Hydrodynamics

JEE MAINS & NEET

Viscosity and Newton's law of Viscous Force

In case of steady flow of a fluid when a layer of fluid slips or

tends to slip on adjacent layers in contact, the two layer exert
F
A
tangential force on each other which tries to destroy the v
dx
relative motion between them. The property of a fluid due to
which it opposes the relative motion between its different
layers is called viscosity (or fluid friction or internal friction) and the force between the
layers opposing the relative motion is called viscous force.

Consider the two layers CD and MN of the liquid at distances x and x + dx from the
fixed surface AB, having the velocities v and v + dv

respectively. Then dv denotes the rate of change of velocity v + dv

dx M
x + dx
N

C D
with distance and is known as velocity gradient. x
v

A B
According to Newton's hypothesis, the tangential force F Rest

acting on a plane parallel layer is proportional to the area of the plane A and the velocity

gradient dv in a direction normal to the layer, i.e.,

dx

dv dv
FA and F  FA
dx dx

dv
or F  A
dx

Where  is a constant called the coefficient of viscosity. Negative sign is employed

because viscous force acts in a direction opposite to the flow of liquid.
dv
If A  1,  1 then  = F.
dx

Hence the coefficient of viscosity is defined as the viscous force acting per unit area
between two layers moving with unit velocity gradient.

(1) Units : dyne-s-cm–2 or Poise (C.G.S. system); Newton-s-m–2 or Poiseuille or

decapoise (S.I. system)

1 Poiseuille = 1 decapoise = 10 Poise

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 Hydrodynamics
(2) Dimension : [ML–1 T–1]

(3) Viscosity of liquid is much greater (about 100 times more) than that of gases i.e.
 L  G

Example : Viscosity of water = 0.01 Poise while of air = 200  Poise

(4) With increase in pressure, the viscosity of liquids (except water) increases while that
of gases is practically independent of pressure. The viscosity of water decreases with
increase in pressure.

(5) Difference between viscosity and solid friction : Viscosity differs from the solid
friction in the respect that the viscous force acting between two layers of the liquid
depends upon the area of the layers, the relative velocity of two layers and distance
between two layers, but the friction between two solid surfaces is independent of the
area of surfaces in contact and the relative velocity between them.

(6) From kinetic theory point of view viscosity represents transport of momentum, while
diffusion and conduction represents transport of mass and energy respectively.

(7) The viscosity of thick liquids like honey, glycerin, coaltar etc. is more than that of thin
liquids like water.

(8) The cause of viscosity in liquids is cohesive forces among molecules where as in gases it
is due to diffusion.

(9) The viscosity of gases increases with increase of temperature, because on increasing
temperature the rate of diffusion increases.

(10) The viscosity of liquid decreases with increase of temperature, because the cohesive
force between the liquid molecules decreases with increase of temperature

Relation between coefficient of viscosity and temperature; Andrade formula  =

A e C / T
 1 / 3

Where T= Absolute temperature of liquid,  = density of liquid, A and C are constants.

Sample problems based on Viscosity

Problem A square plate of 0.1 m side moves parallel to a second plate with a velocity
of 0.1 m/s, both plates being immersed in water. If the viscous force is 0.002
N and the coefficient of viscosity is 0.01 poise, distance between the plates
in m is

(a) 0.1 (b) 0.05 (c) 0.005 (d) 0.0005

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 Hydrodynamics
Solution: (d) A  (0.1)2  0.01m2 ,   0.01 Poise  0.001 decapoise (M.K.S. unit), dv = 0.1 m/s
dv Adv 0.001 0.01 0.1
and F = 0.002 N F  A  dx    0.0005m .
dx F 0.002

Problem The diagram shows a cup of tea seen from above. The tea has been stirred
and is now rotating without turbulence. A graph showing the speed v with
which the liquid is crossing points at a distance X from O along a radius XO
would look like

O X

V V V V
(a) (b) (c) (d)

X X X X

Solution : (d) When we move from the centre to the circumference the velocity of liquid
goes on decreasing and finally becomes zero

Stoke's Law and Terminal Velocity

When a body moves through a fluid, the fluid in contact with the body is dragged with it.
This establishes relative motion in fluid layers near the body, due to which viscous force
starts operating. The fluid exerts viscous force on the body to oppose its motion. The
magnitude of the viscous force depends on the shape and size of the body, its speed and
the viscosity of the fluid. Stokes established that if a sphere of radius r moves with
velocity v through a fluid of viscosity , the viscous force opposing the motion of the
sphere is F = 6rv
This law is called Stokes law.
If a spherical body of radius r is dropped in a viscous fluid, it is first accelerated and then
it's acceleration becomes zero and it attains a constant velocity called terminal velocity.
Force on the body
4
(i) Weight of the body (W) = mg = (volume × density) × g  r 3 g T
3 F
r

