FUNDAMENTALS OF AI

UNIT-3

INFERENCE TECHNIQUES

3.1. Propositional Logic

Propositional Logic: The simplest kind of logic is propositional logic (PL), in which all statements
are made up of propositions. The term "Proposition" refers to a declarative statement that can be true
or false. It's a method of expressing knowledge in logical and mathematical terms.

Example:

It is Sunday.

The Sun rises from West (False proposition)

3 + 3 = 7 (False proposition)

5 is a prime number.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

 Because it operates with 0 and 1, propositional logic is also known as Boolean logic.
 In propositional logic, symbolic variables are used to express the logic, and any symbol can
be used to represent a proposition, such as A, B, C, P, Q, R, and so on.
 Propositions can be true or untrue, but not both at the same time.
 An object, relations or functions, and logical connectives make up propositional logic.
 Logical operators are another name for these connectives.
 The essential parts of propositional logic are propositions and connectives.
 Connectives are logical operators that link two sentences together.
 Tautology, commonly known as a legitimate sentence, is a proposition formula that is always
true.
 Contradiction is a proposition formula that is always false.
 Statements that are inquiries, demands, or opinions are not propositions, such as "Where is
Raj","How are you", and "What is your name" are not propositions.

Syntax of propositional logic:

The allowed sentences for knowledge representation are defined by the syntax of propositional logic.
Propositions are divided into two categories:

1) Atomic Propositions.
2) Compound propositions.
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 Atomic propositions: Simple assertions are referred to as atomic propositions. It is made up

of only one proposition sign. These are the sentences that must be true or untrue in order to
pass.

Example:

2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

"The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.

 Compound proposition: Simpler or atomic statements are combined with parenthesis and
logical connectives to form compound propositions.

Example:

1) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

2)"Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

 Logical Connectives: Logical connectives are used to link two simpler ideas or to logically
represent a statement. With the use of logical connectives, we can form compound assertions.
There are five primary connectives, which are listed below:
1) Negation: A statement like ¬P is referred to as a negation of P. There are two types of
literals: positive and negative literals.

Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,

P = Rohan is intelligent,

Q = Rohan is hardworking. →P ∧ Q.

2) Conjunction: A conjunction is a sentence that contains ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q.

Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",

Here P = Ritika is Doctor. Q = Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.

3) Disjunction: A disjunction is a sentence with a connective ∨ , such as P ∨ Q, where P and

Q are the propositions.

4) Implication: An implication is a statement such as P → Q. If-then rules are another name

for implications. It can be expressed as follows: If it rains, the street is flooded.

Because P denotes rain and Q denotes a wet street, the situation is written as P and Q

5) Biconditional: A sentence like P Q, for example, is a biconditional sentence. I am alive if I

am breathing.
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P= I am breathing, Q = I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

• Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

 Truth Table:

We need to know the truth values of propositions in all feasible contexts in propositional logic.
With logical connectives, we can combine all possible combinations, and the representation of
these combinations in a tabular manner is known as a truth table. The truth table for all logical
connectives is as follows:

For Negation:

For Conjunction:
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For Disjunction:

For Implication:

For Biconditional:

Truth table with three propositions:

You can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. The truth table is made up
of 8Xn Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.
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Precedence of connectives:

Propositional connectors or logical operators, like arithmetic operators, have a precedence order.
When evaluating a propositional problem, this order should be followed. The following is a list of
the operator precedence order:

Logical equivalence:

One of the characteristics of propositional logic is logical equivalence. If and only if the truth
table's columns are equal, two assertions are said to be logically comparable. Let's take two
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propositions P and Q, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as P⇔Q. In below truth table we
can see that column for ¬P ∨ Q and P→Q, are identical hence P is Equivalent to P.

Properties of Operators:

Commutativity:

P ∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or

P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.

Associativity:

(P ∧ Q) ∧ R = P ∧ (Q ∧ R),

(P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R).

Identity element:

P ∧ True = P,

P ∨ True= True.

Distributive:

P ∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).

P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).

DE Morgan's Law:

¬(P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q),

¬(P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).

Double-negation elimination:

¬(¬P) = P.
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Limitations of Propositional logic:

 This is not possible to represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic.
Example:
o All the girls are intelligent.
o Some apples are sweet.
 The expressive power of propositional logic is restricted.
 We can't explain propositions in propositional logic in terms of their qualities or logical
relationships.

