ADVANCED FLUID MECHANICS

CHAPTER 3: STEADY FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Laminar and Turbulent Flows:

The flow is called laminar flow if the liquid particles appear to move in definite smooth paths and
the flow appears to be as a movement of thin layers on top of each other. In turbulent flow, the
liquid particles move in irregular paths which are not fixed with respect to either time or space.
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the center of the
pipe, and laminar flow near the edges. In this type of flow, the viscous and inertial forces are of
approximately equal magnitude.

Inertial force, as the name implies is the force due to the momentum (inertia) of the fluid. This is
usually expressed by Newton’s Motion law i.e. F=ma, which shows the higher its velocity, the
more momentum (inertia) it has. As in classical mechanics, a force that can counteract or
counterbalance this inertial force is the force of friction (shear stress) or viscous force. In the case
of fluid flow, this is represented by Newton’s law of Viscosity i.e. τ=μdu/dy. This is only
dependent on the viscosity and gradient of velocity. Inertial force (in the direction of flow) and
viscous force (in the reverse direction of flow) act in opposite direction.
The relative magnitude of viscous and inertial forces determines whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent: The flow is laminar if the viscous forces dominate, and the flow is turbulent if the inertial
forces dominate.

The ratio of inertial forces and viscous forces is defined as the Reynolds number.

Now, Reynolds number equation can be derived as;

Inertial Forces Viscous Forces

FI = ma μdu
Fv = A
dy
=  L3. L/T2 L
= . .(L.L)
T.L
=  L2 L2 /T2
Fv =  VL
FI =  L V
2 2

Inertial Forces
Reynolds Number=
Viscous Forces

𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝐿𝑉𝜌 𝐿𝑉 𝜇
R = = = as ν =
𝜇 𝑉𝐿 𝜇 ν 𝜌

Page 1 of 30
 𝐿𝑉
R=
ν
Where;
L = Characteristic length, it may be diameter or radius of a pipe completely filled with water
flowing.
So for circular pipe  L = D

𝐷𝑉 4𝑉𝑅ℎ
R= R=
ν ν
(for circular pipes) (for Non-circular conduits)

Hydraulic Radius (Rh) = X-sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter of the x-section i.e.

Rh=A/P
Where;
A = x-sectional flow area (m2)
P = wetted perimeter = length of the x-section in contact with water (m)
Rh = Hydraulic radius (m)

𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟 𝐷
For a circular pipe, flowing full, 𝑅ℎ = = =
2𝜋𝑟 2 4

Where

A =  r2 = D2/4

Where

r = pipe radius (m)

D = pipe diameter (m)
P = 2  r (circumference of pipe (m))

To evaluate the Reynolds number

(R) for flow in a non-circular conduit

D is put equal to 4Rh i.e. D = 4Rh

To determine with the given flow is laminar or turbulent, first Reynolds number is evaluated for
the given flow, then flow type is determined based on the value of R.

1. For Laminar flow R < 2000

2. For transitional flow R 2000-2800
3. For turbulent flow R > 2800

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Example Problem

An oil having kinematic viscosity of 1.8x10-5 m2/s flows in a 10 cm diameter pipe at 0.5 l/s.
Determine the type of flow.

Given

ν = 1.8 x 10-5 m2/s

D = 10 cm = 10/100 = 0.10 m
Q = 0.5 l/s = 0.5/1000 = 0.0005 m3/s

Find: Type of flow = ?

Solution

A = D2/4 =  (0.10)2/4 = 0.008 m2

V = Q/A = 0.0005/0.008 = 0.063 m/s

R = DV/ν = (0.10) (0.063)/1.8x10-5 = 350 (As R < 2000, Laminar Flow)

Example Problem 2

An oil having kinematic viscosity of 21.4 stokes is flowing through a pipe of 300 mm diameter.
Determine the type of flow, if the discharge through the pipe is 15 liter/s.

Example Problem 3

An oil of specific gravity of 0.95 is flowing through a pipeline of 200 mm diameter at the rate of
50 liters/s. Find the type of flow if viscosity of oil 1 poise.

