UNIT -II -ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE SYSTEM

Single phase linear and non-linear loads – single phase sinusoidal, non-sinusoidal source –
Supplying linear and nonlinear loads – three phase balanced system – three phase unbalanced
System – three phase unbalanced and distorted source supplying non-linear loads – concept of
Power factor – three phase- three wire – three phase - four wire system.

SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER

DEFINITIONS AND COMPONENTS

1.1 Introduction

The definitions of power and its various components are very important to understand quantitative
and qualitative power quality aspects in power system [1]–[5]. This is not only necessary from the
point of view of conceptual clarity but also very much required for practical applications such as
metering, quantification of active, reactive power, power factor and other power quality parameters
in power system. These aspects become more important when power system is not ideal i.e., it
deals with unbalance, harmonics, faults and fluctuations in frequency. We therefore, in this chapter
explore the concept and fundamentals of single phase system with some practical applications and
illustrations.

1.2 Power Terms in a Single Phase System

Let us consider a single-phase system with sinusoidal system voltage supplying a linear load as
shown in Fig. 1.1. A linear load is one which consists of ideal resistive, inductive and capacitive
elements. The voltage and current are expressed as below.

√
v(t) = 2 V sin ωt
√
i(t) = 2 I sin(ωt − φ) (1.1)

The instantaneous power can be computed as,

1
 v i

Fig. 1.1 A single phase system

p(t) = v( t) i(t) = V I [2 sin ωt sin(ωt − φ)]

= V I[cosφ − cos(2ωt − φ)]
= V I cos φ(1 − cos 2ωt) − V I sin φ sin 2ωt (1.2)
= P (1 − cos 2ωt) − Q sin 2ωt
= pactive (t) − preactive (t)
R T +t
Here, P = T1 t=t1 1 p(t) dt = average value of pactive (t). This is called as average active power.
The reactive power Q is defined as,

∆
Q = max {preactive (t)} (1.3)

It should be noted that the way Q is defined is different from P . The Q is defined as maximum
value of the second term of (1.2) and not an average value of the second term. This difference
should always kept in mind.
Equation (1.2) shows that instantaneous power can be decomposed into two parts. The first term
has an average value of V I cos φ and an alternating component of V I cos 2ωt, oscillating at twice
the line frequency. This part is never negative and therefore is called unidirectional or dc power.
The second term has an alternating component V I sin φ sin 2ωt oscillating at twice frequency with
a peak vale of V I sin φ. The second term has zero average value. The equation (1.2) can further
be written in the following form.

p(t) = V I cos φ − V I cos(2ωt − φ)

= p̄(t) + p̃(t)
= paverage + poscillation
= pusef ul + pnonusef ul (1.4)

With the above definitions of P and Q, the instantaneous power p(t) can be re-written as following.

p(t) = P (1 − cos 2ωt) − Q sin 2ωt (1.5)

2
 √
Example 1.1 Consider a sinusoidal supply voltage v(t) = 230 2 sin ωt supplying a linear load of
impedance ZL = 12 + j13 Ω at ω = 2πf radian per second, f = 50 Hz. Express current i(t) as a
function of time. Based on v(t) and i(t) determine the following.

(a) Instantaneous power p(t), instantaneous active power pactive (t) and instantaneous reactive
power preactive (t)

(b) Compute average real power P , reactive power Q, apparent power S, and power factor pf .

(c) Repeat the above when load is ZL = 12 − j13 Ω, ZL = 12 Ω, and ZL = j13 Ω

(d) Comment upon the results.

Solution: A single phase circuit supplying linear load is shown Fig. 1.1. In general, the current in
the circuit is given as,
√
i(t) = 2 I sin(ωt − φ)
where φ = tan−1 (XL /RL ), and I = (V /|ZL |)

Case 1: When load is inductive, ZL = 12 + j13 Ω

p √
|ZL | = RL2 + XL2 = 122 + 132 = 17.692 Ω, and I = 230/17.692 = 13 A
φ = tan−1 (X/R) = tan−1 (13/12) = 47.29o
Therefore we have,
√
v(t) = 230 2 sin ωt
√
i(t) = 13 2 sin(ωt − 47.29o )
The instantaneous power is given as,

p(t) = V I cos φ(1 − cos 2ωt) − V I sin φ sin 2ωt

= 230 × 13 cos 47.29o (1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 230 × 13 sin 47.29o sin(2 × 314t)
= 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 2196.9 sin(2 × 314t)
= pactive (t) − preactive (t)

3
The above implies that,

pactive (t) = 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t))

preactive (t) = 2196.9 sin(2 × 314t)

Average real power (P ) is given as,

1 T
Z
P = p(t) dt
T 0
P = V I cos φ = 230 × 13 × cos 47.29o = 2028.23 W

Reactive power (Q) is given as maximum value of preactive , and equals to V I sin φ as given below.

Q = V I sin φ = 230 × 13 × sin 47.2906◦ = 2196.9 VAr

p
Apparant power, S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 × 13 = 2990 VA
P 2028.23
Power factor = = = 0.6783
S 2990
For this case, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.2. As
seen from the figure the current lags the voltage due to inductive load. The pactive has an offset of
2028.23 W, which is also indicated as P in the right bottom graph. The preactive has zero average
value and its maximum value is equal to Q, which is 2196.9 VArs.
√
Case 2: When load is Capacitive, ZL = 12 − j13 that implies |ZL | = 122 + 132 = 17.692Ω,
and I = 230/17.692 = 13 A, φ = tan−1 (−13/12) = −47.2906o .
√
v(t) = 230 2 sin ωt
√
i(t) = 13 2 sin(ωt + 47.2906o )
p(t) = V I cos φ(1 − cos 2ωt) − V I sin φ sin 2ωt
= 230 × 13 cos(−47.2906o )(1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 230 × 13 sin(−47.2906o ) sin(2 × 314t)
= 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t)) + 2196.9 sin(2 × 314t)

pactive (t) = 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t))

preactive (t) = −2196.9 sin(2 × 314t)

P = V I cos φ = 230 × 13 × cos 47.2906o = 2028.23 Watt

Q = V I sin φ = 230 × 13 × sin(−47.2906o ) = −2196.9 VAr
p
S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 × 13 = 2990 VA

For Case 2, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.3. The
explanation given earlier also holds true for this case.

Case 3: When load is resistive, ZL = RL = 12 Ω, I = 230/12 = 19.167 A, and φ = 0o .

4
 400 6000
Voltge (V)
4000
200

VA, W, VAr
2000
0
0

-200
-2000

p(t)
-400 -4000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 pact(t) 0.03
sec sec preact(t)

20 2400

Current (A)
10 2300 Average Power (W)
Reactive Power (VAr)
W, VAr
0 2200

-10 2100

-20 2000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
sec sec

Fig. 1.2 Case 1: Voltage, current and various power components

Therefore, we have
√
v(t) = 230 2 sin ωt
√
i(t) = 19.167 2 sin ωt
p(t) = 230 × 19.167 cos 0o {1 − cos(2 × 314t)} − 230 × 19.167 sin 0o sin(2 × 314t)
= 4408.33(1 − cos(2 × 314t))

pactive (t) = 4408.33{1 − cos(2 × 314t)}

preactive (t) = 0

P = V I cos φ = 230 × 19.167 × cos 0o = 4408.33 W

Q = V I sin φ = 230 × 19.167 × sin 0o = 0 VAr
p
S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 × 19.167 = 4408.33 VA
4408.33
Power factor = =1
4408.33
5
 400 6000

Voltage (V)
4000
200

VA, W, VAr
2000
0
0

-200
-2000
p(t)
-400 -4000 p (t) 0.03
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 act
sec sec preact(t)

20 3000
Current (A)
2000
10
1000
Average Power (W)

W, VAr
0 0 Reactive Power (VAr)

-1000
-10
-2000

-20 -3000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
sec sec

Fig. 1.3 Case 2: Voltage, current and various power components

For Case 3, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.4. Since
the load is resistive, as seen from the graph preactive is zero and p(t) is equal to pactive . The average
value of p(t) is real power (P ), which is equal to 4408.33 W.
Case 4: When the load is purely reactive, ZL = j13 Ω , |ZL | = 13 Ω, I = 230 13
= 17.692 A, and
φ = 90o . Therefore, we have
√
v(t) = 230 2 sin ωt
√
i(t) = 17.692 2 sin(ωt − 90o )
p(t) = 230 × 17.692 cos 90o (1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 230 × 17.692 sin 90o sin(2 × 314t)
= 0 − 4069 sin(2 × 314t)

pactive (t) = 0
preactive (t) = 4069 sin(2 × 314t)

P = V I cos φ = 230 × 17.692 × cos 90o = 0 W

Q = V I sin φ = 230 × 17.692 × sin 90o = 4069 VAr
p
S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 × 17.692 = 4069 VA
0
Power factor = =0
4069
6
 400 10000

Voltage (V)
8000
200

VA, W, VAr
6000

0
4000

-200 2000

0
-400 p(t)
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 pact(t) 0.03
sec sec
preact(t)

30 5000
Current (A)
20 4000

10 3000 Average Power (W)

Reactive Power (VAr)

W, VAr
0 2000

-10 1000

-20 0

-30 -1000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
sec sec

Fig. 1.4 Case 3: Voltage, current and various power components

For Case 4, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.5. The
load in this case is purely reactive, hence their is no average component of p(t). The maximum
value of p(t) is same as preactive (t) or Q, which is equal to 4069 VArs.

1.3 Sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Load Current

The load current is now considered as nonlinear load. A non-linear load is one which consists
of switched elements such as diode, transistors, MOSFET, etc., in the circuit. In power circuit,
non-linear load current exists, when source supplies to power electronics based loads such as rec-
tifier, inverter, cyclo-converters etc.. These loads cause presence of harmonics in the load current.
Assuming that all harmonics are present in the load current, the voltage and current are expressed
as following.

√
v(t) = 2 V sin ωt
∞
√ X
i(t) = 2 In sin(nωt − φn ) (1.6)
n=1

The instantaneous power is therefore given by,

7
 400 5000

Voltage (V)
200

VA, W, VAr
0 0

-200

p(t)
-400 -5000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 pact(t) 0.03
sec preact(t)

30 5000
Current (A)
20 4000
10
3000

W, VAr
0 Active Power (W)
2000 Reactive Power (VAr)
-10

-20 1000

-30 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 0.03

Fig. 1.5 Case 4: Voltage, current and various power components

∞
√ √ X
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 2 V sin ωt 2 In sin(nωt − φn )
n=1
∞
X
= V [In 2 sin ωt sin(nωt − φn )]
n=1
= V [I1 2 sin ωt sin(ωt − φ1 )]
X∞
+ V [In 2 sin ωt sin(nωt − φn )] (1.7)
n=2

Note that 2 sin A sin B = cos(A − B) − cos(A + B), using this, Eqn. (1.7) can be re-written as
the following.

8
 p(t) = V I1 [cos φ1 − cos(2ωt − φ1 )] − V I1 sin φ1 sin 2ωt
X∞
+V In [ (cos φn − cos(2nωt − φn )) − sin φn sin 2nωt]
n=2
= V I1 cos φ1 (1 − cos 2ωt) − V I1 sin φ1 sin 2ωt (1.8)
∞
X
+ V In [ cos φn (1 − cos 2nωt) − sin φn sin 2nωt]
n=2
= A + B

In above equation, average active power P and reactive power Q are given by,

P = P1 = average value of p(t) = V I1 cos φ1

∆
Q = Q1 = peak value of second term in A = V I1 sin φ1 (1.9)

The apparent power S is given by

S = V Iq
S = V [I12 + I22 + I32 + .....] (1.10)

Equation (1.10) can be re-arranged as given below.

S 2 = V 2 I12 + V 2 [I22 + I32 + I42 + ...]

= (V I1 cos φ1 )2 + (V I1 sin φ1 )2 + V 2 [I22 + I32 + I42 + .....]
= P 2 + Q2 + H 2 (1.11)

In above equation, H is known as harmonic power and represents V As corresponding to harmonics

and is equal to,

q
H=V [I22 + I32 + I42 + .....] (1.12)

The following points are observed from description.

1. P and Q are dependent on the fundamental current components
2. H is dependent on the current harmonic components
3. Power components −V I cos 2ωt and V I1 sin φ1 sin 2ωt are oscillating components and can
be eliminated using appropriately chosen capacitors and inductors
4. There are other terms in (1.10), which are functions of multiple integer of fundamental fre-
quency are reflected in ’B’ terms of Eqn. (1.8). These terms can be eliminated using tuned
LC filters.

9
This is represented by power tetrahedron instead of power triangle (in case of voltage and current
of sinusidal nature of fundamental frequency). In this context, some important terms are defined
here.
Displacement Power Factor (DPF) or Fundamental Power Factor (pf1 ) is denoted by cos φ1
and is cosine angle between the fundamental voltage and current. This is equal to,

P1
DPF = pf1 = cos φ1 = . (1.13)
S1
The Power Factor (pf ) is defined as ratio of average active power to the total apparent power
(V I) and is expressed as,

P
Power Factor (pf ) =
S  
V I1 cos φ1 I1
= = cos φ1
VI I
= cos γ cos φ1 (1.14)

The equation (1.14) shows that power factor becomes less by a factor of cos γ, which is ratio of
fundamental to the total current. This is due to the presence of the harmonics in the load current.
The nonlinear load current increases the ampere rating of the conductor for same amount of active
power transfer with increased VA rating. Such kind of load is not desired in power system.

Example 1.2 Consider an ideal single-phase voltage

√ source supplying a rectifier load as given
in Fig. 1.6. Given a supply voltage, v(t) = 230 2 sin ωt and source impedance is negligible,
draw the voltage and current waveforms. Express current using Fourier series. Based on that
determine the following.
1. Plot instantaneous power p(t).
2. Plot components of p(t) i.e. pactive (t), preactive (t).
3. Compute average real power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor, displacement
factor (or fundamental power factor).
4. Comment upon the results in terms of VA rating and power output.
Solution: The above system has been simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK. The supply voltage
and current are shown in Fig. 1.7. The current waveform is of the square type and its Fourier series
expansion is given below.
∞
X 4Idc
i(t) = sin(nωt) where h = 0, 1, 2 . . .
n=2h+1
nπ

The instantaneous power is therefore given by,

10
 i (t ) Id

v (t )

Fig. 1.6 A single phase system with non-linear load

∞
√ X 4Idc
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 2 V sin ωt sin(nωt). (1.15)
n=2h+1
nπ

By expansion of the above equation, the average active power (P ) and reactive power (Q) are given
as below.

P = P1 = average value of Pactive (t) or p(t) = V I1 cos φ1

= V I1 (since, φ1 = 0, cos φ1 = 1, sin φ1 = 0)
∆
Q = Q1 = peak value of Preactive (t) = V I1 sin φ1 = 0
The rms value of fundamental and rms value of the total source current are given below.
Irms = Id = 103.5 A
√
2 2
I1 = Id = 93.15 A
π
The real power (P ) is given by
P = V I1
√
2 2
= V × Id = 21424.5 W .
π

The reactive power (Q) is given by

Q = Q1 = 0.
The apparent power (S) is given by
S = V Irms
= V Id = 23805 VA .

