BUILDING DESIGN CONCEPTS

Building design includes the architectural, engineering, and technical aspects of

designing buildings. It is sometimes a statutory requirement to have a building
designer as a licensed architect who oversees the design of complex building
projects but for less complicated projects, draftspersons, interior designers can
participate and work through till completion.

The architects will consider traffic flow, convenience, and a streamlined layout as
vital to providing a good user experience. Architects must also take into account the
purpose of the space and then plan their design accordingly so clients and staff can
easily navigate through the area and perform the needed functions.

In the design of a building, architects should be guided by the following principles:

 Quality and Purpose of Materials

Durable and high-quality materials that make sense for the project are a primary
concern. Architects should choose materials based on the purpose and location of
the project. Consider factors like weather, strength, and flexibility. The location of the
building also determines which materials are accessible without racking up high
costs for shipping or running into space constraints that make using them impossible

 Intended Use

All projects must fulfill their intended use in terms of physical usability and cultural
purpose. Projects come with certain expectations. For example, a medical facility
requires hard flooring instead of carpeting to make patient transport easier.
Architects should pay close attention to these types of expectations

 User Experience

Traffic flow, convenience, and a streamlined layout are vital to providing a good user
experience. Architects must take into account the purpose of the space and then
plan their design accordingly so clients and staff can easily navigate through the
area and perform the needed functions
  Budget and Timeline

An architect must use materials that fit into the project budget. Skilled labor to install
everything on time is also necessary to meet deadlines. Issues with materials that
are too expensive or impossible to find, delivery delays, and poor workmanship can
all cause strain on an architect’s plan and client satisfaction. Advance research and
methods to stay on budget and task are crucial.

 Maintenance

Architects must consider their choices’ effect on the building’s ongoing maintenance.
Durable materials readily available if they need repairing or replacing is essential.
The cost of upkeep is another factor. Different materials require different levels of
care. The material chosen should fit the building’s purpose and expected long-term
maintenance plans

 Professional Liability Insurance

Stress the importance of carrying insurance to your clients by answering the

question, what does a professional liability policy cover? Explain that it’s a must-have
to protect against financial losses and legal consequences of accidents, injuries, and
lawsuits. It’s an unfortunate fact that some clients may choose to sue the architect
over the quality, timeliness, and safety of their work. All successful architects should
know the necessity of carrying the best professional liability insurance policy to
protect themselves.

Forethought and planning are essential for architects to build a solid reputation and
make a name for themselves. By striving to keep clients fully satisfied with excellent
work, along with maintaining a current insurance policy, architects can work toward a
lucrative and meaningful career while staying protected.

3.1 BUILDING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

3.1.1 Structural Considerations

Structural design is an essential aspect that ensures the stability, strength, and
overall integrity of a building. As such, understanding and effectively implementing
structural design principles is crucial for architects and engineers to create safe and
functional structures.

The structural aspect is about the loads that the building will be subjected to during
its service life. Loads are the external forces acting on a structure. Stresses are the
internal forces that resist them. Depending on that manner in which the loads are
applied, they tend to deform the structure and its components—tensile forces tend to
stretch, compressive forces to squeeze together, torsional forces to twist, and
shearing forces to slide parts of the structure past each other.

Types of Loads

Dead Loads

Dead loads consist of the permanent construction material loads comprising the
roof, floor, wall, and foundation systems, including claddings, finishes, and fixed
equipment. External loads on a structure may be classified in several different ways.
In one classification, they may be considered as static (applied slowly and then
remain nearly constant) or dynamic (repeated and impact).

Imposed /Live loads

Live loads are produced by the use and occupancy of a building. Loads include
those from human occupants, furnishings, nonfixed equipment, storage, and
construction and maintenance activities. As required to adequately define the
loading condition, loads are presented in terms of uniform area loads, concentrated
loads, and uniform line loads. The uniform and concentrated live loads should not be
applied simultaneously in a structural evaluation. Concentrated loads should be
applied to a small area or surface consistent with the application and should be
located or directed to give the maximum load effect possible in end-use conditions.

