Gists of topics covered till

18th Aug 2023

CLASS 12
 R'

R
P

q
q
 How many lines are cutting through unit length of the circumference? Call it n

How many lines would be cutting through unit area of the sphere? Call it n

N N
n n
2 R 4 R 2
E ds

 
d   E .d s
 
   E .d s
 Flux through the elementary area ds
 
d  E.ds
 
   E.ds
E ds
q    Eds
  E  ds
q
  4r 2

4 0 r 2

q

0
• Identify the symmetry of the charge distribution and hence the field.
• Choose a suitable gaussian surface
1. Surface should be such that the point in question lies on the
surface.
2. The magnitude of electric field should be same throughout the
surface or a part thereof and perpendicular to the other parts.
• Find the flux through the gaussian surface.
• Equate it to 1/ε0 times the charge enclosed by the chosen
surface.
• Cylindrical symmetry: Coaxial cylinder with point in question
on the curved surface.

• Plane symmetry: Pill box extending equally on both sides

with the point in question lying on one of the flat surfaces.

• Spherical symmetry: Concentric sphere with the point in

question on the surface.
 λ According to Gauss' law   q
ds  E . d s  enc
0
L  
 Eds 
0  E .d s 
L
ds curved  0
L       L
L
z
P E  ds   E .d s   E .d s   E .d s 
curved
0 top bot curved
0
   
L  E .d s  0  E  d s
E 2 zL  top
0    
 E .d s  0  E  d s
 bot

ds
E
2 0 z
 Charge density Field inside

r  R
r  
r
R
  dv
ρ 0r  R E  ds  0

curved
0
r
 R 2 1
P E  E 2rL    2xLdx
2  0 r 0 0
R 2 x r
E  dx E
2 0r 2 0

  0 rr  R 
 (r )     0  const
 0r  R 
 According to Gauss' law
  q
 E . d s  enc
0
      A
σ  E .d s 
front
 E .d s 
back
 E .d s 
curved
0
ds    
 E .d s  0  E  d s
ds ds curved

A
E
front
 ds  E  ds 
back
0
r
A
2 EA 
0

E
2 0
 Field outside
ds   q enc
According to Gauss' law
 E .d s 
0
R q
ρ r Field inside E  ds 
0
qenc q
r E  ds  E 4 r 2

0 0
1 q
E 4r 2    4r 2 dr E 
0 4  0 r
2

r
E
3 0
qr
E
4 0 R 3
 q
E q
4 0 R 2 E
Er 1
4 0 R 2
E
r2
1
E
r2
E0
 1
g
q r2
E  gr
4  0 R 2

Me
g  G
R2
• Calculation of electric field by superposition
• Involves vector addition and involvement of components
• Integrals involved for each component
• Calculation of field by Gauss' law
• Involves stringent symmetry conditions to be satisfied
• Without the specified symmetry cannot be used for this purpose
• Need for potential formulation
• A scalar quantity for superposition hence components not involved
• Possible to obtain the field by finding potential gradient (differentiation)
 q0 Work done in displacing the charge by dr towards q quasi
dr r1 statically  
dW  F ( r ). d r
r  qq 0
r2 F (r )  2
rˆ
4  0 r
q 
d r  dr   rˆ 
 
 F .d r   Fdr

r2
Work done in bringing the charge from r1 to r2
W    Fdr
r1
r2
qq 0
qq0  1 1  W   dr
U     r1
4  0 r 2
4 0  r2 r1  r1
qq 0 dr
W 
4  0 
r2
r2
qq 0  1 1
W    
4  0  r2 r1 
Here q0 is replaced by unity, work done in moving the unit positive charge by dr,
 
dV   E . d r
r
 
V ( r )    E .d r R is the point at which the potential is assigned a value 0 and is called the reference point
R

For a finite charge distribution the reference point is taken as infinity. Hence in general,
r
 
V    E.dr Using the expression for field due to a point charge  q
E 2
rˆ

4 0 r

dr  dr  rˆ 

Potential at a point due to a point charge q q

V 
4  0 r
 q1 r1 Potential at P due to point charge q1 V1 
q1
4  r
0 1

P
r2 Due to q2 V2 
q2
q2 4  0 r2
r3
r4 q3
q3 Due to q3 V3 
4 0 r3
q4
q4
Due to q4 V4 
4 0 r4

