequately – limitations = who decides on what is

adequate; distinction between maladaptive and abnormal.

• Deviation from ideal mental health – limitations = difficult to achieve many of

the criteria; culturally specific.

1 mark for identification of limitation and a further mark for elaboration.

M49.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

AO1 = 6

AO2 = 6

There are three definitions of abnormality named on the specification: deviation from
social norms, failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health.
However, other definitions are also credit-worthy. Candidates could offer several
definitions in less detail or two definitions but in more detail, breadth / depth trade off.

However, approaches or models are not credit-worthy.

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The commentary could consider the strengths and / or limitations of each definition, eg the
problems associated with cultural relativism or it could include a generic discussion of the
problems of defining abnormality. One limitation of the deviation from social norms
definition is that social norms change with time; this is illustrated by the changing views on
homosexuality. With the deviation from ideal mental health, there is the problem of cross-
cultural variations. A further problem is that the ideals are so demanding that almost
everyone would be considered abnormal to some degree. The ‘failure to function
adequately’ definition has the advantage of a more objective measuring scale (eg the
GAF). However, it can be criticised as not differentiating sufficiently between abnormal
behaviour and unconventional or eccentric behaviour.

AO1 AO2
Knowledge and understanding Application of knowledge and
understanding

6 marks Accurate and reasonably 6 marks Effective evaluation

detailed Effective use of material to address the
Accurate and reasonably detailed question and provide informed commentary.
description that demonstrates sound Effective evaluation of research.
knowledge and understanding of at Broad range of issues and/or evidence in
least two definitions of abnormality. reasonable depth, or a narrower range in
There is appropriate selection of greater depth.
material to address the question. Clear expression of ideas, good range of
specialist terms, few errors of grammar,
punctuation and spelling.

5 – 4 marks Less detailed but 5 – 4 marks Reasonable evaluation

generally accurate Material is not always used effectively but
Less detailed but generally accurate produces a reasonable commentary.
description that demonstrates Reasonable evaluation of research.
relevant knowledge and A range of issues and/or evidence in limited
understanding. depth, or a narrower range in greater depth.
There is some evidence of selection Reasonable expression of ideas, a range of
of material to address the question. specialist terms, some errors of grammar,
Partial performance: if only one punctuation and spelling.
definition is given, accurate and Partial performance: max 4 marks.
reasonably detailed, max 4 marks.

3 – 2 marks Basic 3 – 2 marks Basic evaluation

Basic description that demonstrates The use of material provides only a basic
some relevant knowledge and commentary.
understanding but lacks detail and Basic evaluation of research.
may be muddled. Superficial consideration of a restricted range
There is little evidence of selection of of issues and/or evidence.
material to address the question. Expression of ideas lacks clarity, some
specialist terms used, errors of grammar,
punctuation and spelling detract from clarity.

1 mark Very brief/flawed or 1 mark Rudimentary evaluation

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inappropriate The use of material provides only a

Very brief or flawed description rudimentary commentary.
demonstrating very little knowledge. Evaluation of research is just discernible or
Selection and presentation of absent.
information is largely or wholly Expression of ideas poor, few specialist terms
inappropriate. used, errors of grammar, punctuation and
spelling often obscure the meaning.

0 marks 0 marks
No creditworthy material. No creditworthy material.

M50.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

AO2 = 6

Main techniques are: firstly, teach deep muscle or progressive relaxation. Then the
therapist and client construct an anxiety hierarchy, starting with situations that cause a
small amount of fear – in Hamish’s case this might be standing on a small stepladder –
then listing situations that cause more fear, with the most frightening situation being at the
top of the hierarchy, such as standing on top of a mountain. Finally, they work through this
list, with the client remaining relaxed at each stage. The two main features are relaxation
and working through the anxiety hierarchy.

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6 marks Effective explanation

Effective explanation of the main stages of systematic de-sensitisation
demonstrating sound knowledge of the therapy as applied to fear of heights.

5 – 4 marks Reasonable explanation

Reasonable explanation of the main stages of systematic de-sensitisation applied to
fear of heights.

3 – 2 marks Basic explanation

Basic explanation of systematic de-sensitisation with some attempt to apply to fear
of heights.

1 mark Very brief/flawed of inappropriate

Rudimentary, muddled explanation of systematic de-sensitisation demonstrating
very limited knowledge

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

M51.
AO1 = 4

• physiological, behavioural, emotional and cognitive signs / symptoms

• incidence and prevalence

• course and prognosis

• criteria for diagnosis.

