ENS226A

ENERGY SYSTEMS III

UNIT 4

Instructor: Dr. SP Koko

2023
 Learning Unit 4: Protection Principles
2

Learning Area Outcome

At the end of this unit, you should understand the following:
 Describe the types, categories, causes of faults.

 Describe the aim of protection schemes.

 Describe the components of the protection system.

 Describe various methods of fault discrimination.

 Describe the Knee-point of a Current Transformer

 Describe different types of overcurrent relays

 Analyze IDMT Relay settings

4.1 Introduction to protection
3

Introduction
 An electrical power system can generally be taken to consist of
generators, power transformers, switchgear, transmission lines,
distribution circuits and the utilization apparatus.
 In practice, several power system components are connected together
to form a transmission and distribution network.
 The interconnection of these network has the advantage that consumers
can be supplied with power from different sources.
 When there is a fault in any of the equipment, that equipment needs to be
separated from the rest of the power system, to ensure that the
continuity of the supply is maintained to the healthy equipment.
 In the electrical protection study, it is important to note that the protection
equipment will not prevent faults occurring in power systems, but will
protect the fault-free equipment in the power system against the effect
of a fault.
4.1.1 Types of Fault

 During normal operation of any power system, it is an accepted fact that

fault will occur which will interrupt the supply of power.
 It is important to protect the equipment against ground/earth fault since it
may cause a severe damage to the electrical power system/network.

 The types of faults that takes place, can be divided into four categories,
namely:
 Phase-to-earth
This is a fault whereby a one live conductors falls on the ground.
Then, the other two health live conductors will supply the fault current.
 Double phase-to-earth
 Phase-to-phase
 Three-phase with and without earth connection.
4.1.2 Categories of Faults

Faults in Electrical power systems can be divided into 2 categories:

 A system fault is a fault due to system abnormality which due to the
failure of the primary electrical equipment and which requires the
disconnection of the affected equipment from the system by tripping the
associated circuit breaker.

 A non-system fault is any incorrect circuit breaker operation resulting

from a cause other than a system-fault condition. Meaning if the protective
system causes a circuit breaker to trip without a fault in the primary
system, it is then classified as a non-system fault.

 The reason for non-system fault may be failure of the protective

equipment, incorrect settings on protection relays, etc.
4.1.3 Causes of Faults
6

Transmission Lines
 Most faults in the high voltage transmission lines are caused by lightning, resulting
in the flashover of insulators. These faults requires a circuit breaker to be tripped.
 Permanent faults are caused by lines on the ground, broken insulator strings,
permanent damage to tours and lightning-arrestor failures. These faults require
the protection device to operate, trip a circuit breaker or circuit breakers in order to
isolate the faulty section.

Distribution cables
 Cables in a distribution network are usually laid in underground trenches or on
cable racks. In both cases, cables are subjected to mechanical damage that may
cause the insulation to break down. When this happens, high currents will occur
between the phases and earth. These currents are termed as Fault currents.
 Another cause of faults in a distribution cables is the joint failure. Due to long
distances involved in distribution systems, joining of cables cannot be avoidable.
So, if joints are inadequately (or poorly) made, they will break down and results in
cable faults.
4.1.4a AIMS of protection schemes

 It must be clearly understood that the protection equipment in a power

system, will not protect the primary equipment against faults occurring or
prevent fault in a power system.
 So, the main aim of a protection system can be divided into three
separate aims:

To protect the system against the adverse effects of fault, so that it can
continue to transmit power to the loads.
To prevent other healthy equipment from being damaged by the fault
currents following in the system.
To reduce the damage at point of fault since the less damage is caused by
the fault, the greater the probability for a successful repair.
4.1.4b OBJECTIVES of protection schemes

The protection system should have several protection objectives or properties.