Potential at P VP  V1  V2  V3  V4

dq
For continuous charge distributions V   4 0 r

 dV
Electric field is now calculated by E nˆ
dr
 r
 
Potental at a point distant r from the center V   E .d r


R
 
work done in bringing a unit +ve charge from infinity to the surface V1    Eout .dr
R 

  r
Work done in bringing the charge from the surface to the required point V   Ein .dr
 r R
 
r
 R
   r
V   E.dr   Eout .dr   Ein .dr
  R

q r
qr q  R2  r 2 
V1  V    dr   
4 0 R R
4 0 R 3
4 0 R 3  2 

V  V1   V
q  3R 2  r 2 
V   
4  0 R 3  2 
q  r2 
V   3  2 
8  0 R  R 
 When the 1st charge of amount dq is brought in, no work is done. When the next dq
charge is brought from infinity, work is done against the field of the already present charge
r and distributed uniformly over the 1st charge to construct a small sphere of density 

 When a sphere of radius r is formed, we seek to increase the radius by dr by bringing

dr
dq amount of charge from infinity and distribute it uniformly over the sphere.

Work done in increasing the radius by dr dW  Vdq V being the potential at the surface of the sphere
R R
r 2
q  43  r 3  r 2 W   Vdq   3 0
 4  r 2 dr
V    0 0
4 0 r 4 0 r 3 0 4  2
R

r
4
W  dr
dq   dv   4 r dr
2
3 0 0

4  2 R 5
W 
15  0
Consider a dipole Potential at P =0
P
Potential at P'=0

Potential at any point on

the equatorial plane =0

Equatorial plane is an

P'
The surface on which potential is constant
Equatorial plane
 Find the equipotential surface having a potential of 1 kV due to a point charge of +2mC

How would the surface look like? Spherical surface with the charge at the center

What would be the radius of that sphere? q 92 106

V  9 10
40 r r
3 92 106
10  9 10
r
r  18m
18m Any two equipotential surfaces with
24m every 250 V potential difference is Potential of 750 V? 24m
36m separated by increasing distance
72m between the surfaces as the potential Potential of 500 V? 36m
decreases.
Potential of 250 V? 72m
 Two charges 2μC and -2μC are placed at (-4.5, 0, 0) and (4.5, 0, 0) cm respectively in an external electric field of
given by (9 x 106)r-2N/C. Find the potential energy of the system in the electric field.

SOLUTION: q1  2  10 6 C
q2  2  10 6 C
r1  0.045m, r2  0.045m
r12  0.09m
The potential energy of a system in an external field

q1 q 2
U  q1V ( r1 )  q 2V ( r2 ) 
4 0 r12
and dV
E or dV  Edr
dr
q1 q 2
 U  q1 Er1  q 2 Er 2 
4 0 r12
 9  10 6   9  10 6  2  (  2 )  10 12  9  10 9
U  2  10  6
2
 r1  (  2  10 )

6
 r2
 r2 

 r1   2  r12

2  9  10 6  10 6 2  9  10 6  10 6 2  2  9  10 9  10 12
U  
0.045 0.045 0.09
U   0 .4 J
A charge Q is distributed over two concentric hollow spheres of radii r and R, where R>r such that the surface charge
densities are equal. Find the potential at the common center. Take Coulomb's constant as k.

SOLUTION If q is the charge on the smaller sphere then Q-q will be the charge on the larger one
 A  B

q Q  q
 
4 r 2 4 R 2
R
or Qr 2 and QR 2
Q-q q 2 2 Qq  2
r R r R  r2
q
A kq kQr
Potential of small sphere   2
r R  r2
B
Qq kQR
Potential of large sphere  k  2
R R  r2

kQr kQR kQ R  r 
Potential at the common center   
R2  r 2 R2  r 2 R2  r 2
n small drops of same size are charged to a potential of V volt each. They coalesce to form a bigger drop. Calculate the
potential of the larger drop.
SOLUTION: Let r be the radius of small drop and R is the radius of larger drop. When n small drops coalesce to form
a bigger drop, volume remains same.
Volume of big drop = Volume of n small drops
4 4
or R 3
 n r 3
3 3
1
or R  n 3r
q
Charge on big drop, Q=nq, where q is the charge on each small drop. Potential of a small drop, V 
4  0 r