Examiners should be mindful that this part of the question is only worth 4 marks and so
candidates are not expected to cover all these points to access the top marks. However,
they do have to refer to diagnostic criteria, specifically some reference to the core
symptom of low mood / sadness. It is acceptable to refer to types of depression such as

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endogenous or reactive but these distinctions on their own are not credit-worthy – they
must be accompanied by a description of the characteristics of each type.

AO1 Mark bands

4 marks
Outline is reasonably thorough, accurate and coherent.

3 – 2 marks
Outline is limited, generally accurate and reasonably coherent.

1 mark
Outline is weak and muddled or very limited.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

M52.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

(a) AO2 = 4

Possible criteria might include:

• Self-actualisation of one’s potential

• Resistance to stress

• Personal autonomy

• Accurate perception of reality

• Adapting to the environment.

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Other appropriate criteria can also be credited.
For each criterion: 1 mark for identification and a further mark for elaboration.

(b) AO2 = 2

One weakness is the difficulty of meeting all criteria, very few people would be able
to do so, and this suggests then that few people are psychologically healthy.
Another weakness is that these ideas are culture-bound, based on a Western ideal
of mental health.
1 mark for weakness of the limitation and a further mark for elaboration.

M53.
(a) AO1 = 1

There are three definitions on the specification; deviation from social norms, failure
to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health. However, any
alternative definition such as statistical infrequency can also be credited.

(b) AO2 = 2

The definition of abnormality given in part (a) must be the one used to explain the
behaviour. For example:

• (Deviation from social norms): this checking behaviour is not what most people
do and therefore deviates from social norms. Many people check their lights
once but not several times.

• (Failure to function adequately): this checking behaviour is making them late

for work; consequently they are not functioning adequately (they might lose
their job, or just not be able to do it very well).

• (Deviation from ideal mental health): these people are not psychologically
healthy, the constant checking might cause them stress, and they show that
they cannot deal with anxiety. Resistance to stress is one of Jahoda’s criteria
for ideal mental health.

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E1.
This question was generally answered well.

E2.
Unfortunately, students often wasted time and effort outlining theory in response to this
question. When answers mentioned therapy, the focus was not always on describing one
or more strategies used in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), but instead on offering
superficial points such as homework tasks, activities, disputing and so on, but without any
expansion of these to show practical usage.

E3.
There were many correct answers to this question although a significant number of
students struggled with the instructions about how to indicate their choice of response in
the appropriate mark box and even more with how to amend their choices correctly. Also,
some students provided two answers rather than one when the instruction clearly stated
'Shade one box only'.

E4.
There were some very good answers to this question in which students showed clear
understanding of how systematic desensitisation could be used in treatment for this
specific fear of cats. Some students did not emphasise the element of relaxation and just
referred to gradual exposure as a calming process. These responses seemed to be more
related to flooding.

E5.
There were some exceptionally good answers to this question as well as some examples
of extended writing that achieved very low marks. Quite a few students related Emma's
response to 'thinking' rather than biology – presumably linking thoughts to the information
given, ie, 'something in their brains'. The question clearly asked for neural and genetic
explanations, so such material was not relevant. A number of responses failed to mention
the stem, which was unfortunate as the application marks were then lost although others
related Melanie’s response to both genetic causes and also to the possibility of the
behaviour described as being acquired through observation. The most common error was
for muddle in the description of catechol-o-methyl transferase (COMT) and serotonin
transporter (SERT) genes and when serotonin or dopamine might be increased or
decreased. Attempts at evaluation were sometimes limited as they related to perceived
general issues with biological explanations rather than those specific to neural and genetic
explanations.

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Mander Portman Woodward School

E20.
This question required students to select two statements that described the deviation from
ideal mental health definition of abnormality and most found this a straightforward
question. Unfortunately, there were some students who failed to read the question and
ticked more than two boxes, resulting in no credit at all.

E21.
At the top end of the marks, were some extremely well-informed students who made
excellent use of both Beck’s and Ellis’s models. Such answers produced clearly written
accounts of these cognitive approaches with explicit links to psychopathology. The AO2
was usually not quite so good and it was a shame that so few used research studies to
evaluate the approach. Some students did gain credit for using cognitive based therapies
to evaluate the approach. Much AO2 was generic and could have been applied to any
approach and there was evidence of a confused understanding of reductionism
(something that continues into A2). This concept does not refer to one approach ignoring
other approaches; it refers to the principle of taking a complex concept and reducing it
down to its simplest parts. The two major pitfalls that could have been avoided if the
students had read the question were: firstly ignoring the term cognitive and writing about
any approach; and secondly providing examples to illustrate the approach that were not
drawn from psychopathology.