11
 300
Supply current (A)
200 Supply voltage (V)
100
0
-100
-200
-300

1 1.001 1.002 1.003 1.004 1.005 1.006

Time(Sec) x 10
5

4
x 10

2.5

1.5
instantaneous power
1 Average power (W)
Reactive power (Var)
0.5

-0.5

1 1.001 1.002 1.003 1.004 1.005 1.006

Time (Sec) x 10
5

Fig. 1.7 Supply voltage, current and instantaneous power waveforms

The displacement power factor (cos φ1 ) is,

DP F = cos φ1 = 1.
Therefore power factor is given by,
P S1 P1
pf = =
S S S1
V I1
= cos φ1
V Irms
I1
= × DP F = 0.9 (lag)
Irms

1.4 Non-sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Loads

The voltage source too may have harmonics transmitted from generation or produced due to non-
linear loads in presence of feeder impedance. In this case, we shall consider generalized case of
non-sinusoidal voltage source supplying nonlinear loads including dc components. These voltages
and currents are represented as,
∞
X √
v(t) = Vdc + 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) (1.16)
n=1

12
and

∞
X √
i(t) = Idc + 2In sin(nωt − φin ) (1.17)
n=1

Therefore, instantanteous power p(t) is given by,

∞ ∞
X √ X √
p(t) = [Vdc + 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn )].[Idc + 2In sin(nωt − φin )] (1.18)
n=1 n=1

∞ ∞
X √ X √
p(t) = Vdc Idc + Vdc 2In sin(nωt − φin ) + Idc 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn )
| {z }
I | n=1 {z } | n=1
{z }
II III
∞ ∞
X √ X √
+ 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2In sin(nωt − φin ) (1.19)
|n=1 {zn=1 }
IV

p(t) = pdc−dc + pdc−ac + pac−dc + pac−ac (1.20)

The term I (pdc−dc ) contributes to power from dc components of voltage and current. Terms II
(pdc−ac ) and III (pac−dc ) result from the interaction of dc and ac components of voltage and current.
In case, there are no dc components all these power components are zero. In practical cases, dc
components are very less and the first three terms have negligible value compared to IV term.
Thus, we shall focus on IV (pac−ac ) term which corresponds to ac components present in power
system. The term IV can be written as,

∞ ∞
th
X √ X √
IV term = pac−ac = 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2Ih sin(hωt − φih ) (1.21)
n=1 h=1

where n = h = 1, 2, 3..., similar frequency terms will interact. When n 6= h, dissimilar

13
frequency terms will interact. This is expressed below.
√ √
pac−ac (t) = 2V1 sin(ωt − φv1 ) 2I1 sin(ωt − φi1 )
| {z }
A
∞
√ X √
+ 2V1 sin(ωt − φv1 ) 2Ih sin(hωt − φih )
h=2,h6=1
| {z }
B
√ √
+ 2V2 sin(2ωt − φv2 ) 2I2 sin(2ωt − φi2 )
| {z }
A
∞
√ X √
+ 2V2 sin(2ωt − φv2 ) 2Ih sin(hωt − φih ) + . . . + . . .
h=1,h6=2
| {z }
B
√ √
+ 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2In sin(nωt − φin )
| {z }
A
∞
√ X √
+ 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2Ih sin(hωt − φih ) (1.22)
h=1,h6=n
| {z }
B

The terms in A of above equation form similar frequency terms and terms in B form dissimilar
frequency terms, we shall denote them by pac−ac−nn and pac−ac−nh . Thus,
∞
X
pac−ac−nn (t) = Vn In 2 sin(nωt − φvn ) sin(nωt − φin ) (1.23)
n=1

and
∞ ∞
X √ X √
pac−ac−nh (t) = 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2In sin(hωt − φih ) (1.24)
n=1 h=1,h6=n

Now, let us simplify pac−ac−nn in

∞
X
pac−ac−nn (t) = Vn In [cos(φin − φvn ) − cos(2nωt − φin − φvn )]
n=1
X∞
= Vn In [cos(φn ) − cos(2nωt − (φin − φvn ) − 2φvn )]
n=1
∞
X
= Vn In [cos(φn ) − cos (2nωt − 2φvn ) − φn ]
n=1
X∞
= Vn In [cos(φn ) − cos(2nωt − 2φvn ) cos φn − sin(2nωt − 2φvn ) sin φn ]
n=1
(1.25)

14
where φn = (φin − φvn ) = is phase angle between nth harmonic current and voltage. Therefore,
∞
X
pac−ac−nn (t) = [Vn In cos φn {1 − cos(2nωt − 2φvn )}]
n=1
X∞
− [Vn In sin φn sin(2nωt − 2φvn )]. (1.26)
n=1

Thus, the instantaneous power is given by,

p(t) = pdc−dc + pdc−ac + pac−dc + pac−ac−nn + pac−ac−nh

| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
I II III
| IVA {z IVB }
IV
∞ ∞
X √ X √
p(t) = Vdc Idc + Vdc 2In sin(nωt − φin ) + Idc 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn )
n=1 n=1
∞
X
+ [Vn In cos φn {1 − cos(2nωt − 2φvn )}]
n=1
∞
X
− [Vn In sin φn . sin(2nωt − 2φin )] (1.27)
n=1

1.4.1 Active Power

Instantaneous active power, pactive (t) is expressed as,
∞
X
pactive (t) = Vdc Idc + [Vn In cos φn {1 − cos(2nωt − 2φvn )}] (1.28)
n=1

It has non-negative value with some average component, giving average active power. Therefore,

1 T
Z
P = p(t) dt
T 0
X∞
= Vdc Idc + Vn In cos φn . (1.29)
n=1

The reactive component of the instantaneous power is denoted by preactive (t) and is given as fol-
lowing.
∞
X
preactive (t) = − [Vn In sin φn sin(2nωt − 2φvn )] (1.30)
n=1

resulting in

15
 Q , max of (1.30) magnitude
∞
X
= Vn In sin φn . (1.31)
n=1

From (1.29)

∞
X
P = Pdc + Vn In cos φn
n=1
= Pdc + V1 I1 cos φ1 + V2 I2 cos φ2 + V3 I3 cos φ3 + . . .
= Pdc + P1 + P2 + P3 + . . .
= Pdc + P1 + PH (1.32)

In above equation,
Pdc = Average active power corresponding to the dc components
P1 = Average fundamental active power
PH = Average harmonic active power

Average fundamental active power (P1 ) can also be found from fundamentals of voltage and cur-
rent i.e.,

Z T
1
P1 = v1 (t) i1 (t)dt (1.33)
T 0

and harmonic active power (PH ) can be found as below.

∞
X
PH = Vn In cos φn = P − P1 . (1.34)
n=1

1.4.2 Reactive Power

The reactive power or Budeanu’s reactive power (Q) can be found by summing maximum value of
each term in (1.30). This is given below.

∞
X
Q = Vn In sin φn
n=1
= V1 I1 sin φ1 + V2 I2 sin φ2 + V3 I3 sin φ3 + . . .
= Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + . . .
= Q1 + QH (1.35)

16
Usually this reactive power is referred as Budeanu’s reactive power, and sometimes we use sub-
script B’ to indicate that i.e.,

QB = Q1B + QHB (1.36)

The remaining dissimilar terms of (1.27) are accounted using prest (t). Therefore, we can write,

p(t) = pdc−dc + pactive (t) + preactive (t) + prest (t) (1.37)

| {z } | {z }
Similar frequency terms Non-similar frequency terms

where,

pdc−dc = Vdc Idc

∞
X
pactive (t) = [Vn In cos φn {1 − cos(2nωt − 2 φvn )}]
n=1
X∞
preactive (t) = − [Vn In sin φn . sin(2nωt − 2 φvn )]
n=1
∞ ∞
X √ X √
prest (t) = Vdc 2In sin(nωt − φin ) + Idc 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn )
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
X √ X √
+ 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2Im sin(mωt − φim ) (1.38)
n=1 m=1,m6=n

1.4.3 Apparent Power

The scalar apparent power which is defined as product of rms value of voltage and current, is
expressed as following.

S = V
qI q
2 2 2 2
= Vdc + V1 + V2 + · · · Idc + I12 + I22 + · · · (1.39)
q q
= Vdc2 + V12 + VH2 Idc
2
+ I12 + IH
2

Where,
∞
X
VH2 = V22 + V32 + · · · = Vn2
n=2
∞
X
2
IH = I22 + I32 + · · · = In2 (1.40)
n=2

VH and IH are denoted as harmonic voltage and harmonic current respectively. Expanding (1.39)
we can write

17
 S2 = V 2I 2
= (Vdc2 + V12 + VH2 )(Idc2
+ I12 + IH2
)
= Vdc Idc + Vdc I1 + Vdc IH + V1 I1 + V12 Idc
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ V12 IH
2
+ VH2 Idc
2
+ VH2 I12 + VH2 IH
2

= Vdc2 Idc
2
+ V12 I12 + VH2 IH
2
+ Vdc2 (I12 + IH
2 2
) + Idc (V12 + VH2 ) + V12 IH
2
+ VH2 I12
2
= Sdc + S12 + SH 2
+ SD 2

= S12 + Sdc 2
+ SH 2
+ SD 2
| {z }

= S12 + SN
2
(1.41)
In above equation, the term SN is as following.
2
SN = Vdc2 I12 + Vdc2 IH
2
+ V12 Idc
2
+ V12 IH
2
+ VH2 Idc
2
+ VH2 I12 + VH2 IH
2 2 2
+ Idc 2
IH + Idc Vdc2 (1.42)
Practically in power systems dc components are negligible. Therefore neglecting the contribution
of Vdc and Idc associated terms in (1.42), the following is obtained.
2
SN = I12 VH2 + V12 IH
2
+ VH2 IH
2

= DV2 + DI2 + SH 2
(1.43)
The terms DI and DV in (1.43) are known as apparent powers due to distortion in current and
voltage respectively. These are given below.
DV = I1 VH
DI = V1 IH (1.44)
These are further expressed in terms of THD components of voltage and current, as given below.

VH
T HDV =
V1
IH
T HDI = (1.45)
I1
From (1.45), the harmonic components of current and voltage are expressed below.
VH = T HDV V1
IH = T HDI I1 (1.46)
Using (1.44) and (1.46),
DV = V1 I1 T HDV = S1 T HDV
DI = V1 I1 T HDI = S1 T HDI
SH = VH IH = S1 T HDI T HDV (1.47)
Therefore using (1.43) and (1.47), SN could be expressed as following.

18
 2
SN = S12 (T HDI2 + T HDV2 + T HDI2 T HDV2 ) (1.48)

Normally in power system, T HDV << T HDI , therefore,

SN ≈ S1 DI (1.49)

The above relationship shows that as the THD content in voltage and current increases, the non fun-
damental apparent power SN increases for a given useful transmitted power. This means there are
more losses and hence less efficient power network.

1.4.4 Non Active Power

Non active power is denoted by N and is defined as per following equation.

S2 = P 2 + N 2 (1.50)

This power includes both fundamental as well as non fundamental components, and is usually
computed by knowing active power (P ) and apparent power (S) as given below.
√
N = S2 − P 2 (1.51)

1.4.5 Distortion Power

Due to presence of distortion, the total apparent power S can also be written in terms of active
power (P ), reactive power (Q) and distortion power (D)

S 2 = P 2 + Q2 + D2 . (1.52)

Therefore,
p
D= S 2 − P 2 − Q2 . (1.53)

1.4.6 Fundamental Power Factor

Fundamental power factor is defined as ratio of fundamental real power (P1 ) to the fundamental
apparent power (S1 ). This is given below.

P1
pf1 = cos φ1 = (1.54)
S1
The fundamental power factor as defined above is also known as displacement power factor.

19
1.4.7 Power Factor
Power factor for the single phase system considered above is the ratio of the total real power (P )
to the total apparent power (S) as given by the following equation.
P
pf =
S
P 1 + PH
= p 2 2
S1 + SN
(1 + PH /P1 ) P1
= p (1.55)
1 + (SN /S1 )2 S1
Substituting SN from (1.48), the power factor can further be simplified to the following equation.
(1 + PH /P1 )
pf = p pf1 (1.56)
1 + T HDI2 + T HDV2 + T HDI2 T HDV2
Thus, we observe that the power factor of a single phase system depends upon fundamental (P1 )
and harmonic active power (PH ), displacement factor (DP F = pf1 ) and THDs in voltage and
current. Further, we note following points.
1. P/S is also called as utilization factor indicator as it indicates the usage of real power.
2. The term SN /S1 is used to decide the overall degree of harmonic content in the system.
3. The flow of fundamental power can be characterized by measurement of S1 , P1 , pf1 , and Q1 .
For a practical power system P1 >> PH and T HDV << T HDI , the above expression of power
factor is further simplified as given below.
pf1
pf = p (1.57)
1 + T HDI2

Example 1.3 Consider the following voltage and current in single phase system.
√ √
vs (t) = 230 2 sin(ωt) + 50 2 sin(3ωt − 30◦ )
√ √
i(t) = 2 + 10 2 sin(ωt − 30◦ ) + 5 2 sin(3ωt − 60◦ )

Determine the following.

(a) Active power, (P )

(b) Reactive power, (Q)
(c) Apparent power, (S)
(d) Power factor, (pf )

20
Solution: Here the source is non-sinusoidal and is feeding a non-linear load. The instantaneous
power is given by,
p(t) = v(t) i(t)
∞
X√ ∞
X √
p(t) = {Vdc + 2 Vn sin(nωt − φvn )} {Idc + 2 In sin(nωt − φin )}
n=1 n=1
(a) The active power ’P’ is given by,

1 T
Z
P = p(t) dt
T 0
= Pdc + V1 I1 cos φ1 + V2 I2 cos φ2 + ...... + Vn In cos φn (1.58)
= Pdc + P1 + PH
where,
φn = φin − φvn
Pdc = Vdc Idc
P1 = V1 I1 cos φ1
X∞
PH = Vn In cos φn
n=2
Here, Vdc = 0, V1 = 230 V, φv1 = 0, V3 = 50 V, φv3 = 30◦ , Idc = 2 A, I1 = 10 A, φi1 = 30◦ ,
I3 = 5 A, φi3 = 60◦ . Therefore, φ1 = φi1 − φv1 = 30◦ and φ3 = φi3 − φv3 = 30◦ .
Substituting these values in (1.58), the above equation gives,

P = 0 × 2 + 230 × 10 × cos 30◦ + 50 × 5 × cos 30◦ = 2208.36 W.

(b). The reactive power (Q) is given by,
X ∞
Q = Vn In sin φn
n=1
= V1 I1 sin φ1 + V2 I2 sin φ2 + .....Vn In sin φn
= 230 × 10 × sin 30◦ + 50 × 5 × sin 30◦ = 1275 VAr.
(c). The Apparent power S is given by,
S = Vrms Irms
q q
2 2 2 2
= Vdc + V1 + V2 + ....Vn2 Idc + I12 + I22 + .....In2
q q
= Vdc2 + V12 + VH2 Idc
2
+ I12 + IH2

where,

q
VH = V22 + V32 + ....Vn2
q
IH = I22 + I32 + .....In2

21
Substituting the values of voltage and current components, the apparent power S is computed as
following.

√ √
S = 0 + 2302 + 502 22 + 102 + 52
= 235.37 × 11.357 = 2673.31 VA

(d). The power factor is given by

P 2208.36
pf = = = 0.8261 lag
S 2673.31

Example 1.4 Consider following system with distorted supply voltages,

∞ √
X 2Vn
v(t) = Vdc + sin(nωt − φvn )
n=1
n2

√
with Vdc = 10 V, Vn /n2 = 230 2/n2 and φvn = 0 f or n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .

The voltage source supplies a nonlinear current of,

∞ √
X 2In
i(t) = Idc + sin(nωt − φin ).
n=1
n

with Idc = 2 A, In = 20/n A and φin = n × 30o for n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .

Compute the following.

(a) Plot instantaneous power p(t), pactive (t), preactive (t), Pdc , and prest (t).

(b) Compute P, P1 , PH (= P3 + P5 + P7 + . . .).

(c) Compute Q, Q1 , QH (= Q3 + Q5 + Q7 + . . .).

(d) Compute S, S1 , SH , N, D.

(e) Comment upon each result.

Solution: Instantaneous power is given as following.