Potential of big drop, Q

Vb 
4 0 R
nq 2  q 
Vb   n 3

 
 4 0 r 
1
4 0 n r3

2
 V b  n 3V
• Identify the location of charges under static condition
• Field inside the conductor and conductor as an equipotential domain
• Calculation of field just outside the charged conductor
• Electrostatic shielding
• Point effect (working of lightning arrester)
 Consider a conductor of arbitrary shape

Give it some positive charge from outside

Consider a Gaussian surface of arbitrary shape

  qenc
 E.ds   0
E=0, else the charges would move qenc=0

There only one place left for the charges to reside

• Charges reside on the + + +
+
outer surface of conductor. + +

• Electric field inside a E=0 +

conductor is zero. + +

• A conductor is +
+ + +
+

characterised by surface
charge density.
• Surface of a conductor is
an equipotential surface.
It is decided by
• The conductor itself is an
equipotential domain.
 +
+ + Potential at the surface New potential
R
+ + Q  1  4R 2  1R Q' ' R
V1    V '1   1
+ + 4 0 R 4 0 R 0 4 0 R 0
+

Total charge=Q q'  '2 r

V '2  
4 0 r 0

Total charge=q
V '1  V '2 R  r
+  '1 R   '2 r  '1   '2
+
+
r
q  2  4r 2  2 r
V2   
+ + 4 0 r 4 0 r 0
+

No relation between V1 and V2

 is higher at sharp edges or place with more curvature
 +q The conductor with a cavity is given some charge, which is distributed on
the outer surface.
-q
Inner surface is also an equipotential surface, hence if a wire is connected
q between two points on the inner surface, there is no transfer of charge

If a charge is enclosed in the cavity, outside the conductor only the charge is
revealed. The nature of distribution is concealed. The inner surface acquires a
-ve charge due to induction and an equal amount of + charge appears outside.
The field inside the conductor is still zero. The distribution outside (not the charge)
is not influenced by the charge inside the cavity.
This is called
 A +vely charged conductor of arbitrary shape is considered. The surface charge
density is non-uniform. Consider a point outside and very close to the surface.

The local surface is almost flat and local charge density is . A pill box is taken
as Gaussian surface.
  q enc A
 E .d s  
0 0
      A
E=0  E .d s   E .d s  E .d s 
0
Only front surface would
front back curved contribute

A Strength of electric field depends on the

EA 
0 local charge density

E
0
 Working of a lighninig arrester

+ + + +
+ + + +

- -- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
• An insulator placed in an external electric field
• Development of bound charges
• Effect of free charges, the electric displacement vector
• Linear dielectrics
• Permittivity of material
• Modification of electric field and potential
  
E Force on the positive charge F  q E
F+  
a Force on negative charge F  qE
O
a  
F- 
Torque about O due to F+    apˆ  F  aqpˆ  E
  
Torque about O due to F-     a pˆ  F   aq pˆ  E

  
Total Torque   p E

This torque tries to align the dipole moment vector along the direction of E
2
 
You may calculate the energy of orientation of the dipole using  U     .d 
1
 E
- +
- + E
- + E +
bound charges - + - + - +
- + -
dp

dipole moment developed due to bound charges = p

The dipole moment is an extensive quantity. Hence it will be larger for a sample of larger size

 
To make it intensive, define the dipole moment per unit volume p
P 
V
The electric field inside the insulator would be due to free charges and bound charges.
The contribution from bound charges is through the polarisation vector and that from
free charges is given by electric displacement vector. It is defined as
  
D   0E  P
 
In vacuum their is nothing to be polarised. Hence D  0E
 q
Hence for a point charge in vacuum D 2
rˆ
4r

There is no Coulomb's law for D, however Gauss' law may be used to calculate it
 
It is our intention to write the displacement vector in matter as D  E

where  is permittivity of the material

The simplest possible relation between polarisation vector and electric field is

PE
The materials obeying this relation are called linear dielectrics

P  0eE 
r   1  e  K
Here  is called the electric susceptibility 0
  
 D   0E   0e E
  r iscalled the relative permittivity
D   0 1   e E
  also
D  E
    0 1   e 
What is a capacitor?

Purpose?

The simplest capacitor would contain two conductors in which the charge is distributed.
The arrangement as a whole is electrically neutral.