DERIVATION OF GENERAL EQUATION FOR FRICTION

(DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION):

Figure 1: a) Showing flow through a conduit b) Showing forces acting on fluid element

Page 3 of 30
Consider Fig. 1 given above and assume that

A = uniform x-sectional area of the conduit

p1 = pressure at section 1
p2 = pressure at section 2
L = distance between two sections
hL = head loss
P = Wetted perimeter
W = fluid weight

Thus, considering Fig. 1b, we can write

p1A – p2 A -  LA sin  - τ̅0 (PL) = 0 Equation (1) in the direction of flow

Put sin  = (z2-z1/L) in Equation (1) and get

p1A – p2 A -  LA (z2-z1/L) - τ̅0 (PL) = 0 Equation (A)

Now divide above Equation (A) by A and get:

p1/ - p2/ -Z2 + Z1 - τ̅0 PL/A = 0

or

p1/ - p2/ -Z2 + Z1 = τ̅0 PL/A Equation (2)

Looking at Fig. 1a, we can write from Bernoulli’s equation, that

Also, for constant diameter of pipe at section 1 and 2 : V1=V2=V

Z1 + p1/ + V2/2g = Z2 + p2/ + V2/2g +hL (Real fluid)

Or

(Z1 + p1/) – (Z2 + p2/) = hL

Put hL value in Equ. (2) and get

𝑃𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = τ̅0
𝛾𝐴

As Rh = hydraulic radius = A/P  P/A = 1/Rh

So,
𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = τ̅0 Eq. (3)
𝛾𝑅ℎ

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Equation 3 can be applied to any shape of uniform X-section irrespective of flow type (laminar or
turbulent).
τ̅0 can also be given by (Derivation of eq. (4) is given at the end of this derivation):

τ̅0 = Cf  V2/2 Eq. (4)

Where

Cf = coefficient of friction

 = fluid density

Now put τ̅0 value in Eq. (3) and obtain:

𝑉2 𝐿
ℎ𝑙 = Cf 𝜌
2 𝑅ℎ 𝛾
As  = g

So, 1/g = /

Now above equation becomes:

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑙 = Cf Eq. (5) (for any shape of x-section)
𝑅ℎ 2𝑔

For a circular pipe flowing full,

Rh = D/4

So,
4𝐿 𝑉 2
ℎ𝑙 = Cf
𝐷 2𝑔

𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝐿 = 4𝐶𝑓 Eq. (B)
2𝑔𝐷
For f = 4Cf, above eq. can be written as,
𝑳𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝑳 = 𝒇
𝟐𝒈𝑫
Where; f= friction factor (dimensionless);
This equation is known as pipe-friction equation and is also commonly referred to as the Darcy-
Weisbach equation.

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 𝛕𝟎 = Cf  V2/2
Derivation of ̅̅̅

Page 6 of 30
SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION ACROSS PIPE X-SECTION

For any shape of x-section of a conduit, we know that:

𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = τ̅0 Eq. (1)
𝑅ℎ 𝛾

Now for a circular pipe flowing full, we can put:

Rh = ro/2 in Eq. (1) and get:

2 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = τ̅0 .
𝑟𝑜 𝛾

Or
𝜏𝑜 2𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = Eq. (2), also putting shear stress at the wall of pipe (o) = τ̅0 (average shear
𝑟𝑜 𝛾
stress at pipe wall (constant)

Also, for any other radius,

𝜏 2L
hL = Eq. (3)
rγ

Equating Eqs. (2) & (3) we get:

𝜏𝑜 2𝐿 𝜏 2L
=
𝑟𝑜 𝛾 𝑟γ

Or
𝑟
τ = 𝜏𝑜 Eq. (4) gives Shear stress in the flow in a circular pipe at any radius ‘r’.
𝑟𝑜

Shear Stress is zero at centre of the pipe and increases linearly with radius to a maximum value o
at the pipe wall as shown in following Figure. Eq. (4) gives distribution of shear stress for both the
laminar and turbulent flows.

Figure: Showing distribution of shear stress across pipe x-section

Page 7 of 30
For a circular pipe, maximum shear stress o at the pipe wall can be determined by:
𝐿 𝐿𝑉 2
As we know; ℎ𝐿 = τ̅0 ; Also, ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 , Equating both equations of head losses and
𝛾𝑅ℎ 2𝑔𝐷
Rh=D/4, we get

𝑓 𝜌 𝑉2
𝜏𝑜 =
4 2
𝑓 𝛾𝑉 2 𝛾
𝜏𝑜 = [∵ 𝜌 𝑔 = γ ⇒ 𝜌 = ]
4 2𝑔 𝑔

With this equation, 𝜏𝑜 for flow in a circular pipe may be computed for any experimentally
determined value of f.