(ii) Upward thrust (T) = weight of the fluid displaced

W
4
= (volume × density) of the fluid × g = r 3g
3

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 Hydrodynamics
(iii) Viscous force (F) = 6rv

When the body attains terminal velocity the net force acting on the body is zero. W–T–
F =0 or F= W – T
4 4 4
 6rv   r 3  g   r 3 g  r 3(   ) g
3 3 3

r 2 (   ) g
 Terminal velocity v  2
9 

(i) Terminal velocity depend on the radius of the sphere so if radius is made n - fold,
terminal velocity will become n2 times.
(ii) Greater the density of solid greater will be the terminal velocity
(iii) Greater the density and viscosity of the fluid lesser will be the terminal velocity.
(iv) If  >  then terminal velocity will be positive and hence the spherical body will
attain constant velocity in downward direction.
(v) If  <  then terminal velocity will be negative and hence the spherical body will
attain constant velocity in upward direction. Example : Air bubble in a liquid and clouds
in sky.
(vi) Terminal velocity graph :

VT

Time or distance (R)

Sample problems based on Stoke’s law and Terminal velocity

Problem Spherical balls of radius 'r' are falling in a viscous fluid of viscosity '' with a
velocity 'v'. The retarding viscous force acting on the spherical ball is
(a) Inversely proportional to 'r' but directly proportional to velocity 'v'
(b) Directly proportional to both radius 'r' and velocity 'v'
(c) Inversely proportional to both radius 'r' and velocity 'v'
(d) Directly proportional to 'r' but inversely proportional to 'v'
Solution : (b) F  6 rv

Problem A small sphere of mass m is dropped from a great height. After it has fallen
100 m, it has attained its terminal velocity and continues to fall at that
speed. The work done by air friction against the sphere during the first 100
m of fall is

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 Hydrodynamics
(a) Greater than the work done by air friction in the second 100 m
(b) Less than the work done by air friction in the second 100 m
(c) Equal to 100 mg
(d) Greater than 100 mg
Solution : (b) In the first 100 m body starts from rest and its velocity goes on increasing
and after 100 m it acquire maximum velocity (terminal velocity). Further, air
friction i.e. viscous force which is proportional to velocity is low in the
beginning and maximum at v  vT .

Hence work done against air friction in the first 100 m is less than the work
done in next 100 m.
Problem Two drops of the same radius are falling through air with a steady velocity of
5 cm per sec. If the two drops coalesce, the terminal velocity would be
(a) 10 cm per sec (b) 2.5 cm per sec (c) 5  (4)1 / 3 cm per sec (d) 5  2 cm per sec

Solution : (c) If two drops of same radius r coalesce then radius of new drop is given by
4 3 4 3 4 3
R R  r  r  R3  2r 3  R  21/ 3 r
3 3 3

If drop of radius r is falling in viscous medium then it acquire a critical

2 2
v2  R   21 / 3 r 
velocity v and vr 2
     
  v2  2 2 / 3  v1  2 2 / 3  (5)  5  (4)1 / 3 m / s
v1  r   r 

Problem A ball of radius r and density  falls freely under gravity through a distance h
before entering water. Velocity of ball does not change even on entering
water. If viscosity of water is , the value of h is given by
2 21   
(a) r  g
9   

h
2 2    1
(b) r  g
81   

2
2 4    1
(c) r   g
81   

2
2 4    1
(d) r   g
9   

Solution : (c) Velocity of ball when it strikes the water surface v  2gh ..........(i)
2 2   1
Terminal velocity of ball inside the water v r g ..........(ii)
9 

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 Hydrodynamics
2
2 r 2g 2 4    1
Equating (i) and (ii) we get 2gh  (  1)  h r   g
9  81   

Poiseuille’s Formula
Poiseuille studied the stream-line flow of liquid in capillary tubes. He found that if
a pressure difference (P) is maintained across the two ends of a capillary tube of
length 'l ' and radius r, then the volume of liquid coming
out of the tube per second is l
r

(i) Directly proportional to the pressure difference (P).

(ii) Directly proportional to the fourth power of radius (r) of
the capillary tube
(iii) Inversely proportional to the coefficient of viscosity () of the liquid.
(iv) Inversely proportional to the length (l) of the capillary tube.
P r4 KP r 4
i.e. V or V 
l l

P r 4 
 V [Where K is the constant of
8l 8

proportionality]
This is known as Poiseulle's equation.

where R  84l
P
This equation also can be written as, V 
R r

R is called as liquid resistance.