The charge stored is taken as the amount of charge acquired by each conductor
If q be the charge stored when the potential difference between the conductors is V, then
q  V
q  CV

Here C is the constant of proportionality and is called the of the arrangement

The capacitance of an arrangement is dependent on

 
E
0
I II A capacitor consisting of two plane sheets each of area A and separated by a small distance d
+q III
-q
One plate has a +ve charge and the other an equal amount of -ve charge

E- The plates may be considered infinite plane sheets of charge with surface density =q/A
A
Work done in moving a unit +ve charge from -ve to +ve plate = PD between two plates
E+ E+ 0
E=0 : If a charge of 1 coulomb is stored
V   E.dx
E=0 E- d against a potential difference of 1 volt, then the capacitance
 of the system is said to be
d V d
0 Problem: A parallel plate capacitor with capacitance 1 farad has a plate
separation of 1 mm. Find the plate area.
qd
V
A 0 Ans: 113 sq km
A 0 Practical unit of capacitance: mf or pf
C
d
Series combination Parallel combination

V  V1  V 2
q

q

q q  q1  q2
C eq C1 C 2
CeqV  C1V  C2V
1 1 1
 
C eq C1 C 2 Ceq  C1  C2
 -q Two concentric metal spherical shells of inner and outer radius r1 and r2
respectively are considered. Outer sphere being grounded (-ve charge).
+q
r1
The conductors store a charge q as shown
 
r1
r Potential difference between the two conductors: V    E .dr
r2 r2
Considering the Gaussian surface of radius r, the field:
r1
  q
q V   dr
 E .d s 
0
r2
4  0 r 2
q  1 1 
V    
q 4  r r
E  ds  0  2 1 

0 4  0 r1 r 2
q  V
q r 2  r1
E  4  0 r1 r 2
4  0 r 2 C 
r 2  r1
 Charges are being transferred from one plate to another. As more charge accumulates
the P.D. across the plates builds up. At some time the charge stored is q against a P.D of
V. The work done in transfering charge dq across the plate is:
+-
+-
dW  Vdq
+-
Total work done in charging it with Q would be:
Q

W   Vdq
0
Q
q
W   dq
0
C
Q2 1 1
W  CV 2  QV
2C 2 2
If the space between the plates of a charged capacitor is completely filled with a dielectric with constant K, then the
potential difference becomes V/K. If the charge remains constant, then, capacitance becomes KC
q  CV
V
q  KC
K
What if a parallel plate capacitor is partly filled with dielectric?
The potential difference between the plates:  
0
V    E .d x
d
x xt d
  
V  
0
0
dx  x
K0
dx  
xt
0
dx

  t 
V  d t  
0  K 
x V 
q 
d t 
t 

A 0  K 
d C 
A 0
 t 
d t  
 K 
 Consider a dielectric slab partially inserted between the plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor
q2
+q The energy stored in a charged capacitor is given by: U 
2C
Since C would be greater with the dielectric inside, energy stored
would be less. Since every system tries to acquire a configuration
of lower energy, it is expected that the configuration with the
-q dielectric inside would be preferred.
x
dU dU d  q2 
Force on the dielectric: F  F     
dx dx dx  2C 
q 2 d  1  dC
F   
2 dC  C  dx
q 2 dC
F This is the force with which the dielectric
2C 2 dx
1 2 dC is sucked inside the capacitor when charge
F V in the capacitor is fixed
2 dx
• Acceleration of charge carriers in constant electric field in a conductor
• Drift velocity, its experimental value and disagreement with constant
force theory
• Relaxation time and concept of free path
• Calculation of drift velocity based on relaxation time approximation
• Current density in terms of number density, charge and velocity of
charge carriers
• Relation between current density and electric field
• Electrical conductivity
Consider a charge carrier with charge q and mass m placed in a conductor in which an electric field � is maintained
�
along its length � = , � is the potential difference between two points at a distance � in the conductor.
�

   qE
The force acting on the charge carrier: F  qE The acceleration: a 
m

Consider the charge carrier to have charge and mass of an electron and find its acceleration with an electric field of
1 volt/m. 11 2
a  10 m / s
If such a charge carrier starting from rest is subjected to this acceleration, how much speed would it acquire along
the direction of electric field in 1 second? Should the electric current remain constant at a value decided by
� (��� ����)
�=
� (����������)
Experimentally it is found that these charge carriers move along the direction of electric field with almost a constant
speed of:
vd  104 m / s This is called

How to explain this discrepancy?