VELOCITY PROFILES IN LAMINAR & TURBULENT FLOWS, VISCOUS

SUBLAYER AND PIPE ROUGHNESS DETERMINATION

Velocity Profile in Laminar Flow

Velocity profile for laminar flow in a circular pipe is determined by:

𝑟2
𝑢 = 𝑉𝑐 (1 - ) Eq. (1)
𝑟𝑜2

Eq. 1 gives a parabolic velocity profile

Where

u = local velocity at radius, r

Vc = centerline velocity = Umax
r = any radius of pipe
ro = radius of pipe

Vc is determined by:
ℎ𝐿 𝛾 ℎ𝐿 𝛾
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟𝑜2 = 𝐷2 Eq. (2)
4𝜇𝐿 16 𝜇 𝐿

Mean velocity V is given by:

𝑉𝑐 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
∵ V = =
2 2

So by dividing Eq. (2) by 2 & equating to V, we get Eq. 3 from mean velocity
ℎ𝐿 𝛾
𝑉= 𝐷2 Eq. (3)
32 𝜇 𝐿

Page 8 of 30
 Figure: Typical parabolic velocity profile in laminar flow
Viscous Sublayer

In case of a turbulent flow, there is no turbulence adjacent to the wall of a pipe. Therefore,
immediately adjacent to pipe wall there is a laminar or viscous sublayer (Fig. 1). Viscosity effect
is dominant within the viscous sublayer. Though viscous sublayer is very thin (generally a few
hundredths of a millimeter), but it affects flow significantly.

Figure 1. Showing viscous sublayer in turbulent flow

The thickness of viscous sublayer can be determined by:

32.8 
𝛿𝑡 =
𝑉√𝑓
Where

𝛿𝑡 = thickness of the viscous sublayer (m)

 = kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/s)
Page 9 of 30
V = mean flow velocity (m/s)
f = pipe friction factor (unit less)

Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow

For turbulent flow, velocity equation is given as;

𝑟𝑜
u = (1+1.33 √f) V − 2.04 √𝑓 V 𝑙𝑜𝑔 Eq. (1)
𝑟𝑜 - 𝑟

𝑉𝑐 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 (1+1.33 √f) Eq. (2)

And

V = Umax - 1.33 𝑉 √𝑓 Eq. (3)

Where

u = local velocity at radius, r

r = any pipe radius
ro = pipe radius
f = pipe friction factor
V = mean velocity
Vc = centerline velocity (Max. Velocity or Umax)

Also, pipe factor which is ratio of mean to maximum velocity (V/Umax) can be expressed as:

𝑉 1
=
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 1+1.33 √𝑓

Figure: Typical velocity profile in turbulent flow

Page 10 of 30
Example Problem:

The head loss in 60 m of 15 cm diameter pipe is 8 m when oil with specific gravity of 0.90 and
viscosity of 0.04 N-s/m2 flows at 0.06 m3/s. Find the shear stress at the wall of pipe, centerline
velocity and velocity at 5 cm from the centerline.
Given

Pipe length = L = 60 m
Pipe diameter = D = 15 cm = 0.15 m
r = 7.5 cm
hL = 8m

Detailed Solution:
As

𝑓 ρ 𝑉2 𝑓
𝜏𝑜 = = γ 𝑉2 Eq. (1)
8 8𝑔
We need  or  and also f
V is also needed to use above formula for o
So,
𝑄
𝑉 =
𝐴
Where
𝜋 𝐷2 𝜋 (0.15)2
𝐴 = = = 0.01767 𝑚2
4 4
0.06 𝑚
V = = 3.4 ⇒ V = 3.4 m/sec
0.01767 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓L𝑉 2
Use ℎ𝐿 = to determine f:
𝐷2g

ℎ𝐿 𝐷 2𝑔 8 ×0.15 × 2 × 9.81
𝑓 = = = 0.034
𝐿 𝑉2 60 (3.4)2

f = 0.034

Now determine  as S is given so

𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑆 = ∵ 𝜌𝑤 = 1000 Kg/𝑚3
𝜌𝑤

Now apply o formula (Eq. 1) So 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 = Sw = 0.9 x 1000

𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 900 kg/m3

𝑓 ρ 𝑉2
𝜏𝑜 = = 44.2 𝑁/𝑚2
8

Page 11 of 30
Now, check flow type;
𝜇 0.04
ν = ν = = 0.000044 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝜌 900
𝑉𝐷 3.4 ×0.15
𝑅 = = = 11,590 As R > 2800 so flow is turbulent
ν 0.000044
For turbulent flow, Vc = Umax = V (1 + 1.33√f)
So,
𝑉𝑐 = 3.4 (1 +1.33 √0.034) = 4.2 𝑚/𝑠

Vc = 4.2 m/s
𝑟𝑜
Now velocity at r = 5 cm = U5cm 𝑉(1 +1.33 √𝑓 ) - 2.04 √𝑓 V 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑟𝑜 −𝑟

𝑟𝑜
= 𝑉𝑐 - 2.04 √𝑓 V 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟
7.5 𝐷 15
So U5cm = 4.2 – 2.04 √0.034 3.4 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑟𝑜 = = = 7.5 𝑐𝑚
7.5−5 2 2

U5cm = 3.5 m/s

PIPE ROUGHNESS

The inner surface of commercial pipes offer roughness due to presence of projections or grains on
the inner surface of the pipes. Experimentation on measurement and description of pipe roughness
has shown that pipe roughness can be expressed, represented by the size or diameter of
projections/grains on the inner surface of the pipes. This size or diameter is denoted by “e” which
is called as absolute roughness.