(1) Series combination of tubes
(i) When two tubes of length l1 , l2 and radii r1 r2 are connected in series across a
pressure difference P, l1 l2

Then P = P1+P2 ……(i)

Where P1 and P2 are the pressure difference across the first and second tube
respectively
(ii) The volume of liquid flowing through both the tubes i.e. rate of flow of liquid is
same.
Therefore V  V1  V2

P1r14 P2r24
i.e., V  …..(ii)
8l1 8l2

Substituting the value of P1 and P2 from equation (ii) to equation (i) we get

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 Hydrodynamics
 8l 8l 
P  P1  P2  V  41  42 
 r1 r2 

P P P
 V   Where R1 and R2 are the liquid resistance in
 8l1 8l2  R1  R2 Reff
 4  4
 r1 r2 

tubes
(iii) Effective liquid resistance in series combination Reff  R1  R2

(2) Parallel combination of tubes

(i) P = P1 = P2
l1
 4 
(ii) V= V1+V2  Pr1  Pr2  P  r1  r2 
4 4 4

8l1 8l2  8l1 8l2  l2

1 1 P
 V  P   
 R1 R2  Reff

(iii) Effective liquid resistance in parallel combination

1 1 1 RR
  or Reff  1 2
Reff R1 R2 R1  R2

Sample problems based on Poiseuille's law

Problem The rate of steady volume flow of water through a capillary tube of length 'l'
and radius 'r' under a pressure difference of P is V. This tube is connected
with another tube of the same length but half the radius in series. Then the
rate of steady volume flow through them is (The pressure difference across
the combination is P)
V
(a) (b) V
(c) 16V
(d) 17V
16 17 17 16

P 8l
Solution : (b) Rate of flow of liquid V where liquid resistance R
R r 4

8l 8l
For another tube liquid resistance R'   .16  16R
r
4
r 4
 
 2
P P P V
For the series combination VNew     .
R  R' R  16R 17R 17

Problem A liquid is flowing in a horizontal uniform capillary tube under a constant

pressure difference P. The value of pressure for which the rate of flow of the
liquid is doubled when the radius and length both are doubled is

(a) P (b) 3P (c) P

(d) P
4 2 4

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 Hydrodynamics
4 4
Pr 4 V 8l P2 V2 l 2  r1  1 1 P P
Solution : (d) From V  P 4        2  2      P2  1  .
8l r P1 V1 l1  r2   2 4 4 4

Problem Two capillary tubes of same radius r but of lengths l1 and l2 are fitted in
parallel to the bottom of a vessel. The pressure head is P. What should be
the length of a single tube that can replace the two tubes so that the rate of
flow is same as before
1 1 l 1l 2 1
(a) l1  l 2 (b)  (c) (d)
l1 l2 l1  l 2 l1  l 2

1 1 1 r 4 r 4 r 4
Solution : (c) For parallel combination      
Reff R1 R2 8l 8l1 8l 2

1 1 1 l 1l 2
  l 
l l1 l 2 l1  l 2

Problem We have two (narrow) capillary tubes T1 and T2. Their lengths are l1 and l2
and radii of cross-section are r1 and r2 respectively. The rate of flow of water
under a pressure difference P through tube T1 is 8cm3/sec. If l1 = 2l2 and r1
=r2, what will be the rate of flow when the two tubes are connected in series
and pressure difference across the combination is same as before (= P)
(a) 4 cm3/sec (b) (16/3) cm3/sec (c) (8/17) cm3/sec (d) None of these
4
8cm3
Solution : (b) V   Pr 
8l sec

Pr 4 2 Pr 4 2 16 cm3

For composite tube V1    8 
 l  3 8l 3 3 sec
8 l  
 2

 l
 l1  l  2l 2 or l 2  2 
 

Problem A capillary tube is attached horizontally to a constant head arrangement. If

the radius of the capillary tube is increased by 10% then the rate of flow of
liquid will change nearly by
(a) + 10% (b) + 46% (c) – 10% (d) – 40%
4 4 4
V2  r2 
Solution : (b) V  Pr      110
V2  V1   V1 (1.1)4  1.4641V
8l V1  r1   100

V V2  V1 1.4641V  V
   0.46 or 46% .
V V V

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 Hydrodynamics
Streamline, Laminar and Turbulent Flow.
(1) Stream line flow : Stream line flow of a liquid is that flow in which each element
of the liquid passing through a point travels along the same path and with the same
velocity as the preceeding element passes through that
point. A

A streamline may be defined as the path, straight or curved, 

v1
B
C
 
v2 v3
the tangent to which at any point gives the direction of the
flow of liquid at that point.

The two streamlines cannot cross each other and the greater is the crowding of
streamlines at a place, the greater is the velocity of liquid particles at that place.
Path ABC is streamline as shown in the figure and v1 , v2
and v3 are the velocities of the liquid particles at A, B and
C point respectively.
(2) Laminar flow : If a liquid is flowing over a horizontal surface with a steady flow and
moves in the form of layers of different velocities which do not mix with each other, then
the flow of liquid is called laminar flow.
In this flow the velocity of liquid flow is always less than the critical velocity of the liquid.
The laminar flow is generally used synonymously with streamlined flow.
(3) Turbulent flow : When a liquid moves with a velocity
greater than its critical velocity, the motion of the particles of
liquid becomes disordered or irregular. Such a flow is called Pillar

a turbulent flow.

