STYLISTIC DEVICES AT THE SEMANTIC LEVEL

Lecture Notes

Interaction of Dictionary and Contextual Logical Meanings

Words in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what
are called contextual meanings. Contextual meaning sometimes deviates from the dictionary
meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary
meaning. This is the case when we deal with transferred meanings.

In a sentence like "How clever of you!" where, due to the intonation, the word "clever"
conveys a sense opposite to its literal signification.
The dictionary meaning of the word "clever" is opposite of the contextual meaning
"stupid, unintelligent".

Transferred meaning is the interaction between two types of lexical meanings: dictionary
and contextual. The contextual meaning will always depend on the dictionary (logical)
meaning to a greater or lesser extent. When the deviation is very great that it even causes an
unexpected turn in the logical meaning, we register a stylistic device. In other words, when
we witness two meanings of the word realized simultaneously we are confronted with a
stylistic device in which the two meanings interact.

The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and
frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. …

 “Let me give you a hand.” (Hand means help.)

Consider the following stylistic devices: metonymy, metaphor, and irony.

1. Metonymy

Metonymy is a stylistic device based on a different type of relation between logical and
contextual meanings, a relation based upon the association of contiguity. Thus, the word
crown may stand for "king or queen", cup or glass for "the drink it contains".
In other words, metonymy is applying the name of an object to another object in some way
connected with the first.

For a better understanding, let us observe a few metonymy examples:

 "Hands are wanted at the plant". Here a hand is used for "a worker".
 "From the cradle to the grave". Here cradle stands for "infancy", grave stands for "death".
 “England decides to keep check on immigration.” (England refers to the government.)

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  “The pen is mightier than the sword.” (Pen refers to written words, and sword to military
force.)
 “The Oval Office was busy in work.” (The Oval Office is a metonymy, as it stands for
people who work in the office.)

In metonymy the transferred meaning is established in the semantic structure of the word as a
secondary meaning. In the course of time its figurativeness and emotional coloring fades away.
In the result of long and widely usage they become hackneyed and lose their vividness.

2. Metaphor

A metaphor is the interaction between the logical and the contextual logical meanings of a
word which is based on a likeness between objects. For example, in the sentence: "Dear nature is
the kindest mother still" Nature is likened to a mother; i.e. the properties of a mother "nursing,
caring for" are imposed on the nature.
Metaphor denotes expressive renaming on the basis of similarity of two objects: the real
object of speech and the one whose name is actually used. But there is only affinity, no real
connection between the two.

A metaphor is a productive way of building up new meaning and new words.

Examples of metaphors are:

 Mrs. Smith's eyes boiled with excitement.
 My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)
 The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)
 Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)
 Her dance is a great poem.
 His words are pearls of wisdom.

3. Irony

Irony is such a case of interaction between logical and contextual meanings when contextual
meaning of the word becomes the opposite of its logical meaning. Thus, irony is a stylistic
device based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and
contextual, but these two meanings stand in opposition to each other. E.g.:
"How nice to cheat your own mother".
The dictionary meaning of the word "nice" is opposite of the contextual meaning "ugly,
bad".

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The word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. It has an emphatic stress and is
supplied with a special melody. In a sentence like "How clever of you!" where, due to the
intonation, the word "clever" conveys a sense opposite to its literal signification.

In most cases the sentence suffices to make irony clear, as in the examples above. In certain
cases a much wider context is needed to understand that the word is used ironically and to
perceive its stylistic effect.

In some cases, the irony expresses a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret.
‘‘Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”

Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning. Therefore, only positive concepts are used
to convey a negative meaning.
Irony is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings within the same context, which is
sustained in oral speech by intonation.

4. Simile

A simile is a figure of speech that compares two different things by using the words such as:
like, as, such as, as if, seem etc.

- The boy seems to be as clever as his mother.

- You were as brave as a lion.
- They fought like cats and dogs.
- He is as strong as an ox.
- My heart is like a singing bird.

The simile must not be confused with a metaphor, though they are both based on a
likeness between objects:

What is the difference between simile and metaphor? The linguistic nature of these two
stylistic devises is different. The metaphor is based on the interaction between the logical and
the contextual logical meanings of a word, whereas the simile employs a word in its direct
meaning.
- My verses flow like streams
- My verses flow in streams.

In similes the names of animals, plants, natural phenomena are frequently used.

Strong like a lion, hard as a rock, to twinkle like a star, busy as a bee, to work like a horse,
to fly like a bird, thirsty as a camel, slow as a tortoise.
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 Simile is imaginative comparison. The existence of common features is always explicitly
expressed in a simile, mostly by means of the words “as”, “like” and others.