Research has revealed that pipe friction factor ‘f’ value depends on both Reynolds number (R) and
ratio of absolute roughness (e) to pipe inside diameter (D).

The ratio of absolute roughness (e) to pipe diameter (D) is called as relative roughness i.e.

𝑒 𝑒 (mm)
Relative roughness = =
𝐷 𝐷 (mm)

Pipe Types W.R.T. Roughness

1) Smooth Pipe: A pipe will behave as a hydraulically smooth conduit if thickness of viscous
sublayer (t) is greater than six times of absolute roughness of pipe (6e).
i.e. t > 6e
2) Rough Pipe: A pipe will behave as a hydraulically rough if  t< 0.3e
3) Transitional Condition: A pipe will behave in a transition mode (i.e., neither
hydraulically smooth nor rough) if 6e < t < 0.3e

Page 12 of 30
 See Figure 2 given below also to understand the concept of smooth pipe flow and rough pipe
flow.

Figure 2. Showing the concept of a smooth and rough pipe

DETERMINATION OF PIPE FRICTION FACTOR ‘f’

1) Darcy-Weisbach equation.
2) Implicit and explicit equations.
3) Moody Diagram.
4) Nikuradse’s Experiment

1) ‘f’ by Darcy-Weisbach equation

𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓
2𝑔𝐷
This equation has already been discussed earlier in detail.

2) ‘f’ by implicit and explicit equations

a) For smooth pipe flow (t > 6e), f can be found by:

1
= 2 log 𝑅√𝑓 − 0.8
√𝑓

b) For rough pipe flow (i.e., t < 0.3e), f is determined by:

1 𝐷
= 2 log +1.14
√𝑓 𝑒

c) Transitional flow i.e., (6e > t > 0.3e). The pipe friction factor can be found by:

1 𝑒⁄ 2.51
= − 2 log ( 𝐷 + )
√𝑓 3.7 𝑅√𝑓

Page 13 of 30
3) ‘f’ by Moody Diagram/Chart

- Above mentioned equations are very inconvenient to use for determination of ‘f’ value.
- A chart has been prepared to determine ‘f’ value called as Moody Diagram (Fig. 8.11 in
R. L. Daugherty Book). This diagram is based on the above mentioned equations.

Page 14 of 30
 4) ‘f’ by Nikuradse’s Experiment

Prof. Nikuradse conducted a series of experiments on pipes of diameters 25 mm, 50 mm and 100
mm to investigate the effect of roughness of pipe walls on the resistance to flow. The inner surfaces
of these pipes were given different degrees of roughness by coating them with grains of sand of
various coarseness. In these experiments, he took six different values of roughness factor (i.e., r/k,
where r is the radius of pipe and k is the average height of roughness projections) as 15, 30.6, 60,
126, 252 and 507. The resistance of each pipe was measured, experimentally, for various of flow
and resistance coefficients were obtained for various values of Reynold's number and various
values of r/k. These results are plotted in Fig.

From the above curves, we find that for smaller values of Reynold's number, the flow is laminar
and follows in a straight line AB. But for higher values of Reynold's number, the flow passes
through a transition stage and then becomes turbulent.
It will also be noticed that the turbulent flow appears to follow another straight line CD. The
effect of roughness factor may be seen by the deviation of experimental points from the straight
line CD. The pipes, with the roughest surface, causes the experimental points to break away at the
smaller values of Reynold's number. But for smoother pipes, the experimental points coincide with
the straight line CD, upto a larger values of Reynold's Number.

Page 15 of 30
Prandtl and Von Karman's Equation for Pipe Flow

The results of Nikurades's experiments on rough pipes were also shown by Prandtl and Von
Karman. They proved that Nikuradse's experiments may be represented in the form of equation as
given below :

The above equations are called Prandtl-Karman resistance equations for turbulent flows. These
equations are regarded as a great scientific achievement, as the experimental tests on fluid flow
through pipes of all sizes and for different types of fluids agree with large values of Reynold's
number.