In a turbulent flow, the path and the velocity of the particles

of the liquid change continuously and haphazardly with time from point to point. In a
turbulent flow, most of the external energy maintaining the flow is spent in producing
eddies in the liquid and only a small fraction of energy is available for forward flow. For
example, eddies are seen by the sides of the pillars of a river bridge.

Critical Velocity and Reynold's Number

The critical velocity is that velocity of liquid flow upto which its flow is streamlined and
above which its flow becomes turbulent.
Reynold's number is a pure number which determines the nature of flow of liquid
through a pipe.

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 Hydrodynamics
It is defined as the ratio of the inertial force per unit area to the viscous force per unit
area for a flowing fluid.
Inertial force per unit area
NR 
Viscous force per unit area

If a liquid of density  is flowing through a tube of radius r and cross section A then

mass of liquid flowing through the tube per second dm  volume flowing per second ×
dt

density = A v  

 Inertial force per unit area =

dp / dt v(dm / dt)
 = v Av  = v2 
A A A

Viscous force per unit area F / A  v

r

So by the definition of Reynolds number NR  Inertialforce per unit area  v   vr

2

Viscousforce per unit area v / r 

If the value of Reynold's number

(i) Lies between 0 to 2000, the flow of liquid is streamline or laminar.
(ii) Lies between 2000 to 3000, the flow of liquid is unstable changing from streamline to
turbulent flow.
(iii) Above 3000, the flow of liquid is definitely turbulent.
Sample problems based on Stream lined and Turbulent flow

Problem In which one of the following cases will the liquid flow in a pipe be most
streamlined
(a) Liquid of high viscosity and high density flowing through a pipe of small
radius
(b) Liquid of high viscosity and low density flowing through a pipe of small
radius
(c) Liquid of low viscosity and low density flowing through a pipe of large
radius
(d) Liquid of low viscosity and high density flowing through a pipe of large
radius
r
Solution: (b) For streamline flow Reynold's number N R  should be less.


For less value of NR , radius and density should be small and viscosity should
be high.

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 Hydrodynamics
Problem Two different liquids are flowing in two tubes of equal radius. The ratio of
coefficients of viscosity of liquids is 52:49 and the ratio of their densities is
13:1, then the ratio of their critical velocities will be
(a) 4 : 49 (b) 49 : 4 (c) 2 : 7 (d) 7 : 2
 v1 1  2 52 1 4
Solution : (a) Critical velocity v  NR       .
r v 2  2 1 49 13 49

Equation of Continuity
The equation of continuity is derived from the principle of
conservation of mass. a2
v2
A non-viscous liquid in streamline flow passes through a B
a1
tube AB of varying cross section. Let the cross sectional v1

A
area of the pipe at points A and B be a1 and a2
respectively. Let the liquid enter with normal velocity v1 at A and leave with velocity v2
at B. Let 1 and 2 be the densities of the liquid at point A and B respectively.

Mass of the liquid entering per second at A = Mass of the liquid leaving per second at B
a1v1 1  a2v2 2

a1v1  a2v2 [If the liquid is incompressible (1  2 ) ]

or av  constant

1 v
or a
v

This expression is called the equation of continuity for the steady flow of an incompressible
and non-viscous liquid.
(1) The velocity of flow is independent of the liquid (assuming the liquid to be non-
viscous)
(2) The velocity of flow will increase if cross-section decreases and vice-versa. That is
why :
(a) In hilly region, where the river is narrow and shallow
(i.e., small cross-section) the water current will be faster,
while in plains where the river is wide and deep (i.e., large
A1 v1

cross-section) the current will be slower, and so deep water A2 v2

will appear to be still.

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 Hydrodynamics
(b) When water falls from a tap, the velocity of falling water under the action of gravity
will increase with distance from the tap (i.e, v2  v1 ). So in accordance with continuity
equation the cross section of the water stream will decrease (i.e., A2  A1), i.e., the falling
stream of water becomes narrower.
Sample problems based on Equation of continuity

Problem Two water pipes of diameters 2 cm and 4 cm are connected with the main
supply line. The velocity of flow of water in the pipe of 2 cm diameter is
(a) 4 times that in the other pipe

(b) 1 times that in the other pipe

4

(c) 2 times that in the other pipe

(d) 1 times that in the other pipe

2

Solution: (a) d A  2 cm and d B  4 cm  rA  1 cm and rB  2 cm

From equation of continuity av = constant 

2
v A a B  (rB )2  2 
      v A  4vB
vB a A  (rA )2  1 

Problem An incompressible liquid flows through a horizontal tube as shown in the

following fig. Then the velocity v of the fluid is

v2 = 1.5 m/s
A

v1 = 3 m/s A

1.5 A
v

(a) 3.0 m/s (b) 1.5 m/s (c) 1.0 m/s (d) 2.25 m/s

Solution : (c) If the liquid is incompressible then mass of liquid entering through left
end, should be equal to mass of liquid coming out from the right end.