Soil Lateral Loads

The lateral pressure exerted by earth backfill against a residential foundation wall
(basement wall) can be calculated with reasonable accuracy on the basis of theory,
but only for conditions that rarely occur in practice (University of Alberta, 1992; Peck,
Hanson, and Thornburn, 1974). Theoretical analyses are usually based on
homogeneous materials that demonstrate consistent compaction and behavioral
properties. Such conditions are rarely experienced in the case of typical residential
construction projects.

Wind Loads

Wind produces non-static loads on a structure at highly variable magnitudes. The

variation in pressures at different locations on a building is complex to the point that
pressures may become too analytically intensive for precise consideration in design.
Therefore, wind load specifications attempt to simplify the design problem by
considering basic static pressure zones on a building representative of peak loads
that are likely to be experienced. The peak pressures in one zone for a given wind
direction may not, however, occur simultaneously with peak pressures in other
zones. For some pressure zones, the peak pressure depends on a narrow range of
wind direction. Therefore, the wind directionality effect must also be factored into
determining risk-consistent wind loads on buildings. In fact, most modern wind load
specifications take account of wind directionality and other effects in determining
nominal design loads in some simplified form (SBCCI, 1999; ASCE, 1999).

Snow Loads

For design purposes, snow is typically treated as a simple uniform gravity load on
the horizontal projected area of a roof. The uniformly distributed design snow load
on residential roofs can be easily determined by using the unadjusted ground snow
load.

Earthquake Loads

Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and horizontal forces on the building.
The total vibration caused by earthquake may be resolved into three mutually
perpendicular directions, usually taken as vertical and two horizontal directions. The
movement in vertical direction do not cause forces in superstructure to any
significant extent. But the horizontal movement of the building at the time of
earthquake is to be considered while designing.

3.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

While it may be impossible to completely eliminate the environmental impact of your
construction projects, you can significantly reduce it. The plan should be able
establish, track, and document your waste reduction goals. Research and identify
materials that can be reused or recycled. Maximize use of your materials and avoid
excess materials as much as possible.

3.1.3 AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS

The aesthetics of a building is one of the principal aspects considered in

architecture. The appeal of a building covers the combined effects of a building's
shape, size, texture, colour, balance, unity, movement, emphasis, contrast,
symmetry, proportion, space, alignment, pattern, decoration, culture and context.
Aesthetics is a core design principle that defines a design's pleasing qualities. In
visual terms, aesthetics includes factors such as balance, color, movement, pattern,
scale, shape and visual weight. Designers use aesthetics to complement their
designs' usability, and so enhance functionality with attractive layouts.

3.1.4 LIGHTING AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

During the construction process, it’s important to increase your energy efficiency as
much as possible. Using old, outdated tools and equipment decreases your
productivity and requires more energy consumption to complete the job. One great
way to keep your operations as energy efficient as possible is keeping your
machines, equipment, and tools repaired and updated. The more productive you are
and the faster your projects are completed, the less energy you will use.

3.1.5 TOWN AND REGIONAL PLANNING REGULATIONS

Building regulations provide means through which development authorities can

control the use of buildings, available land resources and infrastructure facilities to
ensure proper special organization and environmental protection in the city.

The main objectives of the town planning may be summarized in three words viz.
Health, Convenience, Beauty and Environment. To make right use of the land for the
right purpose by proper division of land called zoning such as residential,
commercial industrial, institutional and recreational etc.
Urban planning, also known as town planning, city planning, regional planning, or
rural planning, is a technical and political process that is focused on the
development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water,
and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas

3.1.6 Durability and Sustainability

Sustainability is a social goal for people to co-exist on Earth over a long time. It
focuses on decreasing the environmental impact of a building's construction and
operation.

Durability, the ability to resist wear, and decay, to be lasting and enduring over time

Durability for buildings depends on the quality of the design of the building. The
physical condition of the building is, over time, dependent on the quality of the
materials and systems used and the nature of how all elements are combined and
installed to resist degrading in its normal environment as well as during extraordinary
events.