Page 16 of 30
Page 17 of 30
PIPE ROUGHNESS, MOODY DIAGRAM, MINOR LOSSES AND SOLUTION OF
SINGLE PIPE FLOW PROBLEM

Important Points on Pipe Roughness (e)

• Generally, the given values of absolute roughness (e) of pipes are for new and
clean pipes. There may be significant variation in these values. As a result of
this, the value of ‘f’ may be in error by ± 5% for smooth pipes and by ± 10%
for rough pipe.
• For old pipes, value of ‘e’ may be significantly higher. There may be lots of
variation in the extent by which pipe roughness increases with the age of pipe
depending upon the nature of fluid flowing through the pipe.
• Also, the materials deposits on the inside surface of pipe wall reduce the
internal diameter of pipe. This will affect the value of ‘f’ also.
• The roughness of pipe joints may also increase the value of ‘f’ significantly.
• Considering the above mentioned factors care must be taken in
estimating/determining the value of ‘e’ and consequently value of ‘f’.

Important Points Related to Moody Diagram

The Moody diagram divides various flow conditions into four zones as named
below:
1. Laminar flow zone – f = 64/R [R < 2000]
2. Critical flow zone – where ‘f’ values are uncertain because flow might either
laminar or turbulent [R : 2000 – 4000]
3. Transition flow zone – where ‘f’ depends on both Reynolds number (R) and
relative pipe roughness (e/D) [ 4000 – 60,000  R]
4. Complete turbulence flow zone – where value of ‘f’ is independent of R and
depends only on e/D.
• The dashed line of Fig. 8.11 (Daugherty Book) separates the transition and
complete turbulence flow zones. The equation of this dashed line is
R = 3500/(e/D).
• On the right hand side of Moody diagram (Fig. 8.11), the given values of (e/D)
correspond to the curves and not to the grid.
• The complete turbulent and fully rough flow is represented by horizontal lines
in Fig 8.11 where R > 3500/(e/D).

Page 18 of 30
Page 19 of 30
MINOR LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
Energy or head loss that occur due to disturbances of flow in conduits such as
changes in cross section, elbows, valves, bends etc. are called as minor head losses.
All these losses are expressed in terms of velocity head like major head loss due to
pipe friction. There are several types of minor losses. Some important minor losses
are discussed below:
1. Head loss due to entrance (he)
2. Head loss due to contraction (hc)
3. Head loss due to expansion (hx)
4. Head loss at exit in a pipe (ht)
5. Head loss due to pipe fittings (hf)

1. Head loss due to entrance (he)

The head loss due to entrance in a pipe can be given by:
𝑉2
ℎ𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒
2𝑔
Where
he = Head loss due to entrance
Ke = loss coefficient
V = mean velocity of flow in the pipe
The value of Ke depends upon the type of entrance i.e.
- Entrance of the pipe is well rounded or bell–mouthed  Ke = 0.04 [as no
contraction takes place so Ke is small]
- For square edged entrance  Ke = 0.5
- For rectangular tube (pipe is projected inside the reservoir). Lot of contraction
takes place so Ke = 0.8

Figure 1. Showing different nodes of entrance

Page 20 of 30
 2. Head loss due to contraction (hc)

The head loss due to contraction can be determined by:

𝑉22
ℎ𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐
2𝑔
Where
Kc = loss coefficient for contraction
Experimentally it has been found that value of Kc depends on D2/D1 (See fig. 2)

D2
D1

Figure 2. Showing contraction

Table 1 shows the value of Kc for different values of D2/D1 ratio.

3. Head loss due to expansion (hx)

The head loss due to turbulence produced by the enlargement or expansion can be
determined by the following expressions:
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
ℎ𝑥 =
2𝑔
Where
V1 = mean velocity in small diameter pipe
V2 = mean velocity in larger diameter pipe

Page 21 of 30
 Figure 3. Showing expansion
4. Head loss at exit in a pipe (ht)
Head loss at the exit of a pipe is determined by:
𝑉2
ℎ𝑡 =
2𝑔
Where
V = mean velocity in the pipe
In case of long pipes, ht is very small compared to hL, so generally ht is neglected as
is the case of entrance head loss (he).
5. Head loss due to pipe fittings (hf)
The head loss due to pipe fittings i.e. valves, bends, elbows etc. may be expressed
as
𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾
2𝑔
Where
V = Velocity in a pipe of the nominal size of the fitting.
Typical values of K are given in Table 2

Page 22 of 30
 Table 2 Showing Typical values of K
Example Problem 1:
A pipe of 40 mm diameter is conveying water with a velocity of 2.5 m/s. Find the
loss of head at the entrance and exit of the pipe. Assume square shaped/edged
entrance for which, loss coefficient Ke = 0.5
Solution:
Given:
Pipe diameter = D = 40 mm
Flow velocity = V = 2.5 m/s
Loss coefficient = Ke = 0.5
To find:
i) he = ?
ii) ht = ?
V2 0.5 (2.5)2
i) As he = K e So he = = 0.16 m
2g 2 ×9.81
V2 (2.5)2
ii) As h𝑡 = So ht = = 0.32 m
2g 2 ×9.81

Example Problem 2:
A horizontal pipe consists of three different diameters D1, D2, and D3 respectively
as shown in Figure given below.