22
 ∞ √ ! ∞ √ !
X 230 2 X 20 2
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 10 + 2
sin(nωt) 2+ sin n(ωt − 300 )
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n
∞ √ ∞ √
X 20 2 0
X 230 2
= |{z}
20 + 10 sin n(ωt − 30 ) + 2 sin(nωt)
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n2
I
| {z } | {z }
II III
∞ √ ! ∞ √ !
X 230 2 X 20 2
+ 2
sin(nωt) sin n(ωt − 300 )
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n
| {z }
IV
∞ √ ∞ √
X 200 2 X 460 2
= |{z}
20 + sin n(ωt − 300 ) + 2
sin(nωt)
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n
I
| {z } | {z }
II III
∞
X 4600
+ 3
(cos(30o n)(1 − cos 2nωt) − sin (2nωt) sin(30o n))
n=1,3,5
n
| {z }
IV A
∞ √ ! ∞ √ !
X 230 2 X 20 2
+ 2
sin nωt sin h(ωt − 300 )
n=1,3,5
n h=1,3,5;h6=n
h
| {z }
IV B

a. Computation of p(t), pactive (t), preactive (t), Pdc ., and prest (t)

pdc−dc (t) = 20 W
∞
X 4600
pactive (t) = 3
cos n300 (1 − cos 2nωt)
n=1,3,5
n
∞
X 4600
preactive (t) = − 3
sin(n300 ) sin(2nωt)
n=1,3,5
n
∞ √ ∞ √
X 200 2 0
X 460 2
prest (t) = sin n(ωt − 30 ) + sin(nωt)
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n2
∞ √ ! ∞ √ !
X 230 2 X 20 2
+ 2
sin nωt sin h(ωt − 300 )
n=1,3,5
n h=1,3,5;h6=n
h

23
b. Computation of P, P1 , PH

Z T
1
P = p(t)dt
T 0
∞
X 4600
= 20 + 3
cos(30o n)
n=1,3,5
n
∞
X 4600
= 20 + 4600 cos 300 + 3
cos(30o n)
n=3,5,7...
n
= 20 + 3983.71 + (−43.4841)
= Pdc + P1 + PH

Thus,
Active power contributed by dc components of voltage and current, Pdc = 20 W.

Active power contributed by fundamental frequency components of voltage and current, P1 =

3983.71 W.

Active power contributed by harmonic frequency components of voltage and current, PH = −43.4841
W.

c. Computation of Q, Q1 , QH

∞
X 4600
Q = 3
sin(30o n)
n=1,3,5
n
∞
0
X 4600
= 4600 sin 30 + 3
sin(30o n)
n=3,5,7...
n
= 2300 + 175.7548 VArs
= Q1 + QH

P∞ 3 o
The above implies that, Q1 = 4600 VArs and QH = n=3,5,7... (4600/n ) sin(30 n) = 175.7548
VArs.

d. Computation of Apparent Powers and Distortion Powers

24
 The apparent power S is expressed as following.
q
Vrms = Vdc2 + V12 + V32 + V52 + V72 + V92 + ....
p
= 102 + 2302 + (230/32 )2 + (230/52 )2 + (230/72 )2 + (230/92 )2 + ....
= 231.87 V (up to n = 9)
q
2
Irms = Idc + I12 + I32 + I52 + I72 + I92 + ....
p
= 22 + 202 + (20/3)2 + (20/5)2 + (20/7)2 + (20/9)2 + ....
= 21.85 A (up to n = 9)

The apparent power, S = Vrms Irms = 231.87 × 21.85 = 5066.36 VA.

Fundamental apparent power, S1 = V1 x I1 = 4600 VA.
Apparent power contributed by harmonics SH = VH × IH

q
VH = V32 + V52 + V72 + V92 + ....
p
= (230/32 )2 + (230/52 )2 + (230/72 )2 + (230/92 )2 + ....
= 27.7 V (up to n = 9)
q
IH = I32 + I52 + I72 + I92 + ....
p
= (20/3)2 + (20/5)2 + (20/7)2 + (20/9)2 + ....
= 8.57 A (up to n = 9).

Therefore the harmonic apparent power, SH = VH × IH = 237.5 VA.

√ √
Non active power, N = pS 2 − P 2 = 50672 − √
3960.22 = 3160.8 VArs (up to n=9)
Distortion Power D = 2 2
S − P − Q = 2 50672 − 3960.22 − 2475.772 = 1965.163
VArs (up to n=9).

Displacement power factor (cos φ1 )

P1 3983.7
cos φ1 = = = 0.866 lagging
S1 (230)(20)
Power factor (cos φ)
P 3960.217
cos φ = = = 0.781 lagging
S 5067
The voltage, current, various powers and power factor are plotted in the Fig. 1.8, verifying
above values.

25
 200
20
Voltage (v)

Current (A)
100
10
0
0
-100
-10
-200
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
time (sec) time (sec)

Inst. active power (W)

4000 4000
Inst. Power (W)

2000 3000

2000
0
1000
-2000
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
time (sec) time (sec)

Rest of inst. power (W)

Inst. reactive power

1000
2000
500

0
0
-500

-1000
-2000
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
time (sec) time (sec)
3000
Non active power (VA)

1168
Total apparent power (VA)
2500
Avg. active power (W) 1167
2000

Distortion power (W) 1166

1500 Avg. reactive power (VAr)

1000 1165
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
time (sec) time (sec)

Fig. 1.8 System voltage, current and related powers

References
[1] IEEE Group, “IEEE trial-use standard definitions for the measurement of electric power quan-
tities under sinusoidal, nonsinusoidal, balanced, or unbalanced conditions,” 2000.
[2] E. Watanabe, R. Stephan, and M. Aredes, “New concepts of instantaneous active and reactive
powers in electrical systems with generic loads,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8,
no. 2, pp. 697–703, 1993.
[3] T. Furuhashi, S. Okuma, and Y. Uchikawa, “A study on the theory of instantaneous reactive
power,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 86–90, 1990.
[4] A. Ferrero and G. Superti-Furga, “A new approach to the definition of power components in
three-phase systems under nonsinusoidal conditions,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation
and Measurement, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 568–577, 1991.
[5] J. Willems, “A new interpretation of the akagi-nabae power components for nonsinusoidal
three-phase situations,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 41,
no. 4, pp. 523–527, 1992.

26
THREE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER
DEFINITIONS AND VARIOUS
COMPONENTS

2.1 Three-phase Sinusoidal Balanced System

Usage of three-phase voltage supply is very common for generation, transmission and distribution
of bulk electrical power. Almost all industrial loads are supplied by three-phase power supply for
its advantages over single phase systems such as cost and efficiency f or s ame a mount o f power
usage. In principle, any number of phases can be used in polyphase electric system, however
three-phase system is simpler and giving all advantages of polyphase system. In previous section,
we have seen that instantaneous active power has a constant term V Icosφ as well pulsating term
V I cos(2ωt − φ). The pulsating term does not contribute to any real power and thus increases the
VA rating of the system.

In the following section, we shall study the various three-phase circuits such as balanced, un-
balanced, balanced and unbalanced harmonics and discuss their properties in details [1]–[5].

2.1.1 Balanced Three-phase Circuits

A balanced three-phase system is shown in Fig. 2.1 below.

Three-phase balanced system is expressed using following voltages and currents.

√
va (t) = 2V sin(ωt)
√
vb (t) = 2V sin(ωt − 120◦ ) (2.1)
√
vc (t) = 2V sin(ωt + 120◦ )

27
 a a

b b

c c

Fig. 2.1 A three-phase balanced circuit

and
√
ia (t) = 2I sin(ωt − φ)
√
ib (t) = 2I sin(ωt − 120◦ − φ) (2.2)
√
ic (t) = 2I sin(ωt + 120◦ − φ)

In (2.1) and (2.2) subscripts a, b and c are used to denote three phases which are balanced. Balanced
three-phase means that the voltage or current magnitude (V or I) are same for all three phases and
they have a phase shift of −120o and 120o . The currents are assumed to have φ degree lag with
their respective phase voltages. The balanced three phase system has certain interesting properties.
These will be discussed in the following section.

2.1.2 Three Phase Instantaneous Active Power

Three phase instantaneous active power in three phase system is given by,

p3φ (t) = p(t) = va (t)ia (t) + vb (t)ib (t) + vc (t)ic (t)

= pa + pb + pc (2.3)

In above equation, pa (t), pb (t) and pc (t) are expressed similar to single phase system done previ-
ously. These are given below.

pa (t) = V I cos φ {1 − cos 2ωt} − V I sin φ sin 2ωt

pb (t) = V I cos φ {1 − cos 2(ωt − 120o )} − V I sin φ sin 2(ωt − 120o ) (2.4)
pc (t) = V I cos φ {1 − cos 2(ωt + 120o )} − V I sin φ sin 2(ωt + 120o )

Adding three phase instantaneous powers given in (2.4), we get the three-phase instantaneous
power as below.

p(t) = 3 V I cos φ − V I cos φ{cos 2ωt + cos 2(ωt − 120o ) + cos 2(ωt + 120o )}
− V I sin φ{sin 2ωt + sin 2(ωt − 120o ) + sin 2(ωt + 120o )} (2.5)

Summation of terms in curly brackets is always equal to zero. Hence,

28
 p3φ (t) = p(t) = 3V I cos φ. (2.6)

This is quite interesting result. It indicates for balanced three-phase system, the total instantaeous
power is equal to the real power or average active power (P ), which is constant. This is the reason
we use 3-phase system. It does not involve the pulsating or oscillating components of power as in
case of single phase systems. Thus it ensures less VA rating for same amount of power transfer.

Here, total three-phase reactive power can be defined as sum of maximum value of preactive (t)
terms in (2.4). Thus,

Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 3V I sin φ. (2.7)

Is there any attempt to define instantaneous reactive power q(t) similar to p(t) such that Q is
average value of that term q(t)?. H. Akagi et al. published paper [6], in which authors defined term
instantaneous reactive power. The definition was facilitated through αβ0 transformation. Briefly
it is described in the next subsection.

2.1.3 Three Phase Instantatneous Reactive Power

H. Akagi et.al. [6] attempted to define instantaneous reactive power(q(t)) using αβ0 transforma-
tion. This transformation is described below.

The abc coordinates and their equivalent αβ0 coordinates are shown in the Fig. 2.2 below.


vc
-j c

- c /2

- b /2 60
o O va 

vb j b

j

Fig. 2.2 A abc to αβ0 transformation

Resolving a, b, c quantities along the αβ axis we have,

r
2 vb vc
vα = (va − − ) (2.8)
3 2 2
r √
2 3
vβ = (vb − vc ) (2.9)
3 2
29
 q
Here, 23 is a scaling factor, which ensures power invariant transformation. Along with that, we
define zero sequence voltage as,
r r
2 1
v0 = (va + vb + vc ) (2.10)
3 2
Based on Eqns.(4.60)-(2.10) we can write the above equations as follows.


v0 (t)
 r  √1 √1 √1

va (t)

2 2 −1
2
−1
2
 vα (t)  = 1 √2 2
√
  vb (t)  (2.11)
vβ (t) 3 3 − 3 vc (t)
0 2 2

   
v0 va
 vα  = [Aoαβ ]  vb 
vβ vc
The above is known as Clarke-Concordia transformation. Thus, va , vb and vc can also be expressed
in terms of v0 , vα and vβ by pre-multiplying (2.11) by matrix [A0αβ ]−1 , we have

   
va v0
 vb  = [A0αβ ]−1  vα 
vc vβ

It will be interesting to learn that

r  1 −1
√ √1 √1
2 2 2 2
[A0αβ ]−1 = [Aabc ] =  1 √ −1
2
−1 
2
√
3 3 − 3
0 2
  1  2
r √
2
1 0
 2  √1 −1 √3 
[A0αβ ]−1 =   2 2 2
√
T
 = [A0αβ ] = [Aabc ] (2.12)
3 1 −1 − 3
√
2 2 2

Similarly, we can write down instantaneous symmetrical transformation for currents, which is
given below.
 r  1
√1 √1
  
i0 √ i
2 2 2 a
 iα  = 2  1 −1 −1   ib  (2.13)
√2 √2
iβ 3 3 − 3 ic
0 2 2

Now based on ’0αβ’ transformation, the instantaneous active and reactive powers are defined as
follows. The three-phase instantaneous power p(t) is expressed as the dot product of 0αβ compo-
nents of voltage and currents such as given below.

30
 p(t) = vα iα + vβ iβ + v0 i0
"   √ √
2  vb vc  ib ic 3 3
= va − − ia − − + (vb − vc ) (ib − ic )
3 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1
+ √ (va + vb + vc ) √ (ia + ib + ic )
3 3
= va ia + vb ib + vc ic (2.14)

Now what about instantaneous reactive power? Is there any concept defining instantaneous reactive
power? In 1983-84,authors H.akagi have attempted to define instantaneous reactive power using
stationary αβ0 frame, as illustrated below. In [6], the instantaneous reactive power q(t) is defines
as the cross product of two mutual perpendicular quantities, such as given below.

q(t) = vα × iβ + vβ × iα
q(t) = vα iβ − vβ iα
" √ √  #
2  vb vc  3 3 ib ic
= va − − (ib − ic ) − (vb − vc ) ia − −
3 2 2 2 2 2 2
√ h
2 3  vb vc vb vc   vb vc vb vc  i
= (−vb + vc ) ia + va − − + − ib + −va + + + − ic
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
= − √ [(vb − vc ) ia + (vc − va ) ib + (va − vb ) ic ]
3 √
= − [vbc ia + vca ib + vab ic ] / 3 (2.15)

This is also equal to the following.

     
1 ib ic ib ic ib i c ib ic
q(t) = √ (ib − ic ) va + − + − ia + + vb + − + + ia − − vc
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
= √ [(ib − ic ) va + (ic − ia ) vb + (ia − ib ) vc ] (2.16)
3

2.1.4 Power Invariance in abc and αβ0 Coordinates

As a check for power invariance, we shall compute the energy content of voltage signals in two
transformations. The energy associated with the abc0 system is given
by (va2 + vb2 + vc2 ) and the
energy associated with the αβ0 components is given by v02 + vα2 + vβ2 . The two energies must
be equal to ensure power invariance in two transformations. It is proved below. Using, (2.11) and

31
squares of the respective components, we have the following.

"r #2
2 vb vc 
vα2 = va − −
3 2 2
vb2 vc2 2va vb 2vb vc 2va vc
 
2
vα2 = 2
v + + − + −
3 a 4 4 2 4 2
2 2
2 2 vb v 2va vb vb vc 2va vc
= va + + c − + − (2.17)
3 6 6 3 3 3

Similary we can find out square of vβ term as given below.

"√ r #2
3 2
vβ2 = (vb − vc )
2 3
1 2
vb + vc2 − 2vb vc


=
2
v2 v2
= b + c − vb vc (2.18)
2 2

Adding (2.17) and (2.18), we find that,

2 2
vα2 + vβ2 = va + vb2 + vc2 − vc vb − vb vc − vc va


3  2
va vb2 vc2 2va vb 2vb vc 2va vc

2 2 2


= va + vb + vc − + + + + +
3 3 3 3 3 3
1
= va2 + vb2 + vc2 − (va + vb + vc )2


3
 2
2 2 2

1
= va + vb + vc − √ (va + vb + vc ) (2.19)
3

Since v0 = √1 (va + vb + vc ), the above equation, (2.19) can be written as,

3

vα2 + vβ2 + v02 = va2 + vb2 + vc2 . (2.20)

From the above it is implies that the energy associated with the two systems remain same instant to
instant basis. In general the instantaneous power p(t) remain same in both transformations. This
is proved below.

32
Using (2.14), following can be written.
p(t) = vα iα + vβ iβ + vo io
 T  
v0 i0
p(t) =  vα   iα 
vβ iβ
  T   
va ia
= [Aabc ]  vb  [Aabc ]  ib 
vc ic
 T  
va ia
=  vb  [Aabc ]T [Aabc ]  ib 
vc ic
 T  
va ia
=  vb  [Aabc ]−1 [Aabc ]  ib 
vc ic
 
  ia
= va vb vc  ib 
ic
= va ia + vb ib + vc ic (2.21)

In the above, the following property of matrices of from (2.12), is used.