3.2. First-order logic

 First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It is an

extension to propositional logic.
 FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a concise way.
 First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic. First-order
logic is a powerful language that develops information about the objects in a more easy way
and can also express the relationship between those objects.
 First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world contains facts
like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in the world:
 Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus, ......
 Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any relation
such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between
 Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of,
 As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
 Syntax
 Semantics
 Syntax of First-Order logic:
The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-order
logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write statements in short-
hand notation in FOL.
Basic Elements of First-order logic:
Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:
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 Atomic sentences:
 Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences
are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of
terms.
 We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).
 Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).

 Complex Sentences:
 Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.

First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

 Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.

 Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms together
in a statement.
 Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is the
subject of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.
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 Quantifiers in First-order logic:

A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and quantification specifies the
quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.

These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and scope of the variable in the
logical expression. There are two types of quantifier:

Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)

Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

 Universal Quantifier:

Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the statement within
its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular thing.

The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A.

If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:

For all x

For each x

For every x.

Example:

All man drink coffee.

Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:

∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.
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Existential Quantifier:

Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement within its scope is
true for at least one instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is used with a
predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:

There exists a 'x.'

For some 'x.'

For at least one 'x.'

Example:

∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Properties of Quantifiers:

In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.

In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.

∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:

1. All birds fly.

In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."

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And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.

∀x bird(x) →fly(x).

2. Every man respects his parent.

In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and y= parent.

Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as follows:

∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).

3. Some boys play cricket.

In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y= game. Since there are some
boys so we will use ∃, and it will be represented as:

∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.

Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following representation for this:

¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].

5. Only one student failed in Mathematics.

In this question, the predicate is "failed(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.

Since there is only one student who failed in Mathematics, so we will use following representation
for this:

∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∧∀ (y) [¬(x==y) ∧ student(y) → ¬failed (x,
Mathematics)].

3.3. Representing knowledge using rules

 One way to represent knowledge is by using rules that express what must happen or what does
happen when certain conditions are met. Rules are usually expressed in the form of IF . . . THEN . . .
statements, such as: IF A THEN B This can be considered to have a similar logical meaning as the
following: A→B
 A is called the antecedent and B is the consequent in this statement. In expressing rules, the
consequent usually takes the form of an action or a conclusion. In other words, the purpose of a rule
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is usually to tell a system (such as an expert system) what to do in certain circumstances, or what
conclusions to draw from a set of inputs about the current situation.
 In general, a rule can have more than one antecedent, usually combined either by AND or by OR
(logically the same as the operators ∧ and ∨).
 Similarly, a rule may have more than one consequent, which usually suggests that there are multiple
actions to be taken. In general, the antecedent of a rule compares an object with a possible value,
using an operator.

For example, suitable antecedents in a rule might be

IF x > 3

IF name is “Bob”

IF weather is cold

 Here, the objects being considered are x, name, and weather; the operators are “>” and “is”, and the
values are 3, “Bob,” and cold.
 Note that an object is not necessarily an object in the real-world sense—the weather is not a real
world object, but rather a state or condition of the world.
 An object in this sense is simply a variable that represents some physical object or state in the real
world.

An example of a rule might be

IF name is “Bob”

AND weather is cold

THEN tell Bob ‘Wear a coat’

 This is an example of a recommendation rule, which takes a set of inputs and gives advice as a result.
 The conclusion of the rule is actually an action, and the action takes the form of a recommendation to
Bob that he should wear a coat.
 In some cases, the rules provide more definite actions such as “move left” or “close door,” in which
case the rules are being used to represent directives.

Rules can also be used to represent relations such as:

IF temperature is below 0

THEN weather is cold

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3.4. Procedure versus Declarative knowledge

 We can express the knowledge in various forms to the inference engine in the computer system to
solve the problems. There are two important representations of knowledge namely, procedural
knowledge and declarative knowledge. The basic difference between procedural and declarative
knowledge is that procedural knowledge gives the control information along with the knowledge,
whereas declarative knowledge just provides the knowledge but not the control information to
implement the knowledge.
 Read through this article to find out more about procedural knowledge and declarative knowledge
and how they are different from each other.
 What is Procedural Knowledge?
Procedural or imperative knowledge clarifies how to perform a certain task. It lays down the steps to
perform. Thus, the procedural knowledge provides the essential control information required to
implement the knowledge.
 What is Declarative Knowledge?
Declarative or functional knowledge clarifies what to do to perform a certain task. It lays down the
function to perform. Thus, in the declarative knowledge, only the knowledge is provided but not the
control information to implement the knowledge. Thus, in order to use the declarative knowledge,
we have to add the declarative knowledge with a program which provides the control information.
Key Procedural Knowledge Declarative Knowledge
Meaning Procedural knowledge provides the Declarative knowledge provides the
knowledge of how a particular task can be basic knowledge about something.
accomplished.
Alternate name Procedural knowledge is also termed as Declarative knowledge is also
imperative knowledge. termed as functional knowledge.
Basis Procedural knowledge revolves around Declarative knowledge revolves
the "How" of the concept. around the "What" of the concept.
Communication Procedural knowledge is difficult to Declarative knowledge is easily
communicate. communicable.
Orientation Procedural knowledge is process- Declarative knowledge is data-
oriented. oriented.
Validation Validation is not very easy in procedural Validation is quite easy in
knowledge. declarative knowledge.
Debugging Debugging is not very easy in procedural Debugging is quite easy in
knowledge. declarative knowledge.
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Use Procedural knowledge is less commonly Declarative knowledge is more