Page 23 of 30
Calculate Minor losses at expansion and contraction.

Solution:
Given (From Figure):
D1 = dia of 1st pipe = 200 mm = 0.2 m
D2 = dia of 2nd pipe = 300 mm = 0.3 m
D3 = dia of 3rd pipe = 150 mm = 0.15 m
Q = 200 l/s = 3
0.2 m /s (∵ 1000 l/s = 1 𝑚3 /𝑠 )
To find:
i) hx = ?
ii) hc = ?
(𝑉1 - 𝑉2) 2
i) as ℎ𝑥 =
2g

1st calculate V1 and V2 from continuity eq.

Q = A1 V1
𝑄 0.2 0.2 × 4
𝑉1 = = 𝜋 D 𝛾2 = = 6.37 m/s
𝐴1 𝜋 (0.2)2
4
𝑄 0.2 0.2 × 4
𝑉2 = = 𝜋 𝐷2
= = 2.83 m/s
𝐴2 𝜋 (0.3)2
4
Now,
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 (6.37 - 2.83)2
ℎ𝑥 = = = 0.639 m
2𝑔 2 ×9.81
𝑉32
ii) 𝑎𝑠 ℎ𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐
2𝑔
Taking Kc from Table 1 by ratio D3/D2
Kc = 0.33
𝑄 0.2 0.2 × 4
𝑉2 = = 𝜋 𝐷2 = = 11.32 m/s
𝐴2 𝜋 (0.15)2
4
11.322
ℎ𝑐 = 0.33 = 2.15 𝑚
2 . 9.81
SOLUTION OF SINGLE PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS
The pipe flow problems can be solved by using three formulae given below:
𝑓 L 𝑉2
1. Darcy-Weisbach formula ~ ℎ𝐿 =
𝐷2𝑔
2. Hazen-Williams Formula ~ V = 0.85 𝐶𝐻𝑊 𝑅ℎ0.63 𝑆 0.54

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Where CHW = roughness coefficient. The values of CHW can be found for various
pipe materials from the literature.
V = mean velocity. m/s
Rh = A/P = hydraulic radius, m
S = hL/L = Energy gradient
 The Hazen-Williams formula is only applicable to the flow of water in pipes
larger than 5 cm and at velocities less then 3 m/s. The value of CHW must be
chosen carefully (proper value of CHW) to obtain good results from the application
of Hazen-Williams formula.
 Hazen-Williams formula is not well suited for the solution of all problems
when minor losses must be considered:
1 2/3
3. Manning’s formula V = R h 𝑆1/2
n
V = mean velocity. m/s
Rh = A/P = hydro radius, m
S = hL/L
n = Manning’s roughness constant

 To solve various practical pipe flow problems, Darcy-Weisbach formula is

preferred because this formula provides greater accuracy compared to Hazen-
Williams and Manning formula.
The reason is that Darcy-Weisbach formula uses/consider the Reynolds number
(R) and relative roughness (e/D) which affect the value ‘f’.
Types of Single Pipe Flow Problems and Corresponding Solution
Most of the practical single pipe flow problems alongwith their solutions can be
categorized into the following three types:
Problem Type Find Given Solution
Head loss D, Q, V and g, L,
hL Direct Solution
problem e, 𝜈
Discharge or D, hL, and g, L, e, Indirect Solution
Q or V
velocity problem  (Error & Trial)
Q, hL, and g, L, e, Indirect solution
Sizing problem D
𝜈 (Error & Trial)

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SINGLE PIPE STEADY FLOW PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

1. Method to Solve Type 1 Pipe Flow Problem (Direct Solution)

To find hL
Step 1:If Q is given, we can easily obtain V from continuity equation i.e. V = Q/A
Step 2:Then calculate R & e/D from the given data.
Step 3:Use Moody diagram (Fig. 8.11) given in Daughtery Book to determine “f” value. For this
purpose, enter Fig. 8.11 vertically with R value and along a curve (possibly interpolated) for e/D
from the right, to identify an operating point for which we can read off the friction factor “f”
horizontally to the left.
Step 4:With determined value of “f”, we can directly compute the friction head loss “hL” from
𝑓 𝐿 𝑉2
Darcy Weisbach formula (ℎ𝐿 = )
𝐷 2𝑔
2. Method to Solve Type 2 Pipe Flow Problem (Indirect Solution – Error and Trial
Method)