[Aabc ]T [Aabc ] = [Aabc ]−1 [Aabc ] = I (2.22)

In above, I is identity matrix.

2.2 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Powers for Three-phase Circuits

In the previous section instantaneous active and reactive powers were defined using αβ0 trans-
formation. In this section we shall study these powers for various three-phase circuits such as
three-phase balanced, three-phase unbalanced, balanced three-phase with harmonics and unbal-
anced three-phase with harmonics. Each case will be considered and analyzed.

2.2.1 Three-Phase Balance System

For three-phase balanced system, three-phase voltages have been expressed by equation (2.1). For
these phase voltages, the line to line voltages are given as below.
√ √
vab = 3 2V sin (ωt + 30◦ )
√ √
vbc = 3 2V sin(ωt − 90◦ )
√ √
vca = 3 2V sin (ωt + 150◦ ) (2.23)

33
 Vc Vb
o
30
3 V

V ab

Va  V0o

Vb

Fig. 2.3 Relationship between line-to-line and phase voltage

The above relationship between phase and line to line voltages is also illustrated in Fig. 2.3. For
the above three-phase system, the instantaneous power p(t) can be expressed using (2.21) and it is
equal to,

p(t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
= vα iα + vβ iβ + v0 i0
= 3 V I cosφ (2.24)

The instantaneous reactive power q(t) is as following.

1 √ √ √
q(t) = − √ [ 3 2V sin (ωt − 90o ) 2I sin (ωt − φ)
3
√ √ √
+ 3 2V sin (ωt + 150o ) 2I sin (ωt − 120o − φ)
√ √ √
+ 3 2V sin (ωt + 30o ) 2I sin (ωt + 120◦ − φ)]
= −V I [cos (90◦ − φ) − cos (2ωt − 90o − φ)
+ cos (90o − φ) − cos (2ωt − 30o − φ)
+ cos (90o − φ) − cos (2ωt + 150o − φ)]
= −V I [3 sin φ − cos (2ωt − φ + 30o ) − cos (2ωt − φ + 30o + 120o )
− cos (2ωt − φ + 30o − 120o )]
= −V I [3 sin φ − 0]
q(t) = −3V I sin φ (2.25)

The above value of instantaneous reactive power is same as defined by Budeanu’s [1] and is given
in equation (2.7). Thus, instantaneous reactive power given in (2.15) matches with the conven-
tional definition of reactive power defined in (2.7). However the time varying part of second terms
of each phase in (2.4) has no relevance with the definition given in (2.15).

Another interpretation of line to line voltages in (2.15) is that the voltages vab , vbc and vca have

34
90o phase shift with respect to voltages vc , va and vb respectively. These are expressed as below.
√
vab = 3vc ∠ − 90o
√
vbc = 3va ∠ − 90o (2.26)
√ o
vca = 3vb ∠ − 90
In above equation, vc ∠ − 90o implies that vc ∠ − 90o lags vc by 90o . Analyzing each term in
(2.15) contributes to,
√
vbc ia = 3va ∠ − 90◦ . ia
√ √ √
= 3 2V sin (ωt − 90◦ ) . 2I sin (ωt − φ)
√
= 3V I 2 sin (ωt − 90◦ ) . sin (ωt − φ)
√
= 3V I [cos (90◦ − φ) − cos (2ωt − 90◦ − φ)]
√
= 3V I [sin φ − cos {90◦ + (2ωt − φ)}]
√
= 3V I [sin φ + sin (2ωt − φ)]
√
= 3V I [sin φ + sin 2ωt cos φ − cos 2ωt sin φ]
√
vbc ia / 3 = V I [sin φ (1 − cos 2ωt) + cos φ sin 2ωt]
Similarly,
√
    
2π
vca ib / 3 = V I sin φ 1 − cos 2 ωt −
3
 
2π
+V I cos φ. sin 2 ωt −
3
√
    
2π
vab ic / 3 = V I sin φ 1 − cos 2 ωt +
3
 
2π
+V I cos φ. sin 2 ωt + (2.27)
3
Thus, we see that the role of the coefficients of sin φ and cos φ have reversed. Now if we take
average value of (2.27), it is not equal to zero but V I sin φ in each phase. Thus three-phase reactive
power will be 3V I sin φ. The maximum value of second term in (2.27) represents active average
power i.e., V I cos φ. However, this is not normally convention about the notation of the powers.
But, important contribution of this definition is that average reactive power could be defined as the
average value of terms in (2.27).

2.2.2 Three-Phase Unbalance System

Three-phase unbalance system is not uncommon in power system. Three-phase unbalance may
result from single-phasing, faults, different loads in three phases. To study three-phase system
with fundamental unbalance, the voltages and currents are expressed as following.

√
va = 2Va sin (ωt − φva )
√
vb = 2Vb sin (ωt − 120o − φvb ) (2.28)
√
vc = 2Vc sin (ωt + 120o − φvc )

35
 and,
√
ia = 2Ia sin (ωt − φia )
√
ib = 2Ib sin (ωt − 120o − φib ) (2.29)
√
ic = 2Ic sin (ωt + 120o − φic )
For the above system, the three-phase instantaneous power is given by,
p3φ (t) = p(t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
√
= 2Va sin (ωt − φva ) sin (ωt − φia )
√ √
+ 2Vb sin (ωt − 120o − φvb ) 2Ib sin (ωt − 120o − φib ) (2.30)
√ √
+ 2Vc sin (ωt + 120o − φvc ) 2Ic sin (ωt + 120o − φic )
Simplifying above expression we get,
p3φ (t) = Va Ia cos φa {1 − cos (2ωt − 2φva )}
| {z }
pa,active
−V I sin φa sin (2ωt − 2φva )
| a a {z }
pa,reactive
+Vb Ib cos φb [1 − cos {2 (ωt − 120◦ ) − 2φvb }]
−Vb Ib sin φb sin {2 (ωt − 120◦ ) − 2φvb }
+Vc Ic cos φc [1 − cos {2 (ωt + 120◦ ) − 2φvc }]
−Vc Ic sin φc sin {2 (ωt + 120◦ ) − 2φvc } (2.31)
where φa = (φia − φva )
Therefore,
p3φ (t) = pa,active + pb,active + pc,active + pa,reactive + pb,reactive + pc,reactive
= pa + pb + pc + pea + peb + pec (2.32)
where,
pa = Pa = Va Ia cos φa
pb = Pb = Vb Ib cos φb (2.33)
pc = Pc = Vc Ic cos φc
and
pea = −Va Ia cos (2 ωt − φa − 2 φva )
peb = −Vb Ib cos (2 ωt − 240o − φb − 2 φvb ) (2.34)
pec = −Vc Ic cos (2ωt + 240 − φc − 2 φvc )
Also it is noted that,
pa + pb + p c = va ia + vb ib + vc ic = P (2.35)

36
and,
pea + peb + pec = −Va Ia cos(2ωt − φva − φib )
−Vb Ib cos {2(ωt − 120) − φvb − φib }
−Vc Ic cos {2(ωt + 120) − φvc − φic }
6= 0
This implies that, we no longer get advantage of getting constant power, 3V I cos φ from interaction
of three-phase voltages and currents. Now, let us analyze three phase instantaneous reactive power
q(t) as per definition given in (2.15).

1
q(t) = − √ (vb − vc )ia + (vc − va )ib + (va − vb )ic
3
2 h
= − √ {Vb sin(ωt − 120o − φvb ) − Vc sin(ωt + 120o − φvc )} Ia sin(ωt − φia )
3
√
+ {Vc sin(ωt + 120o − φvc ) − Va sin(ωt − φva )} 2Ib sin(ωt − 120o − φib ) (2.36)
o o
√ o
i
+{Va sin(ωt − 120 − φva ) − Vb sin(ωt − 120 − φvb )} 2Ic sin(ωt + 120 − φic )

From the above,

√ h
3 q(t) = − Vb Ia {cos(φia − 120o − φvb ) − cos(2ωt − 120o − φia − φvb )}
−Vc Ia {cos(φia + 120o − φvc ) − cos(2ωt + 120o − φia − φvc )}
+Vc Ib {cos(φib + 240o − φvc ) − cos(2ωt − φib − φvc )} (2.37)
−Va Ib {cos(φib − 120o − φva ) − cos(2ωt − 120o − φva − φib )}
+Va Ic {cos(φic − 120o − φva ) − cos(2ωt + 120o − φva − φic )}
i
o
−Vb Ic {cos(φic − 240 − φvb ) − cos(2ωt − φic − φvb )}

Now looking this expression,we can say that

Z T
1 1 h
q(t)dt = − √ Vb Ia cos(φia − φvb − 120o )
T 0 3
−Vc Ia cos(φia − φvc + 120o )
+Vc Ib cos(φib + 240o − φvc )
−Va Ib cos(φib − 120o − φva )
+Va Ic cos(φic − 120o − φva )
i
o
−Vb Ic cos(φic − 240 − φvb )
= q a (t) + q b (t) + q c (t)
6 = Va Ia sin φa + Vb Ib sin φb + Vc Ic sin φc (2.38)
Hence the definition of instantaneous reactive power does not match to that defined by Budeanue’s
reactive power [1] for three-phase unbalanced circuit. If only voltages or currents are distorted, the

37
above holds true as given below. Let us consider that only currents are unbalanced, then

√
va (t) = 2V sin(ωt)
√
vb (t) = 2V sin(ωt − 120◦ ) (2.39)
√ ◦
vc (t) = 2V sin(ωt + 120 )
and
√
ia (t) = 2Ia sin(ωt − φa )
√
ib (t) = 2Ib sin(ωt − 120o − φb ) (2.40)
√ o
ic (t) = 2Ic sin(ωt + 120 − φc )
And the instantaneous reactive power is given by,
q(t) = − √13 [vbc ia + vca ib + vab ic ]
√ √ √
= − √13 [ 3 va ∠−π/2 ia + 3 vb ∠ − π/2 ib + 3 vc ∠ − π/2 ic ]
√ √
= −[√ 2V sin(ωt − π/2) 2Ia sin(ωt √ − φia )
+√2V sin(ωt − 120 − π/2)√ 2Ib sin(ωt − 120o − φib )
o

+ 2V sin(ωt + 120o + π/2) 2Ic sin(ωt + 120o − φic )]

= −[V Ia cos(π/2 − φia ) − cos {π/2 − (2ωt − φia )}
+V Ib cos(π/2 − φib ) − cos(2ωt − 240o − π/2 − φib )
+V Ic cos(π/2 − φic ) − cos(2ωt + 240o − π/2 − φic )]
= −[(V Ia sin φia + V Ib sin φib + V Ic sin φic )
+V Ia sin(2ωt − φia ) + V Ib sin(2ωt − 240o − φib ) + V Ic sin(2ωt + 240o − φic )]
Thus,

Z T
1
Q= q(t)dt = −(V Ia sin φia + V Ib sin φib + V Ic sin φic ) (2.41)
T 0

Which is similar to Budeanu’s reactive power.

The oscillating term of q(t) which is equal to qe(t) is given below.

qe(t) = V Ia sin(2ωt − φia ) + V Ib sin(2ωt − 240o − φib ) + V Ic sin(2ωt + 240o − φic ) (2.42)
which is not similar to what is being defined as reactive component of power in (2.4).

2.3 Symmetrical components

In the previous section, the fundamental unbalance in three phase voltage and currents have been
considered. Ideal power systems are not designed for unbalance quantities as it makes power sys-
tem components over rated and inefficient. Thus, to understand unbalance three-phase systems,

38
a concept of symmetrical components introduced by C. L. Fortescue, will be discussed. In 1918,
C. L Fortescue, wrote a paper [7] presenting that an unbalanced system of n-related phasors can
be resolved into n system of balanced phasors, called the symmetrical components of the original
phasors. The n phasors of each set of components are equal in length and the angles. Although,
the method is applicable to any unbalanced polyphase system, we shall discuss about three phase
systems.

For the discussion of symmetrical components, a complex operator denoted as a is defined as,

a = 1∠120o = ej2π/3 = cos 2π/3 + j sin 2π/3

√
= −1/2 + j 3/2
a2 = 1∠240o = 1∠ − 120o = ej4π/3 = e−j2π/3 = cos 4π/3 + j sin 4π/3
√
= −1/2 − j 3/2
a3 = 1∠360o = ej2π = 1

Also note an interesting property relating a, a2 and a3 ,

a + a2 + a3 = 0. (2.43)

a  1120
o

o a  1o
3 o

a 2  1  120o
Fig. 2.4 Phasor representation of a, a2 and a3

These quantities i.e., a, a2 and a3 = 1 also represent three phasors which are shifted by 120o
from each other. This is shown in Fig. 2.4.
Knowing the above and using Fortescue theorem, three unbalanced phasor of a three phase un-
balanced system can be resolved into three balanced system phasors.

1. Positive sequence components are composed of three phasors, equal in magnitude, phase shift

39
of −120o and 120o between phases with phase sequence same to that of the original phasors.

2. Negative sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, phase shift of
120o and −120o between phases with phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors.

3. Zero sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude with zero phase shift
from each other.

These are denoted as following.

Positive sequence components: V a+ , V b+ , V c+

Negative sequence components: V a− , V b− , V c−

Zero sequence components: V a0 , V b0 , V c0

Thus, we can write,

V a = V a+ + V a− + V a0
V b = V b+ + V b− + V b0 (2.44)
V c = V c+ + V c− + V c0

Graphically, these are represented in Fig. 2.5. Thus if we add the sequence components of each
phase vectorially, we shall get V a , V b and V s as per (2.44). This is illustrated in Fig. 2.6.

V c
V b

Va0
Vb 0
V a Vc0
Va

V c
(a) (b) (c)
V b

Fig. 2.5 Sequence components (a) positive sequence (b) negative sequence (c) zero sequence

Now knowing all these preliminaries, we can proceed as following. Let V a+ be a reference phasor,
therefore V b+ and V c+ can be written as,

V b+ = a2 V a+ = V a+ ∠ − 120◦
V c+ = aV a+ = V a+ ∠120◦ (2.45)

Similarly V b− and V c− can be expressed in terms of V a− as following.

40
 V c

Vc0
V c

Vc V a V a
Va0
o Va

Vb

Vb Vb
Vb 0

Fig. 2.6 Unbalanced phasors as vector sum of positive, negative and zero sequence phasors

V b− = aV a− = V a− ∠120◦
V c− = a2 V a− = V a− ∠ − 120◦ (2.46)

The zero sequence components have same magnitude and phase angle and therefore these are
expressed as,

V b0 = V c0 = V a0 (2.47)

Using (2.45), (2.46) and (2.47) we have,

V a = V a0 + V a+ + V a− (2.48)

V b = V b0 + V b+ + V b−
= V a0 + a2 V a+ + a V a− (2.49)

V c = V c0 + V c+ + V c−
= V a0 + a V a+ + a2 V a− (2.50)

Equations (2.48)-(2.50) can be written in matrix form as given below.

    
Va 1 1 1 V a0
 V b  = 1 a2 a  V a+  (2.51)
Vc 1 a a2 V a−

41
  
1 1 1
Premultipling by inverse of matrix [Asabc ] = 1 a2 a , the symmetrical components are
1 a a2
expressed as given below.
    
V a0 1 1 1 Va
V a+  = 1 1 a a2   V b  (2.52)
3 1 a2 a
V a− Vc
 
Va
= [A012 ]  V b 
Vc

The symmetrical transformation matrices A012 and Asabc are related by the following expression.

[A012 ] = [Asabc ]−1 = [Asabc ]∗ (2.53)

From (2.52), the symmetrical components can therefore be expressed as the following.