After every collision the velocity of an electron increases in the direction of the electric field �. If the initial velocity is ���
��
in the x direction, the velocity before the next collision is �� = ��0 + �
�
But many such collisions are taking place, and after each collision the velocity ��0 is decided by the collision, not the
field �, while the final velocity i.e. the velocity just before the next collision is decided by the applied field �.
So we have to take the average over � number (say) of collisions.
��
�� = ��0 + �
�
��
And obtain �� = � ( ��0 = 0 as ��0 can be both in +ve and –ve directions because it is a result of collision, not
�
electric field)
But as observed in experiments, as a result of so many collisions the electron finally attains a constant velocity �� , called
��
the drift velocity, we can write �� = � (� is called the relaxation time, defined as the time taken by an electron to
�
attain the drift velocity, or the average time between two successive collisions of an electron with other electrons or
ions)
��
Also, �� = �� where � = (called the mobility of electron in the material)
�
 ��
� = �� − ��
��
�� ��
� = �� −
�� �
���
0 = �� −
�
��
�� = �
�
  
J  nq vd where n is the number density of charge carriers, q is the charge of each carrier
 
The current (scalar) is given by: I   J .d s
If the current density is constant, then the current is obtained by simply multiplying the current density with the
cross sectional area.
Substituting for vd ��
� = �� �
�
��2 � ��2 �
�=  is called the electrical conductivity
�= � �
�
� = ��
  
J  E
This is Ohm's law in vector form

nq 2  is the electrical conductivity and is dependent on n, the number density, q, the charge

2m on each carrier, m, the mass of each carrier and , the relaxation time
Electromotive Force(EMF)
•The work done in transporting unit positive charge throughout the
circuit including the cell is called Electromotive force(EMF) of the cell
It is also equal to the non-electrical energy expended by the cell for
transportation of charge throughout the circuit.

•The devices supply energy from non electrical forms to Electrical

forms
A Battery – Transforms Chemical energy to Electrical Energy
A Generator– Transforms mechanical energy to Electrical Energy
A Nuclear Reactor– Transforms Nuclear energy to Electrical Energy

EMF – This is equal to the open circuit potential difference across

the device terminals.
Internal resistance of a battery

Battery – Transforms chemical energy to Electrical energy.

I
A + B -

r - Resistance offered by the

Chemicals
electrolyte used in the battery

Internal resistance of an ideal battery is zero

Potential Difference across battery terminals in a circuit
Case – I: When no current flows through the battery
VA – VB = E
VA VB
E r

Case – II: When a current I is supplied by the battery

VB - Ir+ E = VA
VB
VA E
r VA - Vb = E- Ir

Case – III: When a current I is supplied into the battery

VA - E - Ir = VB
r VB
VA E VA - Vb = E + Ir
• Circuit and network
• Kirchoff's laws
• Application to simple circuits
• The Wheatstone bridge and its balancing
• Meter bridge and its working
• Potentiometer and its use for measuring EMF and internal resistance
of cells
Kirchhoff’s law- junction, branch and loop
Kirchhoff’s rules are used to calculate
current through different elements or
E1 r1
branches or find potential difference
across any element in a complex
electrical circuit.
A B
•A and B are JUNCTIONS R
•BRANCH continuous path of circuit
from one junction to next junction.
E2 r2
•In one branch value of current do
not change.

•LOOP-Continuous path starting

and ending at the same point.
 Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL) or, (Junction Rule)
At any junction the algebraic sum of all the currents is zero
i1
i=0
i3

i2

Current approaching junction = Current leaving junction

KCL is based on “Conservation of charges”

In steady state there is no accumulation of charge at any point in the circuit
Analysis of a Electrical circuit by KCL
3Ω
Using KCL for junction with I2
potential x 4Ω
x

I2+I3+(-I1) = 0 I1 I3 6Ω

20 0
20V
(x-0)/3 +(x-0)/6+(x-20)/4 = 0

I1= 20/9 A
X=20/3 V
I2= 10/9 A

I3= 10/3 A
Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL) or, Loop Rule

In any loop of an electrical circuit R1

the sum of potential difference

across different element is zero

V=0 E1 I1 E2

+E1 - I1R1 + E2 – I1R2 =0 R2

I1 = (E1+E2 ) / (R1 +R2 )