 M  m1  m2  Av1  Av2  1.5A. v  A  3  A  1.5  1.5A. v  v  1m/ s

Problem Water enters through end A with speed v1 and leaves through end B with
speed v2 of a cylindrical tube AB. The tube is always completely filled with
water. In case I tube is horizontal and in case II it is vertical with end A
upwards and in case III it is vertical with end B upwards. We have v1  v2 for

(a) Case I (b) Case II (c) Case III (d) Each case

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 Hydrodynamics
Solution : (d) This happens in accordance with equation of continuity and this equation
was derived on the principle of conservation of mass and it is true in every
case, either tube remain horizontal or vertical.
Problem Water is moving with a speed of 5.18 ms–1 through a pipe with a cross-
sectional area of 4.20 cm2. The water gradually descends 9.66 m as the pipe
increase in area to 7.60 cm2. The speed of flow at the lower level is
(a) 3.0 ms–1 (b) 5.7 ms–1 (c) 3.82 ms–1 (d) 2.86 ms–1
Solution : (d) a 1 v 1  a2v2  4.20 5.18  7.60 v2  v2  2.86 m/ s

Energy of a Flowing Fluid

A flowing fluid in motion possesses the following three types of energy

Pressure Energy Potential energy Kinetic energy

It is the energy possessed It is the energy possessed It is the energy possessed

by a liquid by virtue of its by liquid by virtue of its by a liquid by virtue of its
pressure. It is the measure height or position above motion or velocity.
of work done in pushing the surface of earth or any
the liquid against pressure reference level taken as
without imparting any zero level.
velocity to it.

Pressure energy of the Potential energy of the Kinetic energy of the liquid
liquid PV liquid mgh 1
mv 2
2

Pressure energy per unit Potential energy per unit Kinetic energy per unit

mass of the liquid P mass of the liquid gh mass of the liquid 1 2

v
 2

Pressure energy per unit Potential energy per unit Kinetic energy per unit
volume of the liquid P volume of the liquid gh volume of the liquid 1 2
v
2

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 Hydrodynamics
Bernoulli's Theorem
According to this theorem the total energy (pressure
energy, potential energy and kinetic energy) per unit C P2
v2
A2

volume or mass of an incompressible and non-viscous fluid P1 B

v1 h2
in steady flow through a pipe remains constant throughout A1
h1

the flow, provided there is no source or sink of the fluid

along the length of the pipe.
Mathematically for unit volume of liquid flowing through a pipe.
1
P  gh  v 2  constant
2

To prove it consider a liquid flowing steadily through a tube of non-uniform area of

cross-section as shown in fig. If P1 and P2 are the pressures at the two ends of the tube
respectively, work done in pushing the volume V of incompressible fluid from point B to
C through the tube will be W  P1V  P2 V  (P1  P2 )V ......(i)

This work is used by the fluid in two ways.

(i) In changing the potential energy of mass m (in the volume V ) from mgh1 to mgh2,
i.e., U  mg(h2  h1 ) ......(ii)

(ii) In changing the kinetic energy from 1 mv12 to 1 mv22 , i.e., K  1 m(v22  v12 ) ......(iii)
2 2 2

Now as the fluid is non-viscous, by conservation of mechanical energy

W  U  K
1
i.e., (P1  P2 ) V  mg(h2  h1 )  m(v22  v12 )
2

1
or P1  P2  g(h2  h1 )  (v22  v12 ) [As   m/ V ]
2

1 2 1
or P1  gh1  v1  P2  gh2  v22
2 2
1 2
or P  gh  v  constant
2

This equation is the so called Bernoulli's equation and represents conservation of

mechanical energy in case of moving fluids.

(i) Bernoulli's theorem for unit mass of liquid flowing through a pipe can also be
P 1
written as:  gh  v 2  constant
 2

2
(ii) Dividing above equation by g we get P  h  v = constant
g 2g

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 Hydrodynamics
2
Here P is called pressure head, h is called gravitational head and v is called
g 2g

velocity head. From this equation Bernoulli's theorem can be stated as.

In stream line flow of an ideal liquid, the sum of pressure head, gravitational head
and velocity head of every cross section of the liquid is constant.

Applications of Bernoulli's Theorem

(i) Attraction between two closely parallel moving

boats (or buses) : When two boats or buses move side by P0
B1

side in the same direction, the water (or air) in the region
P<P0
v large
P<P0
B2
between them moves faster than that on the remote sides. P0

Consequently in accordance with Bernoulli's principle the

pressure between them is reduced and hence due to pressure difference they are pulled
towards each other creating the so called attraction.