1
V a0 = (V a + V b + V c )
3
1
V a+ = (V a + aV b + a2 V c ) (2.54)
3
1
V a− = (V a + a2 V b + aV c )
3
The other component i.e., V b0 , V c0 , V b+ , V c+ , V b− , V c− can be found from V a0 , V a+ , V a+ . It
should be noted that quantity V a0 does not exist if sum of unbalanced phasors is zero. Since sum
of line to line voltage phasors i.e., V ab +V bc +V ca = (V a −V b )+(V b −V c )+(V c −V a ) is always
zero, hence zero sequence voltage components are never present in the line voltage, regardless of
amount of unbalance. The sum of the three phase voltages, i.e., V a + V b + V c is not necessarily
zero and hence zero sequence voltage exists.

Similarly sequence components can be written for currents. Denoting three phase currents by
I a , I b , and I c respectively, the sequence components in matrix form are given below.
    
I a0 1 1 1 Ia
I a+  = 1 1 a a2   I b  (2.55)
3 1 a2 a
I a− Ic

Thus,
1
I a0 = (I a + I b + I c )
3

1
I a+ = (I a + aI b + a2 I c )
3
42
 1
I a− = (I a + a2 I b + aI c )
3

In three-phase, 4-wire system, the sum of line currents is equal to the neutral current (I n ). thus,

In = Ia + Ib + Ic
= 3I a0 (2.56)

This current flows in the fourth wire called neutral wire. Again if neutral wire is absent, then zero
sequence current is always equal to zero irrespective of unbalance in phase currents. This is illus-
trated below.

a a
a a
b b
b b
c c
c c

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.7 Various three phase systems (a) Three-phase three-wire system (b) Three-phase four-wire system

In 2.7(b), in may or may not be zero. However neutral voltage (VN n ) between the system and
load neutral is always equal to zero. In 2.7(a), there is no neutral current due to the absence of the
neutral wire. But in this configuration the neutral voltage, VN n , may or may not be equal to zero
depending upon the unbalance in the system.

Example 2.1 Consider a balanced 3 φ system with following phase voltages.

V a = 100∠0o
V b = 100∠ − 120o
V c = 100∠120o
Using (2.54), it can be easily seen that the zero and negative sequence components are equal to
zero, indicating that there is no unbalance in voltages. However the converse may not apply.
Now consider the following phase voltages. Compute the sequence components and show that the
energy associated with the voltage components in both system remain constant.
V a = 100∠0o
V b = 150∠ − 100o
V c = 75∠100o

43
Solution Using (2.54), sequence components are computed. These are:

1
V a0 = (V a + V b + V c )
3
= 31.91∠ − 50.48o V
1
V a+ = (V a + aV b + a2 V c )
3
= 104.16∠4.7o V
1
V a− = (V a + a2 V b + aV c )
3
= 28.96∠146.33o V

If you find energy content of two frames that is abc and 012 system, it is found to be constant.

Eabc = k [Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ] = 381.25 k

2 2 2
E0+− = 3 k [Va0 + Va+ + Va− ] = 381.25 k
Thus, Eabc = E0+− with k as some constant of proportionality.

The invariance of power can be further shown by following proof.

 ∗
Ia
S v = P + jQ = [ V a V b V c ] I b 
Ic
 T  ∗
Va Ia
= Vb
   Ib
Vc Ic
  T   ∗
V a0 I a0
= [Asabc ]  V a+  [Asabc ]  I a+ 
V a− I a−
 T  ∗
V a0 I a0
=  V a+  [Asabc ]T [Asabc ]∗  I a+  (2.57)
V a− I a−

The term S v is referred as vector or geometric apparent power. The difference between will be
given in the following. The transformation matrix [Asabc ] has following properties.

[Asabc ]T [Asabc ]∗ = 3 [I] (2.58)

44
 The matrix, [I], is identity matrix. Using (2.58), (2.57) can be written as the following.
 T  ∗
V a0 I a0
S v = P + jQ = V a+  3[I]I a+ 
V a− I a−
 T  ∗
V a0 I a0
= 3 V a+
   I a+ 
V a− I a−
∗ ∗ ∗
S v = P + jQ = V a I a + V b I b + V c I c
∗ ∗ ∗
= 3 [V a0 I a0 + V a+ I a+ + V a− I a− ] (2.59)

Equation (2.59) indicates that power invariance holds true in both abc and 012 components. But,
this is true on phasor basis. Would it be true on the time basis? In this context, concept of instanta-
neous symmetrical components will be discussed in the latter section. The equation (2.59) further
implies that,
S v = P + jQ = 3 [ (Va0 Ia0 cos φa0 + Va+ Ia+ cos φa+ + Va− Ia− cos φa− )
+j(Va0 Ia0 sin φa0 + Va+ Ia+ sin φa+ + Va− Ia− sin φa− ) ] (2.60)
The power terms in (2.60) accordingly form positive sequence, negative sequence and zero se-
quence powers denoted as following. The positive sequence power is given as,
P + = Va+ Ia+ cos φa+ + Vb+ Ib+ cos φb+ + Vc+ Ic+ cos φc+
= 3Va+ Ia+ cos φa+ . (2.61)
Negative sequence power is expressed as,
P − = 3Va− Ia− cos φa− . (2.62)
The zero sequence power is
P 0 = 3Va0 Ia0 cos φa0 . (2.63)

Similarly, sequence reactive power are denoted by the following expressions.

Q+ = 3Va+ Ia+ sin φa+

Q− = 3Va− Ia− sin φa−
Q0 = 3Va0 Ia0 sin φa0 (2.64)

Thus, following holds true for active and reactive powers.

P = Pa + Pb + Pc = P0 + P1 + P2
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = Q0 + Q1 + Q2 (2.65)

45
Here, positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence apparent powers are denoted as the
following.
+
p
S + = |S | = P +2 + Q+2 = 3Va+ Ia+
+
p
S − = |S | = P −2 + Q−2 = 3Va− Ia−
+
p
S 0 = |S | = P 02 + Q02 = 3Va0 Ia0 (2.66)

The scalar value of vector apparent power (S v ) is given as following.

0 + −
Sv = |S a + S b + S c | = |S + S + S |
= |(Pa + Pb + Pc ) + j(Qa + Qb + Qc )| (2.67)
p
= P 2 + Q2
Similarly, arithematic apparent power (S A ) is defined as the algebraic sum of each phase or se-
quence apparent power, i.e.,

SA = |S a | + |S b | + |S c |
= |Pa + jQa | + |Pb + jQb | + |Pc + jQc | (2.68)
p q p
= Pa2 + Q2a + Pb2 + Q2b + Pc2 + Q2c

In terms of sequence components apparent power,

0 + −
SA = |S | + |S | + |S |
= |P 0 + jQ0 | + |P + + jQ+ | + |P − + jQ− | (2.69)
q q q
2 2
= P + Q + P + Q + P − 2 + Q− 2
0 0 + 2 + 2

Based on these two definitions of the apparent powers, the power factors are defined as the follow-
ing.
P
Vector apparent power = pfv = (2.70)
Sv
P
Arithematic apparent power = pfA = (2.71)
SA

46
 Example 2.2 Consider a 3-phase 4 wire system supplying resistive load, shown in Fig. 2.8
below. Determine power consumed by the load and feeder losses.

r jx a
a'
Ia R
r jx Va
' b
Ib
r jx Vb c
c'
Ic
r jx Vc
'
n
n
In

Fig. 2.8 A three-phase unbalanced load

√
( 3V )2 3V 2
Power dissipated by the load = =
√ R R
3V Va−Vb
The current flowing in the line = =| |
R R
and I b = −I a
√ !2 √ !2
3V 3V
Therefore losses in the feeder = ×r+ ×r
R R
 r  3 V 2 
=2
R R

Now, consider another example of a 3 phase system supplying 3-phase load, consisting of three
resistors (R) in star as shown in the Fig. 2.9. Let us find out above parameters.

 2
V 3V 2
Power supplied to load = 3 ×R=
R R
 2
r  3V 2
 
V 
Losses in the feeder = 3 ×r =
R R R

Thus, it is interesting to see that power dissipated in the unbalanced system is twice the power loss
in balanced circuit. This leads to conclusion that power factor in phases would become less than
unity, while for balanced circuit, the power factor is unity. Power analysis of unbalanced circuit
shown in Fig. 2.8 is given below.

47
 r jx a R
a'
Ia
r jx Va b R
b' n
Ib
r jx Vb c R
c'
Ic
r jx Vc
n'
In

Fig. 2.9 A three-phase balanced load

√
Va−Vb V ab 3 Va
The current in phase-a, I a = = = ∠30◦
R √ R R
3V
The current in phase-b, I b = −I a = ∠(30 − 180)o
√ R
3V
= ∠ − 150o
R
The current in phase-c and neutral are zero, I c = I n = 0

The phase voltages are: V a = V ∠0o , V b = V ∠ − 120o , V c = V ∠120o .

The phase active and reactive and apparent powers are as following.
√
◦ 3
Pa = Va Ia cos φa = V I cos 30 = VI
2
1
Qa = Va Ia sin φa = V I sin 30◦ = VI
2
Sa = Va Ia = V I
√
◦ 3
Pb = Vb Ib cos φb = V I cos(−30) = VI
2
1
Qb = Vb Ib sin φb = V I sin(−30)◦ = − V I
2
Sb = Vb Ib = V I
Pc = Qc = Sc = 0
√
3 √
Thus total active power P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 2 × V I = 3V I
√ 2
√ 3V
= 3V
R
3V 2
P =
R
Total reactive power Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0

48
 p
The vector apparent power, Sv = P 2 + Q2 = 3 V 2 /R = P √
The arithmetic apparent power, SA = Sa + Sb + Sc = 2 V I = (2/ 3) P

From the values of Sv and SA , it implies that,

P P
pfv = = =1
Sv P
√
P P 3
pfA = = √ = = 0.866
SA (2/ 3) P 2
This difference between the arthmetic and vector power factors will be more due to the unbalances
in the load.

For balance load SA = SV , therefore, pfA = pfV = 1.0. Thus for three-phase electrical cir-
cuits, the following holds true.
pfA ≤ pfV (2.72)

2.3.1 Effective Apparent Power

For unbalanced three-phase circuits, their is one more definition of apparent power, which is known
as effective apparent power. The concept assumes that a virtual balanced circuit that has the same
power output and losses as the actual unbalanced circuit. This equivalence leads to the definition
of effective line current Ie and effective line to neutral voltage Ve .

The equivalent three-phase unbalanced and balanced circuits with same power output and losses
are shown in Fig. 2.10. From these figures, to maintain same losses,

r jx Va Ra r jx Re
a' a'
Ia Iea
r jx Vb Rb r jx Vea Re
'
b n b' n
Ib Ieb
r jx Vc Rc r jx Veb Re
c' c'
Ic Iec
r jx Vn r jx Vec
'
n n'
(a) In (b) In  0

Fig. 2.10 (a) Three-phase with unbalanced voltage and currents (b) Effective equivalent three-phase system

rIa2 + rIb2 + rIc2 + rIn2 = 3rIe2

The above equation implies the effective rms current in each phase is given as following.
r
(Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2 )
Ie = (2.73)
3
49
For the original circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, the effective current Ie is computed using above equation
and is given below.
r
(Ia2 + Ib2 )
Ie = since, Ic = 0and In = 0
3 s
r √ 2
2 Ia2 2 ( 3V /R)
= =
3 3
√
2V
=
R
To account same power output in circuits shown above, the following identity is used with Re = R
in Fig. 2.10.
Va2 Vb2 Vc2 Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 3Ve2 9Ve2
+ + + = + (2.74)
R R R 3R R 3R
From (2.74), the effective rms value of voltage is expressed as,
r
1
Ve = {3 (Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ) + Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 } (2.75)
18
Assuming, 3 (Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ) ≈ Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 , equation (2.75) can be written as,
r
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2
Ve = =V (2.76)
3
Therefore, the effective apparent power (Se ), using the values of Ve and Ie , is given by,
√
3 2V 2
Se = 3 Ve Ie =
R
Thus the effective power factor based on the definition of effective apparent power (Se ), for the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.8 is given by,
P 3 V 2 /R 1
pfe = = √ = √ = 0.707
S e 3 2 V /R2 2
Thus, we observe that,
SV ≤ SA ≤ Se ,
pfe (0.707) ≤ pfA (0.866) ≤ pfV (1.0).
When the system is balanced,
Va = Vb = Vc = Ven = Ve ,
Ia = Ib = Ic = Ie ,
In = 0,
and SV = SA = Se .

50
2.3.2 Positive Sequence Powers and Unbalance Power

The unbalance power Su can be expressed in terms of fundamental positive sequence powers P + ,
Q+ and S + as given below.
q
Su = Se2 − S + 2 (2.77)

2 2 2
where S + = 3 V + I + and S + = P + + Q+ .

2.4 Three-phase Non-sinusoidal Balanced System

A three-phase nonsinusoidal system is represented by following set of equaitons.
∞
√ √ X
va (t) = 2V1 sin(wt − α1 ) + 2 Vn sin(nwt − αn )
n=2
∞
√ √ X
vb (t) = 2V1 sin(wt − 120◦ − α1 ) + 2 Vn sin(n(wt − 120◦ ) − αn ) (2.78)
n=2
∞
√ ◦
√ X
vc (t) = 2V1 sin(wt + 120 − α1 ) + 2 Vn sin(n(wt + 120◦ ) − αn )
n=2

Similarly, the line currents can be expressed as,

∞
√ √ X
ia (t) = 2I1 sin(wt − β1 ) + 2 In sin(nwt − βn )
n=2
∞
√ √ X
ib (t) = 2I1 sin(wt − 120◦ − β1 ) + 2 In sin(n(wt − 120◦ ) − βn ) (2.79)
n=2
∞
√ ◦
√ X
ic (t) = 2I1 sin(wt + 120 − β1 ) + 2 In sin(n(wt + 120◦ ) − βn )
n=2

In this case,

Sa = Sb = Sc ,
Pa = P b = Pc , (2.80)
Qa = Qb = Qc ,
Da = Db = Dc .

In above the terms Da , Db and Dc are known as distortion powers in phase-a, b, c respectively. The
definition of The distortion power, D, is given in Section 1.4.5. The above equation suggests that
such a system has potential to produce significant additional power loss in neutral wire and ground
path.

51
2.4.1 Neutral Current
The neutral current for three-phase balanced system with harmonics can be given by the following
equation.
in = ia + i b + i c
√
= 2 [ Ia1 sin (wt − β1 ) + Ia2 sin (2wt − β2 ) + Ia3 sin (3wt − β3 )
+Ia1 sin (wt − 120o − β1 ) + Ia2 sin (2wt − 240o − β2 ) + Ia3 sin (3wt − 360o − β3 )
+Ia1 sin (wt + 120o − β1 ) + Ia2 sin (2wt + 240o − β2 ) + Ia3 sin (3wt + 360o − β3 )

+Ia4 sin (4wt − β4 ) + Ia5 sin (5wt − β5 ) + Ia6 sin (6wt − β6 )

+Ia4 sin (wt − 4 × 120o − β4 ) + Ia5 sin (5wt − 5 × 120o − β5 ) + Ia6 sin (6wt − 6 × 120o − β6 )
+Ia4 sin (wt + 4 × 120o − β4 ) + Ia5 sin (5wt + 5 × 120o − β5 ) + Ia6 sin (6wt + 6 × 120o − β6 )
(2.81)
+Ia7 sin (7wt − β7 ) + Ia8 sin (8wt − β8 ) + Ia9 sin (9wt − β9 )
+Ia7 sin (7wt − 7 × 120o − β7 ) + Ia8 sin (8wt − 8 × 120o − β8 ) + Ia9 sin (9wt − 9 × 120o − β9 )
+Ia7 sin (7wt + 7 × 120o − β7 ) + Ia8 sin (8wt + 8 × 120o − β8 ) + Ia9 sin (9wt + 9 × 120o − β9 ) ]
From the above equation, we observe that, the triplen harmonics are added up in the neutral current.
All other harmonics except triplen harmonics do not contribute to the neutral current, due to their
balanced nature. Therefore the neutral current is given by,
∞
X √
i n = i a + ib + i c = 3 2In sin(nwt − βn ). (2.82)
n=3,6,..