Design strategies for durability look to these qualities and to anticipation of both
normal and extraordinary events that might impact the viability of the building and its
functions.

Long-Term Performance

Design strategies for long-term viability are built on the choices affecting the ability of
the building or facility to remain functional over time.

 Lessen the amount of required maintenance

 Design to extraordinary events beyond code

 Plan for upgrades and replacements

Each building system is first considered individually and designed to stand alone, but
also is designed to work together in a whole building system. Knowing the level to
which each system is designed and knowing the vulnerabilities inherent in each is
the basis for its use.
The assessment of each system informs the design on how best it can be integrated
into the whole where the vulnerabilities of each system are taken into account.

The goal for planning a resilient building is to design and construct integrated
systems, to locate and protect critical elements of each system so as to enhance
survivability, and facilitate maintenance and repair.

3.2 DESIGNING PROCESS

3.2.1 Basic principles followed when designing a building

 Principle of Balance

Balance refers to the distribution of visual weight in a design, with the goal of
creating a sense of stability and equilibrium. This can be achieved through the
use of symmetry, where elements on one side of a design are mirrored on the
other side, or through the use of asymmetry, where elements are arranged in a
way that creates a sense of balance without being perfectly symmetrical.

There are two main types of balance in architecture: symmetrical balance and
asymmetrical balance. Symmetrical balance is achieved when the visual weight
of elements on one side of a design is balanced by the visual weight of elements
on the other side. This creates a sense of stability and equilibrium.

 Principle of Proportion

Proportion refers to the relationship between different parts of a design, with the
goal of creating a sense of unity and harmony. This can be achieved through the
use of ratios and measurements that are in balance with each other, such as the
Golden Ratio

 Principle of scale

Scale refers to the size of a design in relation to its surroundings, with the goal of
creating a sense of unity and cohesiveness. This can be achieved through the
use of appropriate proportions and measurements, as well as through the use of
materials and textures that are in balance with the surrounding environment.

 Principle of unity

Unity refers to the way in which different elements of a design work together to
create a cohesive whole. This can be achieved through the use of balance,
proportion, and other design principles, as well as through the use of
materials, colors, and textures that work together to create a harmonious whole.

 Principle of variety

Variety refers to the use of different elements, such as color, texture, and form,
to add interest and visual appeal to a design. This can be achieved through the
use of a range of different materials, textures, and colors, as well as through the
use of different shapes and forms.

 Principle of harmony

Harmony refers to the way in which different elements of a design work together
to create a sense of unity and order. This can be achieved through the use of
balance, proportion, and other design principles, as well as through the use of
materials, colors, and textures that work together to create a harmonious whole.

 Principles of materials and construction

The materials and construction techniques used in a building have a significant

impact on its overall appearance and performance

 Principles of context and culture

The context and culture in which a building is located are also important
considerations in architecture design.

 Principles of Functionality

The principles of functionality in architecture and design refer to the ways in

which a building or structure is designed to meet the specific needs and
requirements of the people who will use it.
3.2.2 Systems design and Analysis

System Analysis is a process of collecting and analyzing the requirements of the

system whereas System Design is a process of creating a design for the system to
meet the requirements.

Systems Design is an iterative process and broadly comprises five phases:

1) Architectural Design, 2) Requirements Analysis 3) System Decomposition 4)

Testing 5) Detailed Design and Implementation.

The Architectural design is concerned with the structuring of the system to reduce
the complexity and feasibility analysis studies. There are two options for structuring:
horizontal (layering) versus vertical (partitioning). The feasibility analysis is used to
make a "go ahead" decision at the end of architectural phase.

The second phase, requirements analysis defines a concise view of system

functions and identifies technical and economic constraints.

In the third phase, the system is decomposed into subsystems, nodes and their
communication network interfaces are identified.

The fourth phase is concerned with the functional coherence, testability and
dependability of the system components.

In the final stage, the i/o interfaces, task development and task scheduling is done
and final system is realized. The above mentioned five stages define a conventional
design process and modern designs should address the issues such as scalability,
dependability and composability.