(ii) Working of an aeroplane : This is also based on Bernoulli's principle. The wings of
the aeroplane are of the shape as shown in fig. Due to this v large, P small

specific shape of wings when the aeroplane runs, air passes at

higher speed over it as compared to its lower surface. This
v small, P large
difference of air speeds above and below the wings, in
accordance with Bernoulli's principle, creates a pressure difference, due to which an
upward force called 'dynamic lift' (= pressure difference × area of wing) acts on the
plane. If this force becomes greater than the weight of the plane, the plane will rise up.

(iii) Action of atomiser: The action of carburetor, paint-gun,

scent-spray or insect-sprayer is based on Bernoulli's principle. P T
C
In all these, by means of motion of a piston P in a cylinder C,
L
high speed air is passed over a tube T dipped in liquid L to be
sprayed. High speed air creates low pressure over the tube due
to which liquid (paint, scent, insecticide or petrol) rises in it and is then blown off in very
small droplets with expelled air.

(iv) Blowing off roofs by wind storms : During a tornado

or hurricane, when a high speed wind blows over a straw or tin P v large so
Wind

roof, it creates a low pressure (P) in accordance with

P0
P < P0

Bernoulli's principle.

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 Hydrodynamics
However, the pressure below the roof (i.e., inside the room) is still atmospheric (  P0 ). So
due to this difference of pressure the roof is lifted up and is then blown off by the wind.

(v) Magnus effect : When a spinning ball is thrown, it deviates from its usual path in
flight. This effect is called Magnus effect and plays as important role in tennis, cricket and
soccer, etc. as by applying appropriate spin the moving ball can be made to curve in any
desired direction.

If a ball is moving from left to right and also spinning about a horizontal axis
perpendicular to the direction of motion as shown in fig. then relative to the ball, air will
be moving from right to left.

The resultant velocity of air above the ball will be (v  r) while below it (v  r) . So in
accordance with Bernoulli's principle pressure above the ball will be less than below it.
Due to this difference of pressure an upward force will act on the ball and hence the ball
will deviate from its usual path OA0 and will hit the ground at A1 following the path OA1
i.e., if a ball is thrown with back-spin, the pitch will curve less sharply prolonging the
flight.
v
v + r Vertical plane
r
v
O Curve path

v – r Usual path

v A0 A1

Similarly if the spin is clockwise i.e., the ball is thrown with

top-spin, the force due to pressure difference will act in the A1
A0

direction of gravity and so the pitch will curve more sharply A0

Horizontal plane A2
shortening the flight.
Furthermore, if the ball is spinning about a vertical axis, the
curving will be sideways as shown in producing the so called out swing or in swing.

(vi) Venturimeter : It is a device based on Bernoulli's

theorem used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through
D
h
pipes. E
A C
It consists of two identical coaxial tubes A and C connected a1
B
a2

by a narrow co-axial tube B. Two vertical tubes D and E are v1

v2

mounted on the tubes A and B to measure the pressure of the following liquid.

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 Hydrodynamics
When the liquid flows in the tube ABC, the velocity of flow in part B will be larger than
in the tube A or C. So the pressure in part B will be less than that in tube A or C. By
measuring the pressure difference between A and B, the rate of flow of the liquid in the
tube can be calculated.
Let a1 ,a2  area of cross section of tube A and B respectively

v1 , v2  Velocity of flow of liquid through A and B respectively

P1 , P2  Liquid pressure at A and B respectively

 P1  P2  hg ......(i) [  = density of flowing liquid]

From Bernoulli's theorem for horizontal flow of liquid

1 2 1
P1  v1  P2  v22
2 2

1
P1  P2  (v22  v12 ) ......(ii)
2

 2 2 
From (i) and (ii) hg  1 (v22  v12 ) = 1   V 2  V 2  [As V  a1v1  a2v2 ]
2 2  a2 a1 

2a12 a 22 hg
 V2  2 2
or V  a1a2 22hg 2
a1  a 2 a1  a2

Sample problems based on Bernoulli's Theorem

Problem The velocity of kerosene oil in a horizontal pipe is 5 m/s. If g  10m / s2 then the
velocity head of oil will be

(a) 1.25 m (b) 12.5 m (c) 0.125 m (d) 125 m

v2 (5)2
Solution : (a) Velocity head h   1.25m
2g 2  10

Problem In the following fig. is shown the flow of liquid through a horizontal pipe.
Three tubes A, B and C are connected to the pipe. The radii of the tubes A, B and
C at the junction are respectively 2 cm, 1 cm and 2 cm. It
can be said that the
(a) Height of the liquid in the tube A is maximum
A C
(b) Height of the liquid in the tubes A and B is the same B