The RMS value of the current in neutral wire is therefore given by,
" ∞ #1/2
X
In = 3 In2 . (2.83)
n=3,6,..

Due to dominant triplen harmonics in electrical loads such as UPS, rectifiers and other power
electronic based loads, the current rating of the neutral wire may be comparable to the phase wires.
It is worth to mention here that all harmonics in three-phase balanced systems can be catego-
rized in three groups i.e., (3n + 1), (3n + 2) and 3n (for n = 1, 2, 3, ...) called positive, nega-
tive and zero sequence harmonics respectively. This means that balanced fundamental, 4th, 7th
10th,... form positive sequence only. Balanced 2nd, 5th, 8th, 11th,... form negative sequence only
and the balanced triplen harmonics i.e. 3rd, 6th, 9th,... form zero sequence only. But in case of
unbalanced three-phase systems with harmonics, (3n + 1) harmonics may start forming negative
and zero sequence components. Similarly, (3n + 2) may start forming positive and zero sequence
components and 3n may start forming positive and negative sequence components.

2.4.2 Line to Line Voltage

For the three-phase balanced system with harmonics, the line-to-line voltages are denoted as vab ,
vbc and vca . Let us consider, line-to-line voltage between phases a and b. It is given as following.

52
 vab (t) = va (t) − vb (t)
∞ ∞
X √ X √
= 2Vn sin(n ωt − αn ) − 2Vn sin(n (ωt − 120o ) − αn )
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
X √ X √
= 2Vn sin(n ωt − αn ) − 2Vn sin((n ωt − αn ) − n × 120o )
n=1 n=1
∞
X √
= 2Vn [sin(n ωt − αn ) − sin(n ωt − αn ) cos(n × 120o )
n=1
+ cos(n ωt − αn ) sin(n × 120o )]
∞
X √
= 2Vn [sin(n ωt − αn ) − sin(n ωt − αn ) (−1/2)
n6=3,6,9...
√ i
+ cos(n ωt − αn ) (± 3/2)
∞
√ X h √ i
= 2 Vn (3/2) sin(n ωt − αn ) + (± 3/2) cos(n ωt − αn )
n6=3,6,9...
∞
√ √ X h√ i
= 3 2 Vn ( 3/2) sin(n ωt − αn ) + (±1/2) cos(n ωt − αn ) (2.84)
n6=3,6,9...

√
Let 3/2 = rn cos φn and ±1/2 = rn sin φn . This impliles rn = 1 and φn = ±30o . Using this,
equation (2.84) can be written as follows.
∞
√ √ X
vab (t) = 3 2 Vn [sin(n ωt − αn ± 30o )] . (2.85)
n6=3,6,9...

In equations (2.84) and (2.85), vab = 0 for n = 3, 6, 9, . . . and for n = 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, . . ., the ± sign
of 1/2 or sign of 300 changes alternatively. Thus it is observed that triplen harmonics are missing
in the line to line voltages, inspite of their presence in phase voltages for balanced three-phase
system with harmonics. Thus the following identity hold true for this system,

√
VLL ≤ 3 VLn (2.86)

Above equation further implies that,

√
3 VLL I ≤ 3 VLn I. (2.87)

In above equation, I refers the rms value of the phase current. For above case, Ia = Ib = Ic = I
and In = 3 ∞ 2
P
n=3,6,9... In . Therefore, effective rms current, Ie is given by the following.

53
 s P∞ 2
3 I2 + 3 n=3,6,9... In
Ie =
3
v
u ∞
X
In 2
u
= tI 2 + (2.88)
n=3,6,9...

≥I

2.4.3 Apparent Power with Budeanu Resolution: Balanced Distortion Case

The apparent power is given as,
q
2
S = 3Vln I = P 2 + Q2B + DB
p
= P 2 + Q2 + D2 (2.89)
where,
P = P1 + PH = P1 + P2 + P3 + ....
∞
X
= 3V1 I1 cos φ1 + 3 Vn In cos φn
n=1
(2.90)
where, φn = βn − αn . Similarly,
Q = QB = QB1 + QBH
= Q1 + QH (2.91)
Where Q in (2.89) is called as Budeanu’s reactive power (VAr) or simply reactive power which is
detailed below.
Q = Q1 + QH = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ....
∞
X
= 3V1 I1 sin φ1 + 3 Vn In sin φn (2.92)
n=1

2.4.4 Effective Apparent Power for Balanced Non-sinusoidal System

The effective apparent power Se for the above system is given by,
Se = 3Ve Ie (2.93)
For a three-phase, three-wire balanced system, the effective apparent power is found after cal-
culating effective voltage and current as given below.
q
Ve = (Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 )/9
√
= Vll / 3 (2.94)

54
 q
Ie = (Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 )/3
= I (2.95)
Therefore √
Se = S = 3Vll I (2.96)
For a four-wire system, Ve is same is given (2.94) and Ie is given by (2.88). Therefore, the
effective apparent power is given below.

√
3Vll I ≤ 3 Vln Ie (2.97)
The above implies that,
Se ≥ SA . (2.98)
Therefore, it can be further concluded that,
pfe (= P/Se ) ≤ pfA (= P/SA ). (2.99)

2.5 Unbalanced and Non-sinusoidal Three-phase System

In this system, we shall consider most general case i.e., three-phase system with voltage and current
quantities which are unbalanced and non-sinusoidal. These voltages and currents are expressed as
following.

∞
X √
va (t) = 2Van sin(n ωt − αan )
n=1
∞
X √
vb (t) = 2Vbn sin {n (ωt − 120o ) − αbn } (2.100)
n=1
∞
X √
vc (t) = 2Vcn sin {n (ωt + 120o ) − αcn }
n=1

Similarly, currents can be expressed as,

∞
X √
ia (t) = 2Ian sin(n ωt − βan )
n=1
∞
X √
ib (t) = 2Ibn sin {n (ωt − 120o ) − βbn } (2.101)
n=1
∞
X √
ic (t) = 2Icn sin {n (ωt + 120o ) − βcn }
n=1

55
For the above voltages and currents in three-phase system, instantaneous power is given as follow-
ing.

p(t) = va (t)ia (t) + vb (t)ib (t) + vc (t)ic (t)

= pa (t) + pb (t) + pc (t)
∞
! ∞ !
X √ X√
= 2Van sin(nωt − αan ) 2Ian sin(nωt − βan ) (2.102)
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Vbn sin {n(ωt − 120o ) − αbn } 2Ibn sin {n(ωt − 120o ) − βbn }
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Vcn sin {n(ωt + 120o ) − αcn } 2Icn sin {n(ωt + 120o ) − βcn }
n=1 n=1

In (2.102), each phase power can be found using expressions derived in Section 1.4 of Unit 1. The
direct result is written as following.

∞
X ∞
X
pa (t) = Van Ian cos φan {1 − cos(2nωt − 2αan )} − Van Ian sin φan cos(2nωt − 2αan )
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Van sin(nωt − αan ) 2Iam sin(mωt − βam )
n=1 m=1, m6=n
∞
X X∞
= Pan {1 − cos(2nωt − 2αan )} − Qan cos(2nωt − 2αan )
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Van sin(nωt − αan ) 2Iam sin(mωt − βam ) (2.103)
n=1 m=1, m6=n

In the above equation, φan = (βan − αan ). Similarly, for phases b and c, the instantaneous
power is expressed as below.

∞
X ∞
X
o
pb (t) = Pbn [1 − cos {2n(ωt − 120 ) − 2αbn }] − Qbn cos {2n(ωt − 120o ) − 2αbn }
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Vbn sin {n(ωt − 120o ) − αbn } 2Ibm sin {m(ωt − 120o ) − βbm }
n=1 m=1, m6=n
(2.104)

56
and
∞
X ∞
X
o
pc (t) = Pcn [1 − cos {2n(ωt + 120 ) − 2αcn }] − Qcn cos {2n(ωt + 120o ) − 2αcn }
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Vcn sin {n(ωt + 120o ) − αcn } 2Icm sin {m(ωt + 120o ) − βcm }
n=1 m=1, m6=n
(2.105)

From equations (2.103), (2.104) and (2.105), the real powers in three phases are given as follows.
∞
X
Pa = Van Ian cos φan
n=1
∞
X
Pb = Vbn Ibn cos φbn (2.106)
n=1
X∞
Pc = Vcn Icn cos φcn
n=1

Similarly, the reactive powers in three phases are given as following.

∞
X
Qa = Van Ian sin φan
n=1
∞
X
Qb = Vbn Ibn sin φbn (2.107)
n=1
X∞
Qc = Vcn Icn sin φcn
n=1

Therefore, the total active and reactive powers are computed by summing the phase powers using
equations (2.106) and (2.107), which are given below.

∞
X
P = P a + Pb + Pc = (Van Ian cos φan + Vbn Ibn cos φbn + Vcn Icn cos φcn )
n=1
= Va1 Ia1 cos φa1 + Vb1 Ib1 cos φb1 + Vc1 Ic1 cos φc1
X∞
+ (Van Ian cos φan + Vbn Ibn cos φbn + Vcn Icn cos φcn )
n=2
∞
X
= Pa1 + Pb1 + Pc1 + (Pan + Pbn + Pcn )
n=2
= P1 + PH (2.108)

57
and,
∞
X
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = (Van Ian sin φan + Vbn Ibn sin φbn + Vcn Icn sin φcn )
n=1
= Va1 Ia1 sin φa1 + Vb1 Ib1 sin φb1 + Vc1 Ic1 sin φc1
X∞
+ (Van Ian sin φan + Vbn Ibn sin φbn + Vcn Icn sin φcn )
n=2
∞
X
= Qa1 + Qb1 + Qc1 + (Qan + Qbn + Qcn )
n=2
= Q1 + QH (2.109)

2.5.1 Arithmetic and Vector Apparent Power with Budeanu’s Resolution

Using Budeanu’s resolution, the arithmetic apparent power for phase-a, b and c are expressed as
following.

p
Sa = Pa2 + Q2a + Da2
q
Sb = Pb2 + Q2b + Db2 (2.110)
p
Sc = Pc2 + Q2c + Dc2
The three-phase arithmetic apparent power is arithmetic sum of Sa , Sb and Sc in the above equation.
This is given below.
SA = Sa + Sb + Sc (2.111)
The three-phase vector apparent power is given as following.
p
Sv = P 2 + Q2 + D2 (2.112)
Where P and Q are given in (2.108) and (2.109) respectively. The total distortion power D is given
as following.
D = Da + Db + Dc (2.113)
Based on above definitions of the apparent powers, the arithmetic and vector power factors are
given below.
P
pfA =
SA
P
pfv = (2.114)
Sv
From equations (2.111), (2.112) and (2.114), it can be inferred that
SA ≥ Sv
pfA ≤ pfv (2.115)

58
2.5.2 Effective Apparent Power
Effective apparent power (Se =3Ve Ie ) for the three-phase unbalanced systems with harmonics can
be found by computing Ve and Ie as following. The effective rms current (Ie ) can be resolved into
two parts i.e., effective fundamental and effective harmonic components as given below.
q
2 2
Ie = Ie1 + IeH (2.116)

Similarly,
q
Ve = 2
Ve12 + VeH (2.117)

For three-phase four-wire system,

r
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2
Ie = (2.118)
r 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ia1 + Ia2 + ... + Ib1 + Ib2 + ... + Ic1 + Ic2 + ... + In1 + In2 + ...
=
r 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 + In1 + ... + Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2 + ...
=
r 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 + In1 Ia2 + Ia3 + ... + Ib2 + Ib3 + ... + Ic2 + Ic3 + ... + In2 + In3 ...
= +
q 3 3
2 2
Ie = Ie1 + IeH

In the above equation,

r
2 2 2 2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 + In1
Ie1 =
r 3
2 2 2 2
IaH + IbH + IcH + InH
IeH = (2.119)
3
Similarly, the effective rms voltage Ve is given as following.
r
1
Ve = [3(Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ) + (Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 )]
18
q
= Ve12 + VeH2
(2.120)

Where
r
1 2
Ve1 = [3(Va1 + Vb12 + Vc12 ) + (Vab1
2 2
+ Vbc1 2
+ Vca1 )]
18
r
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
VeH = [3(VaH + VbH + VcH ) + (VabH + VbcH + VcaH )] (2.121)
18
For three-phase three-wire system, In = 0 = In1 = InH .

59
 r
2 2 2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1
Ie1 =
r 3
2 2 2
IaH + IbH + IcH
IeH = (2.122)
3
Similarly
r
2 2 2
Vab1 + Vbc1 + Vca1
Ve1 =
r 9
2 2 2
VabH + VbcH + VcaH
VeH = (2.123)
9
The expression for effective apparent power Se is given as following.
Se = 3 Ve Ie
q q
= 3 Ve12 + VeH 2 2
Ie1 2
+ IeH
q
= 9 Ve12 Ie1
2
+ (9Ve12 IeH
2 2 2
+ 9VeH 2 2
Ie1 + 9VeH IeH )
q
2 2
= Se1 + SeN (2.124)
In the above equation,
Se1 = 3 Ve1 Ie1 (2.125)
q
2
SeN = Se2 − Se1
q
2 2 2
= DeV + DeI + SeH
q
2 2
= 3 Ie1 VeH + Ve12 IeH
2 2 2
+ VeH IeH (2.126)
In equation (2.126), distortion powers DeI , DeV and harmonic apparent power SeH are given as
following.
DeI = 3Ve1 IeH
DeV = 3VeH Ie1 (2.127)
SeH = 3VeH IeH
By defining above effective voltage and current quantities, the effective total harmonic distortion
(T HDe ) are expressed below.
VeH
T HDeV =
Ve1
IeH
T HDeI = (2.128)
Ie1
Substituting VeH and IeH in (2.126),
q
2 2 2 2
SeN = Se1 T HDe1 + T HDeV + T HDeI T HDeV . (2.129)

60
In above equation,
DeI = Se1 T HDI
DeV = Se1 T HDV (2.130)
SeH = Se1 (T HDI )(T HDV ).
Using (2.124) and (2.129), the effective apparent power is given as below.
q q
2 2 2 2 2 2
Se = Se1 + SeN = Se1 1 + T HDeV + T HDeI + T HDeV T HDeI (2.131)

Based on above equation, the effective power factor is therefore given as,
P P1 + P H
pfe = = p
Se Se1 1 + T HDeV2 2
+ T HDeI 2
+ T HDeV 2
T HDeI
(1 + PH /P1 ) P1
= p 2 2 2 2 S
1 + T HDeV + T HDeI + T HDeV T HDeI e1
(1 + PH /P1 )
= p 2 2 2 2
pfe1 (2.132)
1 + T HDeV + T HDeI + T HDeV T HDeI
Practically, the THDs in voltage are far less than those of currents THDs, therefore T HDeV <<
T HDeI . Using this practical constraint and assuming PH << P1 , the above equation can be
simplified to,
pfe1
pfe ≈ p 2
(2.133)
1 + T HDeI
In the above context, their is another useful term to denote unbalance of the system. This is
defined as fundamental unbalanced power and is given below.
q
SU 1 = 2
Se1 − (S1+ )2 (2.134)

Where, S1+ is fundamental positive sequence apparent power, which is given below.
q
+
S1 = (P1+ )2 + (Q+
1)
2 (2.135)

In above, P1+ = 3V1+ I1+ cos φ+ + + + +

1 and Q1 = 3V1 I1 sin φ1 . Fundamental positive sequence power
+ +
factor can thus be expressed as a ratio of P1 and S1 as given below.
P1+
Pf+1 = (2.136)
S1+

Example 2.3 Consider the following three-phase system. It is given that voltages V a , V b and V c
are balanced sinusoids with rms value of 220 V. The feeder impedance is rf +jxf = 0.02+j0.1 Ω.
The unbalanced load parameters are: RL = 12 Ω and XL = 13 Ω. Compute the following.
a. The currents in each phase, i.e., I a , I b and I c and neutral current, I n .