E22.
Most students had good knowledge of what is involved in systematic de-sensitisation and
were able to identify the main elements: being taught relaxation, construction of hierarchy,
working through the hierarchy while remaining relaxed. The main problem was the lack of
engagement with the scenario. Simply mentioning Mia’s name was not evidence of
engaging with the scenario. Students needed to provide some specific examples of the
different stages on a hierarchy intended to overcome a phobia of eating in public in order
to gain full marks.

E23.
This option was attempted by around 25% of students.

This question required students to outline the characteristic of depression. Some students

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Mander Portman Woodward School
presented a wealth of material, often far in excess of the 4 marks available. Most students
focused on unipolar depression but a small number chose to cover bi-polar disorder in
addition providing an impressive amount of detail on both.

E24.
This option was attempted by around 5% of students.

This question required an outline and evaluation of one biological explanation for OCD.
The most popular responses focused on the Orbital Frontal Cortex (OFC) (worry circuit),
or the role played by biochemistry in OCD. Successful students provided impressive detail
which was often in excess of the 4 AO1 marks available. Some students were able to
make use of recent research that has identified specific genes as well as basal ganglia
activity demonstrating that some teachers have an impressive knowledge of this engaging
topic.

E25.
This option was attempted by around 5% of students.

E26.
Examiners took a fairly lenient view in terms of how these criteria were expressed.
However, since “adapts well to her environment” had already been given, answers that
referred to environmental mastery were not credited. Some students confused this
definition with failure to function adequately and offered observer discomfort as a criterion.

The limitations given must apply to deviation form ideal mental health and not merely be a

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Mander Portman Woodward School
generic comment on, for example, cultural relativism. In this instance, a better answer
would focus on how Jahoda’s criteria were very Western and some cultures do not value
autonomy.

E27.
Examiners took a fairly lenient view in terms of how these criteria were expressed.
However, since “adapts well to her environment” had already been given, answers that
referred to environmental mastery were not credited. Some students confused this
definition with failure to function adequately and offered observer discomfort as a criterion.

The limitations given must apply to deviation form ideal mental health and not merely be a
generic comment on, for example, cultural relativism. In this instance, a better answer
would focus on how Jahoda’s criteria were very Western and some cultures do not value
autonomy.

E28.
The quote was given to guide students, but they gain no marks by repeating it in their
essay. Writing out the quote simply wastes time. It was hoped that by giving some
guidance, students would not write about another approach.

The problem for too many students was that while they could write at length about
classical conditioning (using Pavlov), operant conditioning (using Skinner) and social
learning (using Bandura), they simply failed to make any link with abnormality at all.
Such answers remained in the basic mark band. Ironically, those who used Watson
and Rayner’s study with Little Albert often failed to note that he developed a phobia.
Many students were unable to use their knowledge of conditioning, to demonstrate
how this could explain abnormality. Better answers explained how phobias or
anorexia could be explained using learning processes.

The commentary could have considered the successful therapies that this approach
has developed (although detailed descriptions of SD was not an effective use of
material). Weaknesses could consider the fact that this approach ignores the role of
biology. However, criticising the studies without considering the implication for the
approach is not creditworthy. Many examiners noted that this was a very
disappointing question to mark. Students had learned a considerable amount about
the behavioural approach, often in extremely accurate detail, but made no attempt to
use their knowledge to answer a question on abnormality. It was almost as if they
had failed to read the question carefully, in spite of the fact that this was the section
on Psychopathology (abnormality).

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Mander Portman Woodward School

E29.
The quote was given to guide students, but they gain no marks by repeating it in their
essay. Writing out the quote simply wastes time. It was hoped that by giving some
guidance, students would not write about another approach.

E30.
In this question, students were required to outline the characteristics of OCD. Most
students tackled this question well, making appropriate reference to both obsessions and
compulsions and providing details of frequency.

E31.
(a) There was some confusion over the features of classical conditioning and the
description was not always clearly linked to a ‘phobia’, for example, through an
illustration. Better answers often elaborated both elements of the two-process model
of phobias, although this was not essential for two marks.

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Mander Portman Woodward School

(b) Better answers were those that structured their response around the notion that not
all phobics can recall an ‘association event’ that produced the phobia in the first
place. Well elaborated answers based on this theme often used the Di Nardo study
to good effect. These were few and far between, however. As ever, students do
seem to find the three-mark format challenging, when applied to the explanation of a
single limitation (or indeed ‘strength’, as in previous series).