Analysis of a Electrical circuit by KVL

For loop ABCDA A 2Ω D 3Ω

F
-20-2I1-4(I1-I2)-10-3I1=0
9I1-4I2=-30
I1 4Ω
For loop EFDCE 10V I2
20V 5V
-5-5I2+10-4(I2-I1)-3I2=0 E
B C
3Ω 5Ω
12I2-4I1=5

I1 = -3.69 A
I2 = -0.815 A
 Wheatstone Bridge P X Q

We write KCL equations of X and Y

V
0

G
(X-0)/Q + (X-Y)/G + (X-V)/P = 0
(Y-0)/S + (Y-X)/G + (Y-V)/R = 0
Y
R s
If X=Y on solving equations, we get

P/Q = R/S
Balance condition for the galvanometer to give zero or null deflection.
Meter Bridge
A device to measure resistance work
on principle of Wheat stone bridge.

= = Rcm represents resistance per cm of the wire

R=S
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
 Optical Instruments:
The device which utilize the phenomenon of reflection and refraction
for image formation of various object for their study in detail.

The most common and important optical instrument we study are --

(1) Human Eye
(2) Simple Microscope
(3) Compound Microscope
(4) Refracting Telescope
(5) Reflecting Telescope
(6) Terrestrial Telescope
(7) Galilean Telescope
 Simple Microscope ( Magnifying glass)

•It is a converging lens of small focal length.

h Θ
•In order to use a simple microscope, It is held D
near the object and eye is placed on the other
Angular size of object Θ = h/D
side.
•Image produced will be erect, virtual and magnified.

Magnification of a Simple Microscope is

h’ Θ’ h/D D
m= h = = = h’
Θ h’/D u h
D
m= Θ’
Df / (D+f) m= 1+ D u
f D

When image is produced at near point Avg size of image Θ’ = h’/D =h/u

m= D When image is
f produced at infinity
Compound Microscope
Simple Microscope has limitations on its magnifying part. So for higher magnification we use
Compound microscope. It uses two lenses called Objective (closer to object) and Eyepiece
(closer to eye) .
If we use the lens formula for
fE Objective
fo
u 1 1 1
h h’ v - u = f
v uf0
v=
h’’ u-f0
uE
D mO = - v =-
f0
u u-f0
fo < fE D
mE = 1+
fE
Magnification power for Compound microscope
mC = - v (1 +
D
)
For image produced at near point u fE
mC = - v (
D
) For image produced at far point
u fE
 Tube length of compound microscope:
Tube length: Distance between the Objective and Eye piece

Case-I : When image is produced at near point

fE
fo Tube length
u
h h’ L = v +uE
v
uf0 DfE
h’’ L= +
uE
u-f0 D+fE
L
D
Case-II : When image is produced at far point Tube length

fE L = v + fE
fo

uf0 fE
L= +
u-f0
u v
fE
L
Refracting Telescope : (Astronomical Telescope)

It provides angular magnification for distant objects and uses two lenses Objective (large
aperture) and Eyepiece

fo
angular size of object Θ = h / fo
fE
angular size of image β = h / uE
Θ h
Θ β
Magnifying power of Telescope
h’
fo uE MP = β/Θ = fO / uE

For image produced at near point

D fO
MP = - ( D + fE )
DfE
Using lens formula for eye piece
1 1 1 m = - fO (1 +
fE
)
v - u = f
fE D

DfE
u=
For image produced at far point
m = - fO
D+fE fE
Terrestrial Telescope :
It produces erected images
fo f1 fE

fo 2f1 2f1 fE

for final image at near point

m = - fO (1 +
fE
)
fE D

for final image at far point m = - fO

fE

Tube length L = ( fO + 4f1 + fE )

Galilean Telescope :
It also uses two lenses (i) Convex ( Objective) (ii) Concave (Eye piece)

•The advantage of Galilean Telescope is shorter tube length

•It gives erected image without using the erecting lens.

fo fE

fE
fo

Tube length L = ( fO - fE )
Reflecting Telescope : ( Cassegrain)
Modern Telescopes use a concave mirror
rather than a lens for the objective.
Telescopes with mirror objectives are called
Reflecting Telescopes.

Advantages:
• There is no Chromatic aberration.
•If a parabolic reflecting surface is chosen, spherical aberration is also removed.

The arrangement using a convex secondary mirror to focus the incident light, which now
passes through a hole in the objective primary mirror, is shown in fig. This is called
Cassegrain Telescope.