61
 r f  jx f
va Va
Ia
XL
vb Vb

LOAD
Ib
vc Vc
Ic RL
vn Vn
In

Fig. 2.11 An unbalanced three-phase circuit

b. Losses in the system.

c. The active and reactive powers in each phase and total three-phase active and reactive powers.
d. Arithmetic, vector and effective apparent powers and power factors based on them.

Solution:

a. Computation of currents
√
va (t) = 220 2 sin (ωt)
√
vb (t) = 220 2 sin (ωt − 120◦ )
√
vc (t) = 220 2 sin (ωt + 120◦ )
√
vab (t) = 220 6 sin (ωt + 30◦ )

Therefore,
√
220 3∠30
Ia = ◦
= 29.31∠−60◦ A
13∠90
Ib = −I a = −29.311∠−60◦ = 29.31∠120◦ A
220∠120◦
Ic = = 18.33∠120◦ A.
12
Thus, the instantaneous expressions of phase currents can be given as following.

ia (t) = 41.45 sin (ωt − 60◦ )

ib (t) = −ia (t) = −41.45 sin (ωt − 60◦ ) = 41.45 sin (ωt + 120◦ )
ic (t) = 25.93 sin (ωt + 120◦ )

b. Computation of losses

62
The losses occur due to resistance of the feeder impedance. These are computed as below.

Losses = rf (Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2 )

= 0.02 (29.312 + 29.312 + 18.332 + 18.332 ) = 47.80 W

c. Computation of various powers

Phase-a active and reactive power:

∗
S a = V a I a = 220∠0◦ × 29.31∠60◦ = 3224.21 + j5584.49
implies that, Pa = 3224.1 W, Qa = 5584.30 VAr

Similarly,

∗
S b = V b I b = 220∠−120◦ × 29.31∠60◦ = −3224.21 + j5584.49
implies that, Pb = −3224.1 W, Qb = 5584.30 VAr

For phase-c,

∗
S c = V c I c = 220∠120◦ × 18.33∠−120◦ = 4032.6 + j0
implies that, Pc = 4032.6 W, Qc = 0 VAr

Total three-phase active and reactive powers are given by,

P3−phase = Pa + Pb + Pc = 3224.1 − 3224.1 + 4032.6 = 4032.6 W

Q3−phase = Qa + Qb + Qc = 5584.30 + 5584.30 + 0 = 11168.60 VAr.

d. Various apparent powers and power factors

The arithmetic, vector and effective apparent powers are computed as below.

SA = |Sa | + |Sb | + |Sc |

= 6448.12 + 6448.12 + 4032.6 = 16928.84 VA

Sv = |Sa + Sb + Sc |
= |4032.6 + j11168.6| = |11874.32∠70.14| = 11874.32 VA

r
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2
Se = 3Ve Ie = 3 × 220 ×
r 3
29.31 + 29.31 + 18.332 + 18.332
2 2
= 3 × 220 × = 3 × 220 × 28.22
3
= 18629.19 VA

63
Based on the above apparent powers, the arithmetic, vector and effective apparent power factors
are computed as below.
P3−phase 4032.6
pfA = = = 0.2382
SA 16928.84
P3−phase 4032.6
pfv = = = 0.3396
Sv 11874.32
P3−phase 4032.6
pfe = = = 0.2165
Se 18629.19
In the above computation, the effective voltage and current are found as given in the following.
r
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2
Ve = = 220 V
3

r
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2
Ie = = 28.226 A
3
Example 2.4 A 3-phase, 3-wire system is shown in Fig. 2.12. The 3-phase voltages are balanced
sinusoids with RMS value of 230 V. The 3-phase loads connected in star are given as following.
Za = 5 + j12 Ω, Zb = 6 + j8 Ω and Zc = 12 − j5 Ω.

Compute the following.

a. Line currents, i.e., I la , I lb and I lc and their instantaneous expressions.

b. Load active and reactive powers and power factor of each phase.

c. Compute various apparent powers and power factors based on them.

Vsa I la

Vsc I lc a
N

Vsb I lb
c Zb

Fig. 2.12 A star connected three-phase unbalanced load

Solution:

a. Computation of currents

64
Given that Za = 5 + j 12 Ω, Zb = 6 + j 8 Ω, Zc = 12 − j 5 Ω.

V sa = 230∠0◦ V
V sb = 230∠−120◦ V
V sc = 230∠120◦ V
 
1 V sa V sb V sc
V nN = 1 + +
Za
+ Z1b + Z1c Za Zb Zc
230∠0◦ 230∠−120◦ 230∠120◦
 
1
= 1 1 1 + +
5+j12
+ 6+j8 + 12−j5 5 + j12 6 + 8j 12 − j5
1
= ◦
31.23∠−164.50◦
0.2013∠−37.09
= −94.22 − j123.18 = 155.09∠−127.41◦ V

Now the line currents are computed as below.

V sa − V nN 230∠0◦ − 155.09∠−127.41◦
I al = = = 26.67∠−46.56◦ A
Za 5 + j12
V sb − V nN 230∠−120◦ − 155.09∠−127.41◦
I bl = = = 7.88∠−158.43◦ A
Zb 6 + j8
V sc − V nN 230∠120 − 155.09∠−127.41◦
◦
I cl = = = 24.85∠116.3◦ A
Zc 12 − j5

Thus, the instantaneous expressions of line currents can be given as following.

ial (t) = 37.72 sin (ωt − 46.56◦ )

ibl (t) = 11.14 sin (ωt − 158.43◦ )
icl (t) = 35.14 sin (ωt + 116.3◦ )

b. Computation of load active and reactive powers

∗
Sa = V a I a = 230∠0◦ × 26.67∠46.56◦ = 4218.03 + j4456.8
∗
Sb = V b I b = 230∠−120◦ × 7.88∠158.43◦ = 1419.82 + j1126.06
∗
Sc = V c I c = 230∠120◦ × 24.85∠−116.3◦ = 5703.43 + j368.11
implies that,
Pa = 4218.03 W, Qa = 4456.8 VAr
Pb = 1419.82 W, Qb = 1126.06 VAr
Pc = 5703.43 W, Qc = 368.11 VAr

65
Total three-phase active and reactive powers are given by,
P3−phase = Pa + Pb + Pc = 4218.03 + 1419.82 + 5703.43 = 11341.29 W
Q3−phase = Qa + Qb + Qc = 4456.8 + 1126.06 + 368.11 = 5950.99 VAr.
The power factors for phases a, b and c are given as follows.
Pa 4218.03 4218.03
pfa = =√ = = 0.6873 (lag)
|Sa | 2
4218.03 + 4456.8 2 6136.3
Pb 1419.82 1419.82
pfb = = 2 2
= = 0.7835 (lag)
|Sb | 1419.82 + 1126.06 1812.16
Pc 5703.43 5703.43
pfc = = 2 2
= = 0.9979 (lag)
|Sc | 5703.43 + 368.11 5715.30
c. Computation of various apparent powers and power factors

The arithmetic, vector and effective apparent powers are computed as below.
SA = |Sa | + |Sb | + |Sc |
= 6136.3 + 1812.16 + 5715.30 = 13663.82 VA

Sv = |Sa + Sb + Sc |
= |11341.29 + j5909.92| = 12807.78 VA
r
2
Ila + Ilb2 + Ilc2 + Iln
2
Se = 3Ve Ie = 3 × 230 ×
r 3
26.67 + 7.88 + 24.852 + 02
2 2
= 3 × 220 × = 3 × 230 × 21.53
3
= 14859.7 VA
The arithmetic, vector and effective apparent power factors are computed as below.
P3−phase 11341.29
pfA = = = 0.8300
SA 13663.82
P3−phase 11341.29
pfv = = = 0.8855
Sv 12807.78
P3−phase 11341.29
pfe = = = 0.7632
Se 14859.7

References
[1] IEEE Group, “IEEE trial-use standard definitions for the measurement of electric power quan-
tities under sinusoidal, nonsinusoidal, balanced, or unbalanced conditions,” 2000.

66
[2] E. Watanabe, R. Stephan, and M. Aredes, “New concepts of instantaneous active and reactive
powers in electrical systems with generic loads,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8,
no. 2, pp. 697–703, 1993.
[3] T. Furuhashi, S. Okuma, and Y. Uchikawa, “A study on the theory of instantaneous reactive
power,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 86–90, 1990.
[4] A. Ferrero and G. Superti-Furga, “A new approach to the definition of power components in
three-phase systems under nonsinusoidal conditions,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation
and Measurement, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 568–577, 1991.
[5] J. Willems, “A new interpretation of the akagi-nabae power components for nonsinusoidal
three-phase situations,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 41,
no. 4, pp. 523–527, 1992.
[6] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, “Instantaneous reactive power compensators compris-
ing switching devices without energy storage components,” IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, no. 3, pp. 625–630, 1984.
[7] C. L. Fortesque, “Method of symmetrical co-ordinates applied to the solution of polyphase
networks,” AIEE, 1918.

67
 Three-Phase System

5.1. Generation of a three-phase Supply

When considering the generation of a single-phase supply, a
single coil was rotated at constant speed in a uniform magnetic
field set up by a field system and the ends of the coil were connected
to two sliprings.
Consider a single conductor Rs rotating at constant speed in a
uniform two-pole magnetic field. The e.m.f. generated will be
sinusoidal. If two other conductors Ys and Bs are placed 120 °
away from the conductor Rs (Fig. 5.1 (a)), they will generate
identical e.m.f.s to that induced in conductor Rs, but for the
direction of rotation shown, the e.m.f. in conductor Ys will lag

ItI
(a)

!I f
Uniform magnetic
field

FIG. 5.1 (a).

169
170 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

0-866 E k
M

(b)

- 0 - 8 6 6 E,

rad/s
co
rad/s
8
120°
SJ20 (c) (d)
12C 120°
/120'

'V
Y
FIG. 5.1 (b, c, d).

that of conductor R S by 120° and that of conductor BS will lag

that of conductor YS also by 120°. These e.m.f.s are represented
by the waveforms shown in Fig. 5.1(b) and the phasors in Fig.
5.1(c).
As the e.m.f. of conductor R Sreaches its maximum value in a
given direction followed by that of the conductor YS and BS in
that order, the sequence of the e.m.f.s or the phase sequence is
R YB. If the conductors were rotated in the reverse direction, the
phase sequence would be RBY and this is represented in Fig.
5.1(d). In this country, the standard phase sequence is RYB.
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 171
It is not convenient to use single conductors for obtaining three
e.m.f.s and three identical concentrated coils may be used having
opposite sides of the coils one pole pitch apart. These are repre-
sented in Figs. 5.2(a) and 5.2(b) and the coil sides are marked Rs

(b)

B
R
S F Ys RF B
s Yp

FIG. 5.2.

and RF, Ys and YF, and Bs and BF. It should be noted that all coil
sides marked S (Start) are 120° apart and likewise all coil sides
marked F (Finish) are also 120° apart. These coils may be
172 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

connected to six sliprings and three electrically separate single-

phase supplies are then obtained.
The practical three-phase a.c. generator generates a supply by
the relative motion between an approximately sinusoidally dis-
tributed magnetic field and the conductors which will carry the a.c.
load currents. The conductors always moving relatively at right
angles to this magnetic field.
A number of advantages may be obtained by interconnecting
the three windings. There are two common methods of doing this.
One is called the star connection (X) and the other the delta or
mesh connection (A).
It should be appreciated that no current will flow in the three-
phase a.c. generator winding unless a load is connected to the
machine. In the following sections it will be assumed, unless
otherwise stated, that all voltages and currents are respectively
120° apart. To produce equal currents having a phase difference of
120°, the three-phase load has to be balanced. This means that the
load on each phase is electrically identical.

5.2. Star connection

Any three corresponding ends of the windings, that is, the three
'starts' or the three 'finishes' are joined together and this junction is
called the star point. If a conductor is connected to the star point,
it is called the neutral conductor. Conductors connected to the
other three ends of the windings are known as the lines and in a
three-phase system they are identified as the red (R), yellow (Y)
and blue (B) lines (see Fig. 5.3).
The voltage between any one line and the neutral is called the
phase voltage. These are represented by phasors VRN9 VYN and
VBN in Fig. 5.4(a) where the phase sequence is RYB. The order of
the phase sequence is deduced from the order in which the
phasors pass a given point when they are rotating in the con-
ventionally anti-clockwise direction. The voltage between any
pair of lines is called the line voltage. If the phase sequence is
RYB, they are lettered VRY , VYB and VBR . The suffix letter order
for each voltage is the same as that of the phase sequence.
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 173

FIG. 5.3.

It is necessary to find the relationship between the line and

phase voltages. Using the phasor convention established earlier,

VRY = VRN+VNY-
But VNY = -VYN
VRN-VYN-

To subtract a phasor from another, reverse its direction and add.

This has been done in Fig. 5.4(a) where VRN+ (— VYN ) = VRY . The
phasor diagram shows that there is a 30° phase displacement
between the line and phase voltages. If the ends of the phasors
VRN and — VYN are joined as shown by the chain lines, four
identical right-angled triangles are formed. By the use of trigono-
metry applied to one of these triangles,

Side NX = VRN cos 30°

VRY = 2 x VRN cos 30°

= 2xVRN
x^

= — y/3 VRN — 1 -732 VRN

.

Thus the line voltage is y/3 times the value of the phase voltage.
The other two line voltages may be found in a similar manner.
174 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

'V
RY

(a)

(b)

^YN

FIG. 5.4.

VYB = V +V
YNNB
= v -v .
YN BN

VBR = V +V
= BNNR
VBN~~ VRN-
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 175
These phasors are also shown in Fig. 5.4(a). The three line
voltages are seen to have a 120° phase displacement and as they are
all of the same magnitude, the general statement can be made that
in a balanced three-phase system,

Line voltage = ^ 3 times the phase voltage.

Fig. 5.4(b) shows another method of representing the phase and

line voltages.
A current in a line is called a line current IL and that in a
winding or phase, a phase current IP. In the case of a star-con-
nected circuit, the line and phase currents are the same.

Line current = phase current.

h = /P.

EXAMPLE 5.1. If the line voltage of a star-connected three-phase

system is 6600 V, what is the phase voltage ?

line voltage
Phase voltage volts
(3

6600
volts
/3

= 3810 V.

5.3. Delta or mesh connection

The start of one winding is connected to the finish of another
winding and this is repeated until a closed circuit is obtained
(Fig. 5.5(a)). This connection is permitted because the phasor sum
of the three-phase voltages acting around the circuit is zero.
Referring to Fig. 5.1(b), if the instantaneous values of the voltage
in each of the three phases are added, their resultant at any instant
is always zero. Conductors are connected to the junctions of the
windings and these are called the line conductors.
176 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

Reference to Fig. 5.5(a) shows that the voltage across any one
phase is equal to the voltage between the corresponding lines.
Thus for a delta-connected circuit,

The three voltages have a phase displacement of 120° and it is

usual to letter the voltages as shown in Fig. 5.5(b). Note that they

(a) b

FIG. 5.5.

are lettered in the order of the letters in the phase sequence,

assumed to be R YB.
The current in any one winding or phase is not, for balanced
load conditions, the same as that in the lines. Currents in the three
lines may be representeda asn shown in the phasor diagram in
Fig. 5.5(b) by I Y , RIBy ^ IRB (i-e. the current from R to B line),
these having a 120° phase displacement for balanced load con-
ditions. They all lag their respective voltages by an angle cj) such
that cos <j) is equal to the power factor of the load.
Application of Kirchhoff's first law to the top junction (Fig.
5.5(a)) shows that

Current away from the junction = current

= to the junction
IR+IRB =
IYR

• • IR IYR~~IRB'
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 177
The current — IRB is in the opposite direction to IRB and when
—JRB is added to IYR
, the line current IR is obtained.
Thus the line current is the phasor difference between the
associated phase currents. For balanced conditions, it can be
shown by using the construction given in Fig. 5.4(a),

IL = 2xIPcos 30°

It must be remembered that this relationship is only true for

balanced operating conditions.
The other line currents in Fig. 5.5(a) are found as follows:
Left-hand junction:
IBY + IB ~ IRB

IB = IRB — IBY-
Right-hand junction: =
IYR + IY 1BY

. . Iy — IBY~IYR-

They are also shown in Fig. 5.5(b).