For example, there is a strong tendency in industry to use "COTS" (Commercial Off
the Shelf) components to reduce the development time and the cost. On the other
end of the design spectrum, there are CAD tools and Software Engineering tools
which aid the design process and reduce the time to market.
3.3 BUILDING PRINCIPLES

A building is considered 'sustainable' in a wider sense (or maybe just good

architecture) if it meets the principles of Legibility, flexibility, durability, affordability.

By legibility, we mean conceptual clarity and simplicity at the scale of the building
and its detail. Legibility may be layered so that a passer-by gets one idea, while a
daily user recognizes other layers. There may also be some subliminal elements that
are less tangible: perhaps hidden code for architects.

Slip House for instance is a simple idea about three stacked boxes, slipped or
pushed from the back of the site to the front. This diagram started life as a pile of
three bricks and remains legible in the built form although the translucent skin of the
building has added another dimension to the project. The house has subsequently
been given several dimensions to the project. The house has subsequently been
given several local nicknames such as the glass house (obvious), sugar cube house
and so on (as well as a few unmentionable ones).

Flexibility is an often-misunderstood architectural concept. I would argue that that

many architect designed spaces are inherently inflexible due to their bespoke,
super-tailored nature – a charge that could be levied at some of our own work. We
subscribe to a low-tech version of flexibility that is more about simple, adaptable
methods of construction.

As the balance of the work within the practice tips to new buildings, we question the
brief and explore how a building can be adapted from day one. By locking one
internal door at Slip House, for example, the building is transformed from a house
into a ground floor workspace with its own entrance and a separate apartment
above, or into apartment with studio flat. Open the door and it’s back to a house. We
see this as true sustainability.

What does affordability mean? In truth, ask some of our clients and they will
probably tell you that costs rose and that the project cost more than anticipated.
However, some clients need support to recognize some of the value added through
design. It’s a relative term, but we try to run the studio in a way that allows not just
the well-heeled to contemplate using an architect. Ultimately, if a project isn’t
‘affordable’ it won’t happen. At a basic level this approach has resulted in projects
that work with low cost, industrial materials, and are often based around simple,
orthogonal structures that are carefully considered and quiet in character.

3.3.2 Role of the Architect and Engineer during construction

3.3.2.1 Conducting Initial Consultations

The first responsibility of an architect in a construction project is to conduct initial

consultations with all the stakeholders involved, like professional developers, regular
residential clients, and structural engineers. The purpose of the construction
architect's meeting with all the stakeholders is to determine the type, style, and
overall focus of the prospective project and make sure everyone is aligned. This will
help the architect create the drawings, designs, and functionality of the overall
structure. Part of this consultation is for the construction architect to inform the client
about the rules, regulations, and overall feasibility of the project. Depending on the
location of the project, there may be different federal or even municipal laws and
bylaws that prohibit or require the addition of a certain design feature or practical
element to the project's design. It's the architect's responsibility to inform the client
about all regulatory aspects of the project in order to guide them in the design
process.

3.3.2.2 Drawing and Designing the Project

Drawing and designing the structure is the part of the construction process where the
architect gets to roll up their sleeves and do their specialized work. At this stage of
the process, the construction architect will get to conceptualize the building and
create the plans for the structure in accordance with everything that was discussed
with all the stakeholders.

The architect is responsible for sketching the exterior of the building as well as
designing the interior of the structure. An architect may also create a 3D model of the
structure to present to their client that will help demonstrate floor plans and overall
building layout. The role of the architect also includes describing and preparing
design specifications like which building materials are going to be used for a certain
piece of the structure. This is where the engineer can also offer their expertise about
which materials they think might work best.

3.3.2.3 Helping Determine Costs, Timelines, and Contractors

Although project managers, owners, and engineers will all have a hand in this, an
architect is still partially responsible for determining the costs, timelines, and
contractors of a project.

Construction architects, along with the other parties mentioned above, will work to
determine the overall cost of the project, as well as the timelines that contractors
must adhere to. First, factors such as material costs, labor costs, and heavy
equipment costs will be determined with the help of the architect since they designed
the structure and have knowledge of the process in which the structure should be
built. Having an accurate estimate of the total hours that will be worked on a project
is helpful in determining costs, which is why architects have a hand in creating the
timelines that should be met throughout the project's construction.