It has the advantages of a large focal length in a short telescope.

 Particle: Wave:
•Almost everything around can
be approximated as a particle •Not a physical thing with definite
position and velocity
•Some kind of pattern that spreads.
•have definite position and
Medium does not travel.
velocity
•Doesn’t have a definite position
•Cannot count them.
•Can count them •Continuous
•Bend around obstacles

P
P
Two waves can be at the same point
Particle can’t occupy same point of
at same time.
space at the same time
Add/combine to create a new wave.
Limitation of particle theory of light

Newton’s Theory:

v1 Rarer

v2 Denser

According to Newton, horizontal components

remain same but vertical component of velocity
increased due to acceleration. i.e v2>v1

WHY? didn’t explain

But, Vrarer > Vdenser

•Bend around obstacles
 Light Ray – Abstract idea not a physical entity or thing
Line in the direction in which light energy
is flowing
Rays
perpendicular
Rays to wavefront
and gives the
λ direction of
propagation
of wave

Plane wave

If we know the shape of wave at some

time then what will be the shape of wave
Locus of all adjacent points in phase is after some time?
called as wave front.
Huygens Principle
 Huygens Principle:
Each point of the wavefront is the source of a secondary
disturbance and the wavelets emanating from these points spread
out in all directions with the speed of the wave. These wavelets
emanating from the wavefront are usually referred to as secondary
wavelets and if we draw a common tangent to all these spheres, we
obtain the new position of the wavefront at a later time..
Refraction using Huygens Principle:
Case 1: Case 2:
Assume v2>v1 Assume v2=v1
B
V1 i Case 3:
V 1t
Assume v2<v1
Medium 1 i
A r C
V2 Sin i = BC/AC = V1t/AC

r Sin r= AE/AC = V2t/AC

Medium 2
Sin i v1
= V2<V1
Sin r v2
Denser medium
c c
n1 = n2 = λ1 Sin i v1 λ decreases
v1 v2 = Sin r =
λ2 v2
v decreases
n1sin i = n2 sin r
Energy and Freq same
Reflection using Huygens Principle:

E
B
i r
v
i r

A C

ΔAEC and ΔABC Both triangles are congruent, so

angle i = angle r
AC common side
angle E = angle B = 900
AE = CB
 How to add 2 or more waves at a point?
1m/s 1m/s

t=0sec

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
x(m)

Principle of superposition

•Two or more waves at a point at same time

•Displacement of the medium at that point is the sum of
displacements due to each individual waves.
•Dnet = D1+D2+D3+…
 1m/s 1m/s

t=1sec

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1m/s 1m/s x(m)

t=2sec

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
x(m)

t=3sec

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
x(m)

t=4sec

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
x(m)
Superposition of two waves to create a new
intensity pattern is called Interference.
Result of this interference is called Interference pattern.
In phase In between Out of phase
1 1

1
1

2 > A > 0 Destructive

Constructive
A=0
A=2
 Conditions for interference
• Two superposing waves must travel in nearly the same direction
• The frequency/wavelength of the two superposing waves must be
same
• Amplitudes may differ
• The two light sources producing optical interference must be
coherent
•Same λ
•In phase
P

S1

R
S2 Q

•1 S1Q=S2Q In phase Constructive

•2 S1P-S2P=λ In phase Constructive

•3 S1R-S2R=λ/2 Out of phase Destructive

Constructive Path difference =nλ (n=0,1,2,3..)

Destructive Path difference =(n+1/2)λ

(n=0,1,2,3)
 Types of interference depends on

Phase difference (PD) and PD can arise due to:

•P.D between Sources
• Different Path length to meeting point
•Combination of both

For Constructive / Destructive interference, we need to have:

Same frequency /colour and of interfering waves

Fixed phase relation between the sources producing waves

Theory of Interference of Two waves:
Let two coherent waves of frequency ω and amplitude A1 and A2 meeting at a
point with phase difference and displacement of the two waves at the points are
given
y1= A1 Sinωt
Y2= A2 Sin(ωt-φ)
At the point of meeting resultant displacement is

y= y1+y2
y= A1 Sinωt+A2(sinωt.cosφ – cosωt.sinφ)
y= (A1+A2cosφ)sinωt – (A2sinφ)cosωt

y= Rsin(ωt-φ) R = (A12 + A22 + 2A1A2cosφ)(1/2)