To find V or Q
𝑓 𝐿 𝑉2 ℎ𝐿 𝐷 2𝑔 ℎ𝐿 𝐷 2𝑔 1
Step 1:Rearrange (ℎ𝐿 = ) into 𝑉 = √ , V = √ ×
𝐷 2𝑔 𝐿f L √𝑓
𝐾 ℎ𝐿 𝐷 2𝑔
Or 𝑉 = where K = √
√𝑓 𝐿
𝐾
Step 2: Assume the value of “f” and calculate V using 𝑉 = , then calculate R.
√𝑓
Step 3: Use Moody diagram (Fig. 8.11) given in Daughtery Book to determine “f” value. For this
purpose, enter Fig. 8.11 vertically with R value and along a curve (possibly interpolated) for e/D
from the right, to identify an operating point for which we can read off the friction factor “f”
horizontally to the left.
Step 4:If “f” value obtained from Moody diagram is different from assumed value of “f”, refer to
𝐾
the procedure (calculate V from V = and then R, then use Moody diagram with R & e/D to find
√𝑓
improved value of “f” and successively repeat it until the two values coverage. It takes only 2 or
3 trials to get correct values of “f” and “V”.

3. Method to Solve Type 3 Pipe Flow Problem (indirect Solution –Error and Trial Method)

To Find D
4𝑄
Step 1: From continuity equation, get 𝑉 =
𝜋 𝐷2
4𝑄
Step 2: Put V = into hL = f LV2/D2g, rearrange it and get:
𝜋 𝐷2
8 𝐿 𝑄2
D = (f K)1/5 where K =
𝜋2 g ℎ𝐿
Step 3: Assume “f” value and obtain D from D = (f K)1/5. Then calculate V and R.
Step 4: Use Moody diagram (Fig. 8.11) given in Daughtery Book to determine “f” value. For this
purpose, enter Fig. 8.11 vertically with R value and along a curve (possibly interpolated) for e/D
from the right, to identify an operating point for which we can read off the friction factor “f”
horizontally to the left.

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Step 5: If this “f” value is different from assumed one, repeat the procedure. Assuring the just
obtained “f” value, and successfully repeat it until two values converge.

Example Problem 1 (Illustrates Solution to Type 1 Pipe Flow Problem = Direct Solution)
A 500 mm diameter galvanized iron pipe 3220 m long carries 113.25 l/s of water at 20oC. Find
the friction head loss using Moody diagram and the Reynolds number:
Given:
Pipe diameter = D = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Pipe length = L = 3220 m
Discharge = Q = 113.25 l/s = 0.1132 m3/s
o
Water Temperature = 20 C
From Table A.1 (Appendix three in Daugherty Book) at 20oC, 𝜈 = 1.003 x 10-6 m2/s
From Table 8.1 for galvanized iron pipe, e = 0.15 mm
Find: hL = ?
Solution:
0.11325
Step 1: Calculate V = Q/A , 𝑉 = 2 = 0.56 m/s
𝜋 0.5 /4
Step 2: Calculate R & e/D from the given data.
𝑉𝐷 0.577∗ 0.5 𝑒 0.15
𝑅= = = 287637 = = 0.0003
𝜈 1.003 x 10−6 𝐷 500
Step 3: Determine “f” from Moody Diagram using R and e/D, f = 0.017
𝑓 𝐿 𝑉2
Step 4: Calculate hL by (ℎ𝐿 = )
𝐷 2𝑔
So,
0.017 ×3220 ×(0.56)2
hL = = 1.75 𝑚
(0.5) × 2 × 9.81

Page 27 of 30
 hL = 1.75 m
How the read Moody Diagram
Enter Fig. 8.11 (Moody diagram) at the right hand side with e/D = 0.0003, by interpolating between
0.0002 and 0.0004; note that e/D spacing varies. Follow this unplotted ) e/D curve to the left until
it crosses a vertical line at R = 2.79 x 105 (Be careful: this is in between 105 x 106). For this
operating point, read horizontally to the left and get f = 0.017.
Example Problem 2 (Illustrating Type 2 Problem indirect solution = Trial method)
To find discharge or Velocity
Water at 20oC flow in a 500 mm diameter welded steel pipe. If the frictionless gradient is 0.006,
determine the flow rate using Moody diagram.
Find
Q=?
Solution:
From Table A.1 (Appendix three in Daugherty Book) at 20oC, 𝜈 = 1.003 x 10-6 m2/s
For welded steel pipe, e = 0.046 mm  e/D = 0.046/500 = 0.000092 (Table 8.1)
Frictional loss gradient = energy gradient = hL/L = S = 0.006
𝑓 𝐿 𝑉2 hL D 2g ℎ𝐿 𝐷 2𝑔 1 𝐾
(ℎ𝐿 = ) V = √ = √ × =
𝐷 2𝑔 fL L √𝑓 √𝑓
ℎ𝐿 𝐷 2𝑔
where, K = √ = √0.006 × 0.5 × 2 × 9.81 = 0.243
𝐿