(c) Height of the liquid in all the three tubes is the same
(d) Height of the liquid in the tubes A and C is the same
Solution: (d) As cross-section areas of both the tubes A and C are same and tube is
horizontal. Hence according to equation of continuity v A  vC and therefore

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 Hydrodynamics
according to Bernoulli's theorem PA  PC i.e. height of liquid is same in both
the tubes A and C.
Problem A liquid is kept in a cylindrical vessel which is being rotated about a vertical
axis through the centre of the circular base. If the radius of the vessel is r and
angular velocity of rotation is  , then the difference in the heights of the
liquid at the centre of the vessel and the edge is
2 2 2
(a) r (b) r  (c) 2gr (d)  2
2g 2g 2gr

1 2 1
Solution : (b) From Bernoulli's theorem, PA  dvA  dghA  PB  dvB2  dghB
2 2

1 2 1 1 2
Here, hA  hB  PA  dvA  PB  dvB2  PA  PB  d[vB  v2A] 
2 2 2
h
Now, vA  0, vB  r and PA  PB  hdg A r B

1 2 2 r 2 2
 hdg  dr  or h
2 2g

Problem A manometer connected to a closed tap reads 3.5 × 105 N/m2. When the
valve is opened, the reading of manometer falls to 3.0 × 105 N/m2, then
velocity of flow of water is
(a) 100 m/s (b) 10 m/s (c) 1 m/s (d) 10 10 m/s
P 1 2
Solution : (b) Bernoulli's theorem for unit mass of liquid 

2
v  constant

P P
As the liquid starts flowing, it pressure energy decreases 1 v 2  1 2
2 

1 2 3.5  105  3  105 2 2  0.5  105

 v   v   v 2  100  v  10 m / s
2 103 103

Problem Water flows through a frictionless duct with a cross-section varying as shown
in fig. Pressure p at points along the axis is represented by

P P P P
(a) (b) (c) (d)

x x x x

Solution : (a) When cross section of duct decreases the velocity of water increases and
in accordance with Bernoulli's theorem the pressure decreases at that place.
Problem Air is streaming past a horizontal air plane wing such that its speed in 120
m/s over the upper surface and 90 m/s at the lower surface. If the density of

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 Hydrodynamics
air is 1.3 kg per metre3 and the wing is 10 m long and has an average width
of 2 m, then the difference of the pressure on the two sides of the wing of
(a) 4095.0 Pascal (b) 409.50 Pascal (c) 40.950 Pascal (d) 4.0950 Pascal
Solution: (a) From the Bernoulli's theorem
1 1
P1  P2  (v22  v12 )   1.3  [(120)2  (90)2 ]  4095N / m2 or Pascal
2 2

Velocity of Efflux

If a liquid is filled in a vessel up to height H and a hole is

made at a depth h below the free surface of the liquid as
h C
v 2gh
shown in fig. then taking the level of hole as reference level H


(i.e., zero point of potential energy) and applying Bernoulli's x

principle to the liquid just inside and outside the hole

(assuming the liquid to be at rest inside) we get
1 2
 (P0  hg)  0  P0  v or v  2gh
2

Which is same as the speed that an object would acquire in falling from rest through a
distance h and is called velocity of efflux or velocity of flow.

This result was first given by Torricelli so this is known as Torricelli's theorem.

(i) The velocity of efflux is independent of the nature of liquid, quantity of liquid in
the vessel and the area of orifice.

(ii) Greater is the distance of the hole from the free surface of liquid greater will be
the velocity of efflux [i.e., v  h]
v1
v2
v3

v1 < v 2 < v3

(iii) As the vertical velocity of liquid at the orifice is zero and it is at a height
(H  h) from the base, the time taken by the liquid to reach the base-level

2(H  h)
t
g

(iv) Now during time t liquid is moving horizontally with constant velocity v, so it
will hit the base level at a horizontal distance x (called range) as shown in fig.

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 Hydrodynamics
h C h = H/2
v H
H
H

A x – B xmax =H

Such that x  vt  2gh  [2(H  h) / g]  2 h(H  h)

For maximum range dx  0  h  H

dh 2
h
i.e., range x will be maximum when h  H . H
2 h

 Maximum range x max  2 H H  H   H

x = x'

2 2

(v) If the level of free surface in a container is at height H from the base and
there are two holes at depth h and y below the free surface, then

h
x  2 h(H  h) and x  2 y(H  y) H
y

h
Now if x  x , i.e., h(H  h)  y(H  y) A B
x =x

i.e., y 2  Hy  h(H  h)  0

1
or y  [H  (H  2h)] ,
2

i.e., y  h or (H  h)

i.e., the range will be same if the orifice is at a depth h or (H  h) below the free
surface. Now as the distance (H  h) from top means H  (H  h)  h from the bottom,
so the range is same for liquid coming out of holes at same distance below the top
and above the bottom.