Φ= tan-1[(A2sin φ)/(A1+A2cos φ)]
There R is max when cos φ=+1 ; Rmax = A1 + A2 = 2A
φ=2nπ (Constructive interference)
There R is max when cos φ=-1 ; Rmax = A1 - A2 = 0
φ=(2n+1)π (Destructive interference)
Intensity of Light at the point of Interference:

Intensity α (Amplitude)2

At the point of interference of resultant is R intensity at the point is given

IR = kR2
IR = k[A12 + A22 + 2A1A2cosφ ]
IR = kA12 + kA22 + 2kA1A2cosφ
IR = I1 + I2 + 2(I1I2)(1/2)cosφ
For constructive interference Imax = ( √I1 + √I2 )2

For Destructive interference Imin = ( √I1 - √I2 )2

Young’s double slit experiment setup:
Δ=λ
λ (4I0)
Δ=λ/2
(0)
O Δ=0
(4I0)
I
Fringe
Source Slit
pattern

Slit plate
 Light intensity on Screen in YDSE:
P

At point P path difference in two x

waves from S1 and S2 is S1
2d θ
Δ=S2P-S1P O
S2 D
Δ=2dsin θ=2d.θ

Δ = 2d.x/D Θ=x/D

Phase difference in the two waves at point P is

D>>2d
φ= 2π(2d.x/λD)
Θ is small
Intensity at point is
The pattern of altenate bright and dark strips due to intensity distribution is
Ip = 4I0 cos2(2πxd/λD) called interference fringes
The distance between the mid points of two consecutive bright fringes is the width of a dark fringe.
And that between two consecutive dark fringes is the width of a bright fringe
 Expression for fringe width
P
  S 2 P  S1 P
1
 x  d 2  x
2

S 2 P  D  x  d 
2
2
 D1  2


 D  S1
 x  d  2

1
2
2d θ
S1 P  D  x  d 
2
2
 D1  2

 O
 D  D
S2

S2 P  D 1  1
2
  xd 2
D

S P  D 1 
1 2
D
1 xd 2
Θ=x/D
2 xd
 
D D>>2d
D
x Θ is small
2d
Width of nth dark fringe = position of n+1 the bright fringe - position of nth bright fringe

D(n  1) Dn D D

  xn 1  xn    Fringe width  
2d 2d 2d 2d
When the light passes through edges of an obstacle, it flares out in
the shadow zone. This is called diffraction of light.
Explanation of diffraction by Huygens’ Theory:
Low intensity light

Rectilinear propagation Diffraction

All kind of waves effect of diffraction is perceptible only if the wave

length of wave is comparable to the dimensions of diffracting
devices.
Diffraction of light by a single slit:
Here I=f(Θ) is analyzed
I=f(Θ) by phenomenon of
diffraction

IR will be the resulting

Magnified view of slit intensity due to the
interference of all the
secondary wavelets in
their direction.
 P

A
Θ
a B
θ
C

Hence, a/2 . Sinθ = λ/2

a . Sinθ = λ
The slit is divided into two equal parts. The secondary wavelets
from the point A of the slit and from B of the slit interfere destructively at P a.Θ = λ
The wavelets from point adjacent to A and B also interfere destructively
at P. This stands true for all the corresponding wavelets emitted from AB Θ = λ/a
and BC part of the slit resulting into a minimum at P
Diffraction Minimum of 1st order
 P

Condition for second order minima

θ
Sinθ = λ/(a/2)

λ/2 Sinθ = 2λ /a
a

θ = 2λ /a
 P P

y
Θ
Θ
a a C
Θ D

Assume, a . Sinθ =3 λ/2 Θ = Arc CP/D = CP/D

a . Sinθn = (n+1/2) λ
λ/a =y/D
a . Θn = (n+1/2) λ
Θn =(n+1/2) λ/a
y= λD/a
1st Diffraction Maximum
θ 2λ/a λ/a
θ λ/a
2λ/a
Intensity

Central maxima angular width = 2λ/a

If we decrease the opening size of the slit then what will be effect on
angular width?
Difference between Interference pattern and Diffraction pattern

Diffraction YDSE
1. Fringes are of different width. 1. All fringes are of same width.

2. All bright fringes have different 2. All bright fringes have same
brightness brightness

3. Due to interference of several 3. Due to interference of two

monochromatic coherent sources monochromatic coherent sources