The most important objectives are:
 Sensitivity
 Selectivity
 Speed of operation
 Reliability and Dependability
 Security
 Economy

Sensitivity: is the ability of the protective system to detect and operate under
the presence of the smallest faults within the protected elements.
Selectivity: is also known as relay coordination or protection coordination, is
the ability of the protective system to clear a fault as fast as possible within the
protected element by tripping only those circuit breakers whose operation is
required in order to isolate the fault. Protection coordination means that primary
protection eliminates faults as fast as possible while the backup protection
operates only if primary protection fails.
4.1.4b OBJECTIVES of protection schemes

Speed of operation: is the ability of the protective system to operate in

a short time after any fault inception.
Reliability: is a measure of the degree of certainty that a relay system
will perform correctly. Reliability dependents on correct design/settings.
Dependability: includes the reliable operation of the relay system
operating when it is supposed to.
Security: is the ability to avoid disoperation between faults. Every relay
system has to be designed to either operate or not operate selectively
with other systems.
Economy: a low-cost relaying system is not necessarily the most
economical solution, is important to define the level of protection versus
the protection cost according to the economic loss that the protection
system may prevent.
4.1.5 Components of Protection
10

There are variety of components that are used to form a protection systems,
namely:
Current Transformer: Since the fault current can be very large, a current
transformer is used to measure the fault current.
Relay: Is a device that receives inputs and compare them with the set points
and provides output by operating a switch to give a warning, communication,
etc.
Voltage Transformer: They are used to transform the voltage down to
manageable value that is required to supply the voltage coil of the low rating
relays. Because the commercially available relays are prepared for low
voltages.
Circuit Breaker: It is used in conjunction with the protective device in order to
disconnect a fault from the power system.
4.1.5 Components of Protection
Operation during faults
11

 The protection relay is used to protect during fault.

 The secondary of the Current transformer (CT) is connected to the current coil of
the relay and the secondary of a voltage transformer is connected to the voltage
coil of the relay.
 Whenever there is a fault in the feeder line, the fault current will be very high, and
the current transformer measures the fault current and supply the proportionate
current to the current coil of the Relay.
 That current will allow the relay coil to
have an increased magnetic field.
 This produced magnetic field will
mechanically pull the trip contact to
close inside the relay.
 The DC trip coil of the circuit breaker
will then get the supply from the DC
source.
 The trip coil magnetic field will
mechanically enable the tripping
mechanism of the circuit breaker.
4.1.6 Methods of Fault discrimination
(1) Discrimination by time:
12

 There are different methods of discriminating the fault

(1) Discrimination by time:
 In this method, an appropriate time setting is given to each of the relays
controlling the circuit breakers to ensure that the relay closer to the fault,
open first. Definite time overcurrent relay are used.
 Disadvantage is that if the fault happens closer to the power station
(between feeder A and B), it will take longer time to clear the fault.

1.1 sec 0.7 sec 0.3 sec

Radial Distribution system
4.1.6 Methods of Fault discrimination
(2) Discrimination by current magnitude:
13

 Different methods of discriminating the fault

(2) Discrimination by current magnitude:
 In this method, an appropriate current setting is given to each of the
relays controlling the circuit breakers. Instantaneous overcurrent relays
are used. Hence, time is not taken into consideration. Because it is know
that the current varies with the position of the fault. For instance the
impedances between A & B, B & C, and C & D are different. So, when the
fault happens, fault currents levels will be different.
 Disadvantage is that if the substations are within few meters from each
other, fault current levels might be more or less the same.

Radial Distribution system

4.1.6 Methods of Fault discrimination
(3) Discrimination by time & current magnitude:
14

 Different methods of discriminating the fault

(3) Discrimination by both time and current magnitude:
 The discrimination by both time and current magnitude, overcome the
limitations of discriminating by time only or discriminating by current
magnitude only.
 This discrimination method involves an appropriate time and current
settings given to each of the relays controlling the circuit breakers. The
Inverse time overcurrent relays are used.
 The time to clear the fault is inversely proportional to the current level.

Radial Distribution system

4.2 Current Transformer
Structure of a CT’s
15

Current Transformer (CT): Since the fault current can be very large, a CT
is used to measure the fault current, and then send smaller current to the
measuring devise connected across its secondary windings.
The main primary conductor can be a feeder or transmission line inserted
inside the core of the current transformer.
The Secondary windings are then connected to a measuring device.
4.2 Current Transformer
Principle operation
16

 The current flowing inside a feeder or transmission line is called the primary current
(IP) of CT.
 When the primary current (IP) flow inside the feeder conductor, it creates a
magnetic field around the conductor itself.
 The more the current, the higher the magnetic field strength.

 The produced magnetic field affects the

magnetic flux inside the core.
 The magnetic flux in the core causes the
voltage (VS) to be induced in the secondary
windings.
 The induced voltage VS, generates the
secondary current (IS) through the
connected load.
 The secondary current will be small due to
large number of windings.
4.2 Current Transformer
Available CT’s
17

 Another definition of a current transformer is that it is an instrument transformer

which transforms current from one level to another level.
 E.g. 1000/1A, 200/5A, 500/5A, etc.