5. Personification

Personification is a stylistic device ascribing human qualities to inanimate objects,

phenomena, or animals. In other words, it is a transfer of features and characteristics of a person
to a thing.

1. The flowers danced in the gentle breeze.

2. The fire swallowed the entire forest.
3. The shadow of the moon danced on the lake.

Something nonhuman, like an idea or animal, is given human characteristics.

6. Periphrasis

Periphrasis is a device which denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter
and plainer form of expression.
Periphrasis is the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning which could have been
conveyed with a shorter expression or in a few words.
It is a description of an object instead of its name.

- "My son...has been deprived of what can never be replaced".

The periphrasis "What can never be replaced" stands for the word "mother".
- two hundred pages of blood-curling narrative = (thriller)
- a gentleman of the long robe (lawyer)

7. Euphemism

Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a

conventionally more acceptable one. In other words, it is a mild way of saying something
unpleasant or embarrassing (bodily functions, illegal behavior, curse words). Euphemism often
minimizes the discomfort the speaker feels with the subject at hand, and makes it more palatable
by lessening the extremity of the situation:

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To meet his Maker, to pass away, to depart, to be no more, to be gone, to join the majority = to
die
to tell stories = to lie
ladies' (men's) room, rest room, bathroom for 'toilet',

8. Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a figure of speech that uses exaggeration to express strong emotion, to make a
point, or to evoke humor. The exaggerated statements are not meant to be taken literally. For
example:
- He was so hungry; he could eat a horse.
Hyperbole because it gives the impression that he is really hungry, yet he is not literally going to
eat a horse.

- My teacher is so old, he personally taught William Shakespeare!

This explains to us that he is an extremely old man. Shakespeare was born in 1564 which tells us
the teacher is old but obviously not as old as Shakespeare.

- What I suffer in that way no tongue can tell" (J. K. Jerome)

"No tongue can tell" means "it is very difficult to express by means of the language".

- I’m so sad, I could cry a river.

- I walked a million miles to get here.
- I died of embarrassment.
- His brain’s the size of a pea.
- That runner’s faster than the speed of lightning.

Hyperbole is the use of a word, a word-group or a sentence which exaggerates the real degree of a
quantity of the spoken about.

9. Meiosis (understatement)

Meiosis is a logical opposite of hyperbole. It is a figure of speech that makes something seem
less significant than it actually is. It minimizes the importance of something.
- It will cost you a pretty penny.
- Little town of New-York.

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Meiosis consists in lessening, reducing the real quantity of the object of speech.

10. Oxymoron

Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly "an adjective + a noun" or "an adverb + an
adjective") in which the meanings of the two classes are opposite in sense. For example:
- low skyscraper, sweet sorrow, pleasantly ugly face, horribly beautiful, alone together,

- My room is an organized mess, or controlled chaos.

The above phrase is packed with oxymorons, including “organized mess,” and “controlled chaos.
For something to be organized, it cannot be a mess. Chaos is anything but controlled!

- That’s my adult child.

An “adult child” literally does not make sense—you cannot have an adult who is also a child.
This oxymoron, though, serves to describe an adult who refuses to act like an adult.

11. Epithet

Epithet is a phrase – often compound adjectives - which is used to express a quality or

characteristic which can be attributed, rightly or wrongly, to a person or thing. An epithet is a
form of figurative language which can be used in spoken conversation and written work to create
a more dramatic effect. In other words, it is used to show the individual emotional attitude of the
writer or the speaker towards the object mentioned.
- wild wind
- heart-burning smile.
- This movie was directed by the great Steven.
- I have walked this weary road for so long.

12. Zeugma

Zeugma is a stylistic device in which a single word, usually a verb or adjective, is syntactically
related to two or more words, though having a different sense in relation to each.
- People PUT their pride into their pockets together with their bus tickets.
- He TOOK his hat and his leave.

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 13. Interjections

Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said
to exist in the language as symbols of human emotions. They express such feelings as regret,
despair, sorrow, surprise, astonishment etc. They are defined as expressive means of the
language.
- Primary Interjections: individual words and sounds that are used only as interjections.
They have no other meanings or uses:
Oops!, Oh!, Ah!, Gosh!, Hush!, Alas! Ouch etc
- Secondary Interjections: words or phrases that already belong to other parts of speech,
such as:
Heavens!, Good gracious!, Dear me!, God!, Come on!, Oh my God!, God knows!,
Bless me! There are a number of adjectives and adverbs which can also take on the
function of interjections. They are terrible!, awful!, great!, wonderful!, awesome!,
fine! etc.

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The stylistic function of such stylistic devices is twofold:

- to make the author's thought more concrete, define and clear;
- to reveal the author's emotional attitude towards what he describes.