E32.
Most answers discussed two or three explanations. In some, key details, such as the
‘levels of serotonin’ linked to OCD, were inaccurate. Some answers began to write about
Selective Seratonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI) as a treatment for OCD and the support
for the ‘serotonin’ explanation, but got ‘side-tracked’ into describing different treatments
rather than focusing back on the biological explanation. Discussions of the basal ganglia
were often well done, but there was occasional confusion between the ‘hyperactivity’
associated with this brain region, and the cognitive notion of ‘hypervigilance’.

E33.
The main difficulty for many students appeared to be identifying one definition and then
explaining the same one. Students often identified failure to function adequately, but then
went on to explain deviation from ideal mental health, or vice versa. Some answers were
so poorly expressed that it was impossible to decide which definition it applied to; for
example “deviation from behaviour” or “failure to behave”.

The answers to (b) were sometimes very generic and could apply to any definition, to gain
credit they needed to show how the evaluation applied to their chosen definition. However,
some students made very good use of relevant examples (rather than superficial ones
that did not relate to psychopathology) to illustrate their evaluation.

E34.
This was generally very well answered; although some students described symptoms of a
phobia, most were able to access both marks.

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Mander Portman Woodward School

E35.
Answers to this question were often very poor indeed, being either largely generic
descriptions of a type of treatment or extremely vague descriptions of a plausible study,
for example, comparing an unspecified drug with placebo for an unspecified time. A further
large proportion of students left this question blank altogether.

E36.
There were some excellent outlines of this definition, with good use of Rosenhan and
Seligman’s features as well as the GAF. Unfortunately some students failed to note that
this question also required evaluation and so failed to access half the marks. The most
common mistake here was to confuse this definition with deviation from ideal mental
health.

E37.
(a) Two symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder were accurately described by
many – typically, and predictably, the ‘obsessions’ and the ‘compulsions’; though
physiological symptoms of anxiety were also deemed creditworthy. Some students
gave symptoms that did not adequately distinguish OCD from other disorders, such
as ‘irrational thinking’.

(b) Many students could identify the correct experimental design used in the study but
fewer could provide an appropriate outline. A considerable number, however,
thought the design was ‘independent groups’ or even ‘matched pairs’. Finally, ‘quasi-
experiment’ was an often seen answer.

(c) The advantage of ‘repeated measures’ was often stated rather than explained, for
instance, ‘no participant variables’ was frequently offered without elaboration. Better,
fuller answers tended to be those based on the time and cost-saving benefits of
using the same participants twice in comparison to alternative designs. It was
possible to gain two marks if the answer in part (c) could be matched to that in part
(b), therefore, many students scored full marks in this question for an advantage of
Page 84
Mander Portman Woodward School
independent groups having named it above.

E38.
(a) Attempts to explain Sammy’s phobia varied and this question tended to discriminate
well.
Most attempted to explain the scenario using classical conditioning but many gave
muddled accounts using appropriate terminology (CS, UCR, etc.) but in the wrong
places. A mark was often awarded for a vague reference to association linked to the
events described in the stem. Some students demonstrated a sophisticated
understanding of behaviourist principles, referring to both classical conditioning and
avoidance learning in their answers and would have scored several more marks had
they been available.

(b) Essays in this section were not quite as strong as they have been in recent series.
Many students did not seem to have the depth of knowledge of systematic
desensitisation required to gain all the AO1 marks that were available. Instead,
‘sketchy’ descriptions were often advanced and key concepts, such as ‘anxiety
hierarchy’, were mentioned but not elaborated.
Most students could assemble two or three relevant evaluation points, but other
attempts at analysis such as those centred around ‘cost’, ‘time’, ‘effort’, etc were
rarely reasoned or based on comparison. For instance, systematic desensitisation
was often claimed to be ‘unethical’, ‘expensive’ and ‘time-consuming’ without any
acknowledgement of treatments that would be more ethical, cheaper or faster.

Not all essays fell into this category however, and there were students who clearly
knew this area very well, producing detailed, reasoned analyses of the treatment in
the context of possible alternatives.

E39.
(a) Attempts to explain Sammy’s phobia varied and this question tended to discriminate
well.
Most attempted to explain the scenario using classical conditioning but many gave
muddled accounts using appropriate terminology (CS, UCR, etc.) but in the wrong
places. A mark was often awarded for a vague reference to association linked to the
events described in the stem. Some students demonstrated a sophisticated
understanding of behaviourist principles, referring to both classical conditioning and
avoidance learning in their answers and would have scored several more marks had

Page 85
Mander Portman Woodward School
they been available.