 Almost all CT’s universally

have 5A secondary current
rating. Other ratings such 1A
do exist but are not common.
 For example, if the ratio is
200/5A, it simply means that
the when 200A current is
flowing in the primary, it will
result into 5A current in the
secondary windings. So,
meaning the primary current is
40 times greater than the
secondary current.
4.2 Current Transformer
Precautionary Measure
18

Precautions when working with CT: Working with CTs in energy systems
circuits can be very dangerous.
When the primary side of the CT is in operation, never leave the secondary
circuit to be open circuited, as this will result into overvoltage, which might
harm the staff or lead to equipment damage.
4.2 Current Transformer
Turns ratio
19

 By increasing the number of secondary turns (NS), the secondary current (IS) will
be much smaller.
 The CT turns ratio is as follows:

IP NS
CT Turns ratio = =
IS NP

IP
CTR =
IS

 Usually, the primary consists of one or

two turns whilst the secondary can have
several hundreds of turns.
 Meaning the ratio between the primary
and secondary turns can be very large.
 The measure of a CT performance is its
ability to accurately reproduce the
primary current relating to the turns ratio.
4.2 Current Transformer
Turns ratio calculations
20

Example 1: Assume that a CT with a ratio of 1000/5A is used.

(a) Determine the CT ratio.
IP
CTR =
IS
1000 A
CTR =
5A
= 200
(b) Determine the secondary current for the following primary currents, respectively:
IP = 500 A IP = 1000 A IP = 2000 A IP = 10 000 A

IP I IP IP
CTR = CTR = P CTR = CTR =
IS IS IS IS
500 A 1000 A 2000 A 10 000 A
200 = 200 = 200 = 200 =
IS IS IS IS
IS = 2.5 A IS = 5 A IS = 10 A IS = 50 A
4.2 Current Transformer
IP
CT Saturation CT ratio =
IS
21

 The purpose of the CT is to produce a secondary current (IS) that changes

proportionally with the change in primary current (IP) divided by the turns ratio.
 However, the CT looses the accuracy, when it goes into saturation.
 How does CT Saturates?
 A CT with a given dimension can only support a given
amount of maximum flux density in the core.
Knee-point
 As long as the flux created by the
current flowing in the primary winding
allows flux density value to be below
the maximum flux density of the core, a
change in flux will create a ratio current
flow in the secondary winding circuit.
 When the primary current is so high
that the core cannot handle any
additional flux, the CT is said to be
saturated. So, there is no change in
flux within the core when the primary
current changes (ratio error).
4.2 Current Transformer
Knee-point
22

Parameter relevant to CT Saturation?

 Cross-section of the core: The larger the cross-section, the
lesser the chance of saturation.
 Quality and type of steel used to manufacture the core.
 Burden: External load applied to the secondary of the CT has an impact on the CT
saturation.

What is the Knee-point of the CT?

 The knee-point of the graph defines
where the CT starts to exhibit
nonlinear behavior as a result of the
core saturation. Meaning a point
where a CT starts saturating.

CT excitation curve
4.3 Protection Relays
Introduction
23

 A protective relay definition is a switchgear device used to detect faults & begin
the circuit breaker operation to separate the faulty element of the system.
 The protective relay is used to detect abnormal conditions within the electrical
circuits by measuring the different electrical quantities constantly under normal as
well as fault conditions. The electrical quantities which may vary in fault conditions
are; current, voltage, phase angle & frequency.
 These electrical quantities are then measured to
detect normal as well as abnormal condition.
 Once the fault is detected, the protection relay will
then provides the tripping signal to the circuit breaker
to disconnect the faulty system/circuit.
 Protective relays are available in different types which
are used based on requirements:
Overcurrent Relays, Distance Relays, Directional
Relays, Differential Relays, Earth Fault Relays
4.3 Protection Relays
Introduction
24

 Overcurrent Relay:
 Overcurrent relays operate through the current. The user will set a pick-up value of
the current and this relay will activates the circuit breaker to trip once the quantity of
measured current exceed that pick-up value. They are referred as non-directional
overcurrent relays since they can trip irrespective of the direction of the current.
 Directional Relay:
 These relays are activated by the flow of current in a certain direction. Directional
relay is connected towards the load side of the line which will trip if overcurrent
flows from the load towards the source.
 Distance Relay:
 Distance Relay is purely depending upon the magnitude of the circuit current and
voltage, typically the impedance (Z) of the circuit to be protected is calculated. If the
is less than a predetermined value, the relay trips the circuit breaker.
 Differential Relay:
 A differential protective relay simply works by opposing the difference among the
entering & the leaving current magnitude. If the difference is above the pickup
value, then the system may be separated & the breaker circuit (CB) is triggered.
4.3 Protection Relays
Introduction
25