𝐾
Step 1: V =
√𝑓
0.243
𝑉=
√𝑓
Step 2: Assume ‘f’ value from Fig. 8.11 (Moody Diagram) for e/D = 0.000092  So, f = 0.0118
0.243
Step 3: Calculate V from
√𝑓
0.243
So V = = 2.23 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
√0.0118
Also calculate R  R = V D/ 𝜈 = 2.23 x 0.5/1.003 x 10-6 = 1111665 = 1.116 x 106
Determine “f” from Moody Diagram using R= 1.1 x 106 and e/D = 0.000092,
f = 0.014
As calculated f = 0.014 is not same to the assumed f = 0.0118. So, take next trial.

Trial No. 2:
Now assume f = 0.0131 & calculate velocity, Reynolds number and consult again Fig. 8.11 to get
new “f” value
 for f = 0.0131
0.243 0.243
𝑉 = = 1 = 2.12 𝑚
√𝑓 (0.0131)2
2.12 ×0.5
R = VD/ 𝜈 = = 1.059 𝑥 106
1.003 ×10−6
So now from Moody Diagram (Fig. 8.11)
f = 0.0131
It shows that “f” value now agrees with the previous one, thus convergence is achieved.
So,
V = 2.12 m

Page 28 of 30
 𝜋 𝐷2 𝜋 ×(0.5)2 ×2.12
Q = AV = ×𝑉 = = 0.416 𝑚3 /𝑠
4 4
Q = 0.416 m3/s
Tabulate all trials;
Trial Try “f” V (m/sec) R Obtain “f” Remarks
1 0.0118 2.23 1.116 ∗ 106 0.0131 Try again
2 0.0131 2.12 1.059 ∗ 106 0.0131 Converged

Example Problem 3 (Illustrating Type 3 Problem indirect solution = Trial method)

To find Size (D)
A horizontal galvanized iron pipe of 5000 m long must convey a liquid with 𝜈 = 2.1368 x 10-6 m2/s
at a rate of 8.5 lit/s. If the frictional head loss must be 60 m, determine the pipe size using Moody
Diagram.
Given:
Q = 8.45 lit/s = 0.0085 m3/s
L = 5000 m
𝜈 = 2.1368 x 10-6 m2/sec
Pipe material; galvanized iron, so, e = 0.15 mm from Table 8.1
hL = 60 m
Find:
D=?
Solution:
Step 1: Get V from Q = AV = D2/4, V = 4Q/D2
Step 2: For D = (f K)1/5 . Determine K = 8LQ2/2 g hL by putting values;
8 × 5000 × (0.0085)2
K= = 0.0005
(3.1429)2 ×9.81x60
D = (f K) =(0.0005) (f)1/5
1/5 1/5

D = 0.218 f 1/5
Trial No. 1:
Step 3:Assume “f” value as 0.03
Get D from D = 0.218 f 1/5 as D = 0.218 (0.03) 1/5 = 0.1081 m
𝑒
Now, calculate V, R and
𝐷
4 × 0.0085
V = 4Q/D2 = = 0.924 m/s
× 0.10812
0.924 × 0.1081
R = VD/ 𝜈 = = 3.16 × 104
2.1368 × 10−6
𝑒 0.15
= = 0.0014
𝐷 108.1
Step 4: Determine “f” from Moody diagram using e/D = 0.0014 and R = 3.16 x 104
So,
f = 0.0257
Step 5: As f value from Fig. 8.11 Moody diagram f is different from assumed f are so repeat the
procedure

Trial No. 2:
Step 3:Now take f = 0.0257
Calculate D = (K f)1/5 = 0.218 x (0.0257)1/5 = 0.01048 m = 104.82 mm

Page 29 of 30
 𝑒 0.15
= = 0.0014
𝐷 104.82
0.0108
𝑉= = 0.9833 m/s
(0.1048)2
VD 0.9833 ×0.1048
R = = = 4.82 × 104
𝜈 2.1368 × 10−6
Step 4: Now get “f” from chart with e/D = 0.0014 and R = 4.82 x 104
Step 5: As, f = 0.0257 it means f value has converged.
So, D = 104.82 mm
Tabulate all trials
Trial Try “f” D (m) R Obtain “f” Remarks
4
1 0.03 0.1081 3.16 ∗ 10 0.0257 Try again
4
2 0.0257 0.1048 4.82 ∗ 10 0.0257 Converged

Page 30 of 30