3.3.2.4 Overseeing Construction

Once the design, planning, and preparation for a project are completed, it may seem
like an architect's role is done. However, an architect still has responsibilities from
the beginning to the end of the construction process.

Here, the main role of an architect is to monitor the activities on-site and make sure
that the project is being completed according to plan. By doing routine site visits,
architects will ensure a smooth building process, especially if there are any issues
that arise from contractors who need help with specifications or need an architect's
signature to move forward with a certain task.

The architect may also act as the liaison between contractors and the client. By
completing inspections, it's an architect's responsibility to make sure that the
timelines are met and the budget is spent accordingly in order to ensure that the
client gets the agreed-upon value for their money.

The last responsibility of an architect is to certify the structure. After building

completion, the architect will have to do inspections to make sure that the quality of
the work matches what was outlined in the contract. From there, the architect can
issue certificates of completion.

3.3.2.5 Certification of works for payment

The duty of issuing certificate is usually given to the architect or engineer under the
contract, either as a personal appointment or as a firm. The certifying events range
from interim payments, an extension of time and other matters.

Under the FIDIC form, Cl. 3.1 and 3.2 provides for the role of the engineer as the
employer’s agent.

“The Employer shall appoint the Engineer who shall carry out the duties assigned to
him in the Contract. (Clause 3.1)

“Except as otherwise stated in these Conditions, whenever carrying out duties or

exercising an authority, specified in or implied by the Contract, the Engineer … shall
be deemed to act for the Employer. (Clause 3.2).”

The engineer as the employer’s agent performs monitoring progress post such as
programme, quality, budget, compliance and instructing or approving variations.

The engineer is required to issue certificates on the following matters:

 Date of completion (Clause 10.1)

 Payments – “Payment Certificate” (Clause 14)

 Defects liability certificate – “Taking‐Over Certificate” (Clause 10)

 Final certificate – “Performance Certificate” (Clause 11.9)

Also, the engineer should make a determination of claim including the Contractor’s
claims for additional payment and extension of time. the cl. 3.5 provides that:

“Whenever these Conditions provide that the Engineer shall proceed in accordance
with this SubClause3.5 to agree or determine any matter, the Engineer shall consult
with each Party in an endeavour to reach agreement. If agreement is not achieved,
the Engineer shall make a fair determination in accordance with the Contract, taking
due regard of all relevant circumstances.”

It is clear that the engineer, under the FIDIC Red book, should act as “agency
function” such as issuing variation instructions and the “decision-making function”
such as issuing certificate. The engineer is required to act as certifier or determine
the claim issues impartially between the employer and the contractor, but also to act
as agent in the best interests of the employer.

3.3.2.6 Project Closeout

At the close of every engineering project, the Engineering Project Manager is

required to submit a 'Project Closure Report', which measures a project's overall
success. This document is crucial for the company to understand what they can
improve in their processes, moving forward.

Typically, a Project Closure Report will contain information such as:

 The original project guidelines, including stakeholder requests, budget and

timeline

 Proof that the clients have received their deliverables

 Invoices from suppliers, stakeholders or other sources

 Release or transfer records of remaining resources

 Detailed performance reviews on each phase of the project

 Feedback from senior management, team members and stakeholders

 A separate folder with all project files and communication for archival
purposes

 A request for project closure approval

As you can see, as well as being an essential leadership, planning and team
management role, the role of Engineering Project Manager also involves writing of
important documents such as these closing reports.
References

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Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Portland Cement Association by the
NAHB Research Center, Inc., Upper Marlboro, MD, 2000.

Development, D. o. (2011). National Physical Planning Standards and Guidelines . Kampala: Ministry
of Lands, Housing and Urban Development .

Juvva, K. (1998). Design Process. Mellon: Carnege Mellon University.

Michael R. Lindeburg, P. (2000). Seismic Design of Building Structures. Califonia: Professional

Publications, Inc.