 Earth Fault Relay:

 The earth fault relay is a type of relay that can sense the faults between the phase
and earth. Earth fault is due to current-carrying conductor falls on the ground or on
the body of any equipment or when someone touches a live conductor.
4.3 Protection Relays
Distance Relay
26

 Distance relays is purely depending upon the magnitude of the circuit current and
voltage, typically the impedance (Z) of the circuit to be protected is calculated. If the
is less than a predetermined value, the relay trips the circuit breaker.
 Hence, a relay requires both the CT and VT, to be connected across the voltage
coil and current coil, respectively, when used for the distance protection of
transmission lines.
 Every power line has a resistance and
reactance per kilometre. So, its total
impedance will be a function of its
length or distance.
 When a fault occurs in the protected
zone 1, then the voltage drops while
current increases. Thus, the impedance
(V/I) of the line reduces.
 So when the impedance reduces less
than its predetermined value, the
distance protection relay trips circuit
breaker by closing the trip contact.
4.3 Protection Relays
Overcurrent Relay
27

 Overcurrent relays (Non-directional) are important to protect electrical circuits

against excessive current that may result due to fault and that may flow in any
direction.
 The information regarding the level of
the measured excessive fault current is
obtained from the CT and this enables
the relay to compare it with its settings.
 Only the current coil of the relay needs to
be activated using a CT. Hence, No VT
is required.
 When the current entering the relay
coil is high during faulty conditions in
the protected circuit (e.g. transmission
line), the coil will have a strong magnetic
effect to allow the relay contact to be
pulled in order to close the trip circuit so
that the Circuit breaker (CB) is allowed to
trip (open).
4.3 Protection Relays
Overcurrent Relay
28

 The non-directional overcurrent relay has two setting, namely Time Dial Setting and
Pickup Current Setting.
 The Time Dial setting decides the operating times of the overcurrent relay while
the Pickup Current setting decides the current required for the relay to pick-up
(and trip).
 Time-current characteristics for the non-directional overcurrent relays have inverse
time characteristic since the time required to rotate a disc depends on the torque.
The torque varies with input current. The more the current the faster is the rotation
of the disc.
4.3a Types of common protection
Relays
29

NON-Directional Overcurrent Relays

A non-directional overcurrent relay has a single input coil in the form of AC
current coming from a secondary side of a current transformer (CT) is set.
The non-directional overcurrent relay operates when the current in the circuit
(e.g. transmission line) exceeds a certain preset value irrespective of the
flow direction of the current.
Time-current characteristics for the non-directional overcurrent relays have
inverse time characteristic since the time required to rotate a disc depends
on the torque. The torque varies with input current. The more the current the
faster is the rotation of the disc.
4.3 Relays
Types of overcurrent relays
30

 Over-current relays are divided into 3 types, Namely:

1. Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
2. Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
3. Inverse time Overcurrent Relay
3.1 Standard inverse Time (Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDTM))
3.2 Very Inverse Time
3.3 Extremely Inverse Time

1. An Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay is quite simple in operation. When the

current in the coil crosses the preset pick up current value, the attraction force
become strong enough to pull the relay contact to close the circuit. It is called
instantaneous since the relay operates as soon as the current in the coil is high. The
operating time is 0.1 second.
4.3 Relays
Types of overcurrent relays (Continues)
31

2. A Definite Time Overcurrent

Relay has a time setting
adjustment and pickup current
adjustment. When the current
riches pickup current, there is a
definite time delay before tripping
can take place.