The delta or mesh connection is rarely used for three-phase
a.c. generators and all large generators are star-connected. Delta-
connected transformers and motors are quite common.

5.4. Loads on three-phase systems

Loads may be connected in star or in delta. As previously
stated, a balanced load is such that the loading in each phase is
exactly the same. The three-phase windings of an electric motor
constitute a balanced load.
If the load on each phase is not identical, the load is said to be
unbalanced. In a large distribution system, it is virtually impossible
to obtain balanced loading conditions as consumers will require
various loads at different times (see Fig. 5.6).
It is important to remember that with a star-connected load,
provided that the relatively small voltage drops in the generator
178 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

windings and cables, etc., are neglected, the line voltage is always
y/3 times the phase voltage for balanced or unbalanced loading
provided that there is a neutral conductor in the system. This
constitutes the three-phase, four-wire system. If there is no
neutral conductor, the system is described as being three-phase,
three-wire. When there is a balanced star-connected load on a
three-phase, three-wire system, the above voltage relationship still
holds but if the load is unbalanced, there is no fixed relationship
between the line and phase voltages. Generally, all the phase
voltages will be different.

5.5. Power in a three-phase balanced load

The power in any three-phase system is always equal to the
numerical sum of the power in each of the three phases. With a
balanced load, the power in each phase is the same and so the
total power is equal to three times the power in any one phase.
Total power P = 3 VP IP cos <$),
where VP is the phase voltage, IP the phase current and cos cb the
power factor of any phase, $ being the angle of phase difference
between the phase voltage and the phase current.
For a balanced star-connected load,

V3
VL
and

.*. Power P

For a balanced delta-connected load,

v = v
P L
and

.*. Power P 3 x VL x -j^ x cos (j)

3
(V ) VL h eos 4>.
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 179
Thus the expression for power in a balanced three-phase system
is the same for star and delta-connected loads.
The methods of measuring power in three-phase systems are
given in Section 2 . 1 0 .
EXAMPLE 5 . 2 . Four three-phase, 4 0 0 - V , delta-connected motors
each develop 5 0 h p at 0-8 power factor lagging and 8 8 % efficiency
when being fed from a transformer whose secondary windings are
connected in star. Calculate (a) the line current from the trans-
former, (b) the transformer phase current, (c) the phase current of
one motor.
4x50x746
Power input to the motors = Q watts O
= 169,000 W.
Hence transformer output = 169,000 W.
169,000
(a) Transformer line current = amperes
(^3) x400x0-8
= 306 A.
(b) As the transformer secondary windings are star-connected,
Line current = phase current
306 A.
306
(c) Line current if one motor
4 amperes
76-5 A.

As the motor is delta-connected, IP

V3
76-5
.'. motor phase current IP A
V3
44 2 A.

EXAMPLE 5.3. The current from a three-phase, 415-V, 50-Hz

supply when connected to a delta-connected load is 25 A at 0-8
G
180 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

power factor (lagging). Calculate the resistance and reactance of

each phase of the load if the components are connected (a) in
series, (b) in parallel.
If a resistor in one phase became open-circuited, what power
would be taken from the supply? (N.C.T.E.C.)
25
Phase current IP = -y^ amperes

14-4 A.
415
(a) Impedance per phase Z = r— ohms
14-4
= 28-8 a
Resistance per phase R = Z cos (j)
= 2 8 - 8 x 0 - 8 ohms
= 2 3 0 Q.
Reactance per phase X — Z sin $
= 2 8 - 8 x 0 - 6 ohms
= 17-3 Q.
V
(b) Resistance per phase R —
IP x cos (j)
415
ohms
14-4x0-8
36 0Q.
V
Reactance per phase X
IP x sin cj)
415
ohm
14-4x0-6
47-9 Q.

If the resistor in one phase became open-circuited power,

P = 2 x 4 1 5 x 14-4x0-8 watts
= 9570 W .
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 181
This is because if there is no current through a resistor in one of
the phases, power can only be consumed in the remaining two
phases.
EXAMPLE 5.4. A three-phase, star-connected motor takes a line
current of 200 A at the instant of connection to a 415-V, three-
phase supply. If the windings of the motor had been delta-con-
nected, what current would have been taken under the same con-
ditions ?
VL
In star, phase voltage VP = -j^

415
= ^ volts

= 240 V.
In star, phase current IP = 200 A.
240
Impedance of one phase Z = ohms
= 1-2 Q.
415
In delta, phase current IP = - y ^ amperes

= 346 A.
In delta, line current IL — (^/3) IP
— ( ^ 3 ) x 346 amperes
= 600 A.

Note that the current is increased in value to three times the

current flowing when the windings were star-connected.
EXAMPLE 5.5. Three identical impedances are connected in star
to a three-phase, 415-V supply. They consume a total power of
3 kW, operating at a power factor of 0-8 lagging. If each imped-
ance consists of a resistor and an inductor in series, calculate their
values. What power would be taken from the same supply if the
impedances were connected in delta?
G*
182 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

30,000
Supply current IL -
G / 3 ) x 4 1 5 x 0 - 8 amperes
5-21 A.
phase current 5-21 A.
4153
Voltage per phase ; volts
V
240 V.
240
Impedance per phase Z = T^TT ohms
5-21
46 Q.
Resistance per phase R Z cos cj)
= 46 x 0-8 ohms
= 36-8 ft.
Reactance per phase XL = Z sin cf)
= 46 x 0-6 ohms
= 27-6 a.
When delta-connected,
415
Phase current IP••
— amperes

9-02 A.
Line current IL
(y/3) x9-02 amperes
= 15-63 A.
Power consumed P
( x/ 3 ) x 4 1 5 x 15-63x0-8 watts
9000 W.
(i.e. three times the power con-
Alternatively, sumed when star-connected).
Power consumed P : (3 x 2 4 0 x9-02 x0-8) watts
9000 W.
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 183
5.6. Kilowatts, kilovolt-amperes and reactive kilovolt-amperes
In a balanced three-phase system, the power in kilowatts is
given by the expression
3
p = ( ^ 3 ) vL IL cos cb x 1 0 " kilowatts

when VL is in volts and IL in amperes. This can be rewritten as

follows: 3
p = ( ( ^ 3 ) VL IL x 1 0 - ) cos cb kilowatts.

The term in the bracket is called the apparent power and is

expressed in kilovolt-amperes (kVA). Hence P = (kVA) cos 0
kilowatts.
The term (kVA) sin tf> is called the reactive kilovolt-amperes
(kVAr).
The same relationships apply to the three quantities kW, kVA
and kVAr, as when they were considered in dealing with single-
phase circuits in Section 4 . 8 .

EXAMPLE 5.6. A three-phase, 4 1 5 - V motor has an efficiency of

8 2 % and a power factor of 0 - 8 when its output is 2 0 h p . Calcu-
late (a) the kVA taken from the supply, (b) the kVAr taken by the
motor.
20x746
Power taken from the supply P
watts

18,000 W or 18 kW.
kW
(a) Supply kVA
COS (f)
_18
0-8

22 5 kVA.

(b) Motor kVAr (kVA) sin cp

22-5x0-6
13 5 kVAr.
184 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

5.6. The three-phase, four-wire distribution system

Distribution of electrical energy to consumers in a town or
village is carried out by the three-phase, four-wire system. In this
country, the secondary windings of a three-phase star-connected
transformer usually have a line voltage output of 415 V and so the
voltage between any line and the neutral conductor is 240 V. In a
house all the loads are usually single-phase and require a voltage
of 240 V. F r o m the four-core cable in the street, two conductors
are brought into the house, the live lead being connected to any
one of the three lines and the other to the neutral conductor. The
star-point of the transformer is invariably earthed at the sub-
station housing the transformer. Thus the neutral conductor into
the house is at earth potential and can be handled without fear of
an electric shock. The live lead is at a potential of 240 V with
respect to earth. Single-pole switches must always be connected in
this lead when used to control a circuit.
In an attempt to balance the loads between the three phases, the
houses are connected between the various conductors as illustrated
in Fig. 5.6. The neutral conductor carries the phasor sum of the

I N

t-J

R- • R
Y -
" Y
B - - B
N -
-N

Houses
I L N I I L N I
I I I 1 I
I I I I I J

FIG. 5.6.
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 185
currents in the three lines and this is usually smaller t h a n any of
the three line currents. In an ideal case when the loads were
balanced, the neutral current would be zero.
In a factory, the lighting load and the 13-A socket outlets would
all come from a line and neutral connection. These loads are
distributed between the three phases in a n attempt to balance the
loading. The distribution of a fluorescent lighting load between
the three phases eliminates the s t r o b o s c o p e effects by which
rotating machinery may appear to be stationary.
When a balanced load such as a three-phase motor is connected
across the three lines of a three-phase, four-wire system, there is
no change in the current in the neutral conductor. The addition of
such a machine to an existing system would result in a n increase in
the currents in the three lines but not necessarily by the same
amount.
EXAMPLE 5.7. The following loads are connected between line
and neutral in a 200-V, three-phase, four-wire system:
Red line to neutral: 8 k W at unity power factor.
Yellow line to neutral: 6 k W at 0-8 power factor lagging.
Blue line to neutral: 10 k W at 0-95 power factor lagging.
Find the neutral current.
200
Phase voltage = —rr = 1 1 5 V .

8000
Red phase current IR amperes.
115x1
= 69-4 A.
6000
Yellow phase current IY = amperes
115x0-8
= 65 A .
10,000
Blue phase current IB =
115x0-95 amperes
= 91-4A.
186 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

The phasor diagram (Fig. 5.7(a)) is drawn for an assumed phase

sequence R YB.

VRN

V
YN
(a)

I cos 0°
R

(b)
F I G . 5.7. Phasor diagrams for Example 5.7. (Part (c) on facing page.)
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 187

Phase angle between VRNand I R, cj)R= 0°. 1

Phase angle between VYNand I Y, cj)Y= cos"*1 0-8 = 36-9°.
Phase angle between VBNand I B, cbB= c o s " 0*95 = 18-2°.
The neutral current
4 = IR + IY + IB

and this is shown in Fig. 5.7(a). Its value is 64-8 A.

The current may be calculated by resolving each current into its
horizontal and vertical component and then finding the resultant of
each of these components (Fig. 5.7(b)).

Total horizontal component = IR + IB cos 101 -8° + IY cos 203 • 1 °

= 69-4 + 91-4 x ( - 0 - 2 0 4 5 ) +
65 x ( - 0 - 9 1 9 8 ) amperes
= - 9 1 1 A.

Total vertical component = 0+IB sin 1 0 1 - 8 ° + / y sin 203-1°

= 0 + 91-4 x(0-9789) +
65 x ( —0-3923) amperes
= 64-3 A.

These total components are shown in Fig. 5.7(c).

2 2
Neutral current IN = >/[(—9-ll) + 64-3 ] amperes
= 64 8 A.
188 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES FOR TECHNICIANS

Problems
1. A three-phase balanced load of 40 kW at 0-8 power factor is supplied
from a three-phase, 415-V system. Determine the line and phase currents if the
load is connected in (a) star, (b) delta.
( (a) 69-6 A, 69-6 A; (b) 69-6 A, 40-2 A . )
2. A three-phase, star-connected induction motor takes a line current of 50A
at the instant of connection to a three-phase, 415-V supply. If the windings
of the motor had been delta-connected, what would be the current under the
same conditions ?
(150 A.)
3. With the aid of a diagram, explain how a three-phase supply is generated
by an alternator (a.c. generator).
Three balanced loads are connected in delta and take a power of 30 kW at
0-8 power factor from a three-phase, 415-V supply. Calculate the line current.
If the above loads are reconnected in star, to the same supply, what power
would be consumed ?
(52-2 A, 10 kW.) (N.C.T.E.C.)
4. Three equal impedances are connected in star to a 400-V (line), three-
phase, 50-Hz supply, and take in all 15 kVA at a power factor of 0-8 lag. If
these impedances were connected in delta to the same supply, what would be
the line current and total power ? Sketch a circuit diagram in each case.
(65 A, 36 kW.) (U.L.C.I.)
5. How many three-phase, 400-V induction motors can be supplied by a
500-kVA transformer if each motor has an output of 50 hp and their power
factor and efficiency are 0-8 and 88% respectively?
(16 motors.)
6. A balanced three-phase, delta-connected load consists of a resistor and a
capacitor in each phase. If the supply is 415-V, 50-Hz and the power con-
sumed is 2 kW at a power factor of 0-8, calculate the size of the resistor and
capacitor if the components are connected in (a) series, (b) parallel.
( (a) 166 ohms, 25-1 /xF; (b) 259 ohms, 9-2 fiF.) (U.L.C.I.)
7. A balanced star-connected load takes 9 kW at a power factor of 0-9 from
a three-phase, three-wire, 415-V supply. Calculate the supply current.
If one line is disconnected from the load, what will be (a) the new line
current, (b) the new power consumed ?
(13-9 A, (a) 12-1 A, (b) 4500 W.)
8. A motor-driven pump raises 1200 gal of water through a vertical distance
of 120 ft every minute. If the efficiency of the pump is 78%, calculate the
output of the motor in kW.
If the motor is supplied from a three-phase, 415-V supply, calculate the line
current if the motor efficiency is 85 % and the power factor is 0-8 lagging.
Assume that 1 gal of water weighs 10 lbf.
(41-7 kW, 85-3 A.)
 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 189
9. A three-phase 2200-V, star-connected alternator feeds a 3000-hp, delta-
connected induction motor which is operating on full load at a power factor of
0-8 and an efficiency of 85%. Calculate (a) the motor line current, (b) the
motor phase current, (c) the alternator phase current.
((a) 864 A, (b) 499 A, (c) 864 A. ) (U.L.C.I.)
10. Three identical impedances, each having a resistance of 20 CI and an
inductance of 0 1 H, are connected in star to a three-phase, three-wire, 415-V,
50-Hz supply. Calculate the total power consumed.
If one line becomes disconnected, what power is now consumed ?
(2490 W, 1245 W.) (U.L.C.I.)
Answers are not given to the following problems.
11. A three-phase, 50-hp delta connected induction motor has an efficiency
of 92% and a power factor of 0-85. It is supplied by a 500-V, star-connected
alternator.
Find the current in each motor and alternator phase and the active and
reactive components of the motor phase current. Draw the circuit diagram and
sketch a phasor diagram showing line and phase voltages and currents for the
induction motor.
(U.E.I.)
12. Describe what is meant by a three-phase, three-wire supply, and mention
TWO advantages of such a system over a single-phase supply. Calculate the
total power taken from a three-phase, 415-V (line) supply by three 50-Cl
resistors when they are connected (a) in star, (b) in delta.
(W.J.E.C.)
13. In a three-phase, 415-V, four-wire system the loads are:
R line to neutral: 15 A at unity power factor;
Yline to neutral: 10 A at a power factor of 0-8 lagging;
B line to neutral: 25 A at a power factor of 0-9 lagging.
The phase sequence is R Y B. By drawing to scale a phasor diagram, find
the current in the neutral wire. What is the total power consumed?