(vi) If A0 is the area of orifice at a depth y below the free surface and A that of
container, the volume of liquid coming out of the orifice per second will be
(dV / dt)  vA0  A0 2gy [As v  2gy ]

Due to this, the level of liquid in the container will decrease and so if the level of
liquid in the container above the hole changes from y to y  dy in time t to t  dt
then  dV  A dy

So substituting this value of dV in the above equation

A
dy A 1
 A  A0 2gy i.e.,
dt  dt  
A0 2g y 1 / 2
dy h
y
A0

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 Hydrodynamics
So the time taken for the level to fall from H to H 
A  H A 2
t 
A0 2g  H
y 1 / 2dy 
A0 g
[ H  H]

If the hole is at the bottom of the tank, time t taken to make the tank empty :
A 2H
t [As here H  0 ]
A0 g

Sample problems based on Velocity of efflux

Problem A large tank filled with water to a height ‘h’ is to be emptied through a small
hole at the bottom. The ratio of times taken for the level of water to fall from
h h
h to and from to zero is
2 2

1 1
(a) 2 (b) (c) 2 1 (d)
2 2 1

Solution : (c) Time taken for the level to fall from H to H' t
A
A0
2
g
 H  H' 
h
According to problem- the time taken for the level to fall from h to
2

A 2  h
t1   h 
A0 g  2 

h
and similarly time taken for the level to fall from to zero
2
1
1
A 2  h  t1 2  2  1.
t2    0  
A0 g  2  t2 1
0
2

Problem A cylinder of height 20 m is completely filled with water. The velocity of

efflux of water (in m/s) through a small hole on the side wall of the cylinder
near its bottom is

(a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 25.5 (d) 5

Solution : (b) v  2gh  2  10 20  20m / s

Problem There is a hole in the bottom of tank having water. If total pressure at
bottom is 3 atm (1 atm = 105N/m2) then the velocity of water flowing from
hole is

(a) 400m/ s (b) 600 m/ s (c) 60 m/ s (d) None of these

N
Solution : (b) Pressure at the bottom of tank P  hg  3  105 and velocity of water
m2

2P 2  3  105
v  2gh  v    600 m / s
 103

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 Hydrodynamics
Problem A large open tank has two holes in the wall. One is a square hole of side L at
a depth y from the top and the other is a circular hole of radius R at a depth
4y from the top. When the tank is completely filled with water the quantities
of water flowing out per second from both the holes are the same. Then R is
equal to
L L
(a) 2 L (b) (c) L (d)
2 2

Solution : (b) Velocity of efflux when the hole is at depth h, v  2gh

Rate of flow of water from square hole Q1  a1v1 = L2 2gy

Rate of flow of water from circular hole Q2  a2v2 = R 2 2g(4y)

L
and according to problem Q1  Q2  L2 2gy  R2 2g(4y)  R 
2

Problem There is a hole of area A at the bottom of cylindrical vessel. Water is filled up
to a height h and water flows out in t second. If water is filled to a height 4h,
it will flow out in time equal to
(a) t (b) 4t (c) 2 t (d) t/4
A 2H t2 H2 4h
Solution: (c) Time required to emptied the tank t    2
A0 g t1 H1 h

 t 2  2t

Problem A cylinder containing water up to a height of 25 cm has a hole of cross-

1 2
section cm in its bottom. It is counterpoised in a balance. What is the
4

initial change in the balancing weight when water begins to flow out
(a) Increase of 12.5 gm-wt
(b) Increase of 6.25 gm-wt
(c) Decrease of 12.5 gm-wt 25 cm

(d) Decrease of 6.25 gm-wt

Solution : (c) Let A = The area of cross section of the hole, v = Initial velocity of efflux,
d = Density of water,
Initial volume of water flowing out per second = Av
Initial mass of water flowing out per second = Avd
Rate of change of momentum = Adv2  Initial downward force on the
out flowing water = Adv2
So equal amount of reaction acts upwards on the cylinder.

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 Hydrodynamics
 Initial upward reaction = Adv2 [As v  2gh ]

1
 Initial decrease in weight  Ad(2gh)  2 Adgh  2     1  980 25  12.5 gm-wt.
4

Problem A cylindrical tank has a hole of 1 cm2 in its bottom. If the water is allowed to
flow into the tank from a tube above it at the rate of 70 cm3/sec. then the
maximum height up to which water can rise in the tank is

(a) 2.5 cm (b) 5 cm (c) 10 cm (d) 0.25 cm

Solution : (a) The height of water in the tank becomes maximum when the volume of
water flowing into the tank per second becomes equal to the volume flowing
out per second.

Volume of water flowing out per second = Av  A 2gh

and volume of water flowing in per second  70 cm3 / sec .

4900
 A 2gh  70 1 2gh  70 1 2980 h  70  h  2.5 cm.
1960

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