E40.
There were some very detailed answers to this question, with many full-mark responses.
In some of the less well-organised answers to this question it was difficult to see exactly
which two ways were being outlined; students offered multiple cognitive concepts with
applications that could not be unambiguously linked to any of the concepts or sometimes
no application at all. Students offering Seligman did not always remember to focus on the
cognitive aspect.

E41.
It was encouraging to see that this cohort of candidates was able to go beyond simply
describing the findings. They were able to make suggestions about what they showed. For
example, that both therapies showed some improvement, as there were no scores of
zero; that in fact neither showed much improvement as the average was only 6.

However, it was also clear from the responses that a minority of candidates had no real
understanding of what range tells us about data.

Page 86
Mander Portman Woodward School

E42.
(a) This question required candidates to demonstrate their ability to apply knowledge.
Most candidates chose deviation from social norms and successfully used the
stimulus material to justify their choice. Candidates who chose either failure to
function adequately or deviation from ideal mental health, found it a little more
difficult to apply it to the scenario, but made some creditworthy attempts.

(b) The most common limitation offered was that the definition suffers from cultural
relativism, but for the full marks, candidates needed to explain why this is a
limitation, rather than explaining what it is.

E43.
Candidates demonstrated better knowledge, and were able to include reference to the
anxiety hierarchy, deep muscle relaxation and the gradual working up through the
hierarchy.

E44.
A very well answered question and one that was obviously popular with the candidates.
Many wrote extensively on their chosen definition. This however, wasted time and
candidates need to understand that identification of a definition does not mean explain in
great detail; especially when so few marks are available. The limitation was usually in
terms of era dependency, context or cultural relativism.

E45.
The advice to candidates is, just answer the question, there is no need to waste time in
writing out the question. Far too many answers started with “systematic desensitisation is
one method of treating abnormality” and often went on to explain that it was best suited to
treating phobias. This is not was the question required and such answers often ran out of
space before they started to describe what is involved. However, those candidates who
read the question carefully often provided accurate and detailed answers.

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Mander Portman Woodward School
E46.
There seems to be some misconceptions about this therapy, especially with respect to
ethical concerns. Some candidates argued that it is unethical making people face their
worst fear, however the whole point of counter-conditioning is that the client is completely
relaxed at the time. This type of behavioural therapy is considered one of the most ethical
therapies.

E47.
Candidates were well prepared for this question and there were some excellent, accurate
answers. Most candidates were able to include the obvious characteristic of anxiety and
how it is an essential part of these disorders.

E48.
Both parts of this question were generally answered well. However, some of the examples
candidates used to illustrate their answers often lacked any connection to
psychopathology. Similarly the use of ‘naked tribes in Africa’ as an example shows very
limited understanding.

E49.
Students seemed very well prepared for this question and there were some extremely
detailed and well-written essays. The main problem for many candidates was that they
provided only a brief statement identifying the definition, which resulted in low AO1 marks.
The other pitfall was for those candidates who confused definitions with models and
gained no credit. A recommendation for candidates is that they try and illustrate their
definitions with examples from psychopathology. Many of the examples used were
sometimes little better than commonsense examples; using more psychologically relevant
examples would add depth to an answer.

E50.
While the majority of candidates were able to describe systematic desensitisation, they
often omitted the relaxation aspect of the therapy and they were poor at applying the
therapy to Hamish and his particular phobia. Relatively few candidates gave sufficient
detail of the hierarchy, as it would apply to Hamish.

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Mander Portman Woodward School
This again suggests that the area candidates find most difficult is the application of
knowledge.

E51.
Candidates seemed well prepared for this question and there were some excellent,
accurate answers. Some candidates missed out the most obvious characteristic of “sad
mood” or failed to give any indication of the severity of symptoms.

E52.
Candidates frequently confused the different definitions of abnormality, so offered failure
to function adequately as one criteria and deviation from social norms as the other.
However, those candidates who did understand that the definition for psychological health
has several criteria, such as autonomy and self-actualisation, were able to gain full marks.
Clearly some centres had prepared candidates well and they knew about Jahoda’s criteria
in great detail.

E53.
Most candidates could give one definition of abnormality, however, they were less able to
apply it to the scenario. Weaker candidates seemed confused as to the distinction
between the definitions when it came to applying them.

Page 89

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