used. general.
Representation Procedural knowledge is represented by a Declarative knowledge is
set of rules. represented by production systems.
Source Procedural knowledge is obtained from Declarative knowledge is obtained
actions, experiences, subjective insights, from principles, procedures,
etc. concepts, processes, etc.

3.5. Forward versus Backward Reasoning

What is Forward Reasoning?

 Forward reasoning is a process in artificial intelligence that finds all the possible solutions of a problem
based on the initial data and facts. Thus, the forward reasoning is a data-driven task as it begins with
new data. The main objective of the forward reasoning in AI is to find a conclusion that would follow.
It uses an opportunistic type of approach.
 Forward reasoning flows from incipient to the consequence. The inference engine searches the
knowledge base with the given information depending on the constraints. The precedence of these
constraints have to match the current state.
 In forward reasoning, the first step is that the system is given one or more constraints. The rules are
then searched for in the knowledge base for every constraint. The rule that fulfils the condition is
selected. Also, every rule can generate a new condition from the conclusion which is obtained from
the invoked one. This new conditions can be added and are processed again.
 The step ends if no new conditions exist. Hence, we can conclude that forward reasoning follows the
top-down approach.

What is Backward Reasoning?

 Backward reasoning is the reverse process of the forward reasoning in which a goal or hypothesis is
selected and it is analyzed to find the initial data, facts, and rules. Therefore, the backward reasoning
is a goal driven task as it begins with conclusions or goals that are uncertain. The main objective of
the backward reasoning is to find the facts that support the conclusions.
 Backward reasoning uses a conservative type of approach and flows from consequence to the incipient.
The system helps to choose a goal state and reasons in a backward direction. The first step in the
backward reasoning is that the goal state and rules are selected. Then, sub-goals are made from the
selected rule, which need to be satisfied for the goal state to be true.
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 The initial conditions are set such that they satisfy all the sub-goals. Also, the established states are
matched to the initial state provided. If the condition is fulfilled, the goal is the solution, otherwise the
goal is rejected. Therefore, backward reasoning follows bottom-up technique.
 Backward reasoning is also known as a decision-driven or goal-driven inference technique because the
system selects a goal state and reasons in the backward direction.

Difference between Forward and Backward Reasoning in AI

Sr. No. Forward Reasoning Backward Reasoning

1 It is a data-driven task. It is a goal driven task.
2 It begins with new data. It begins with conclusions that are uncertain.
3 The objective is to find a conclusion that would The objective is to find the facts that support
follow. the conclusions.
4. It uses an opportunistic type of approach. It uses a conservative type of approach.
5. It flows from incipient to the consequence. It flows from consequence to the incipient.
6. Forward reasoning begins with the initial facts. Backward reasoning begins with some goal
(hypothesis).
7. Forward reasoning tests all the rules. Backward reasons tests some rules.
8. Forward reasoning is a bottom-up approach. Backward reasoning is a top-down approach.
9. Forward reasoning can produce an infinite Backward reasoning produces a finite
number of conclusion. number of conclusions.
10. In the forward reasoning, all the data is In the backward reasoning, the data is
available. acquired on demand.
11. Forward reasoning has a small number of Backward reasoning has a smaller number of
initial states but a large number of conclusions. goals and a larger number of rules.
12. In forward reasoning, the goal formation is In backward reasoning, it is easy to form a
difficult. goal.
13. Forward reasoning works in forward direction Backward reasoning work in backward
to find all the possible conclusions from facts. direction to find the facts that justify the goal.
14. Forward reason is suitable to answer the Backward reasoning is suitable for diagnosis
problems such as planning, control, like problems.
monitoring, etc.