3. An Inverse time Overcurrent

Relays are the most preferred
relays for overcurrent protection.
Discrimination by both
The consists of a rotating disc that
Time & Current
works like a motor device. The
magnitude is achieved
speed of clearing the fault is
controlled by the level of the
current. If the fault is severe, the
current is very high, and it will clear
the fault faster.
4.3 Relays
Types of overcurrent relays (Continues)
32

3. An Inverse time Overcurrent The most common inverse time

Relays are the most preferred overcurrent relays used are:
relays used for overcurrent 3.1 Standard inverse Time (Inverse Definite
protection. The rotating disc will Minimum Time (IDTM))
move faster to clear the fault if the
3.2 Very Inverse Time
current is high.
3.3 Extremely Inverse Time
Their operating time is calculated using the
following equation:
β
toperating =
(PSM)α − 1
Relay β α
Standard inverse (IDMT) 0.14 0.02
Very Inverse 13.5 1
Extremely inverse 80 2
4.3.1 IDMT Relay
(PS current or pickup current)
33

What is a Pick-up current of a relay? .

 Pick-up current: it is the minimum current in a relay coil at which the relay starts
to operate.
 So long as the current in the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does
not operate. Hence, the Circuit Breaker (CB) controlled by it remains in the closed
position.
 However, when the relay coil current is equals to or greater than the pickup
current value, the relay operates to energize the trip coil to open the circuit
breaker (CB).
4.3.1 Characteristic Graph of
IDMT Relay
34

 IDMT (Inverse Definite Minimum Time) is the most commonly used in time-
graded overcurrent relays.
 It involves both the discrimination by time and by current magnitude.
 Hence, the disadvantages of grading by time or current alone are defeated.
 Both the current and the time are adjustable using plug-setting and time-setting
multipliers, respectively.
 The Operational Characteristic curve is given by means of the following equation:
β
toperating =
(PSM)α − 1
 Hence, the actual tripping time is given by:
TSM x β
tactual =
(PSM)α − 1
where: tactual is the actual operating time to clear the fault (in seconds)
TSM is the Time-setting multiplier
PSM is the Plug-setting multiplier
4.3.1 Characteristic Graph of
IDMT Relay (continues)
35

 The Operational characteristic equation shown below, can be used to plot the
Plug-setting multiplier (PSM) for current vs the actual operational time to clear the
fault.
 This can be constructed for
different Time-setting
multiplier (TMS), as shown TSM
in the sketch below.

β
toperating =
(PSM)α − 1

0.14
tactual trip = 𝟎.𝟎𝟐 xTSM
(PSM) −1

PSM
4.3.2 IDMT Relay Settings
Plug settings (PS) of 50% to 200%
36

 Plug setting (PS) means relay current

settings. Plug setting (PS)
 The tap values are expressed as % full load
rating of the current transformer (CT) with
which relay is associated with.
 For a CT of 100/5 A, it means 5A secondary
current is 100% setting on a relay plug setting.
 2.5A 3.75A 5A 6.25A 7.5A 8.75A 10A
50% 75% 100% 125% 150% 175% 200%

Plug setting (PS)

4.3.2 IDMT Relay Settings
Plug settings (PS) of 50% to 200%
37

 The position of the Plug determines the number of turns employed on the
relay coil and hence the sensitivity of the relay.
 When the pin (PS bridge) is removed for the purpose of changing the
setting while relay is in service then relay automatically adopts a higher
current setting. Plug setting (PS)
 (Fault current in a relay coil = IFault /CT ratio)
4.3.2 IDMT Relay Settings
Plug setting multiplier (PSM) (PS current or pickup current)
38

 2.5A 3.75A 5A 6.25A 7.5A 8.75A 10A

50% 75% 100% 125% 150% 175% 200%
 For example, when you set to 150%, the pickup current is 7.5A. So, when the relay
coil gets a current of 7.5A or more, the relay will operate to enable tripping of the
circuit breaker.
What is Plug setting multiplier?
 Plug setting multiplier (PSM) is the ratio of the actual fault current in the relay coil
(i.e. secondary CT current) to the pick up current (i.e relay current setting).
IP
IS (calculated from the CT) Remember that CT ratio =
PSM = IS
Plug setting current
IS
=
PS current
IP
=
PS current x CT ratio
IFault
PSM = (1)
PS current x CT ratio
4.3.2 Relay Settings (IDMT)
Time-setting multiplier (TSM) or time dial
39

Time-setting multiplier (TSM)

 Similar to current settings (PS), a relay is provided with a feature that enables it to
control the time.
 This feature is called time-setting multiplier.
Its dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of
0.05 (5% steps) as shown in the figure below.
 But by adjusting only the time multiplier, we
cannot set the actual time of operation of the
relay. The speed of clearing the fault is also
based on the level of the fault current in the
coil.

Time-setting Multiplier
4.3.2 Relay Settings (IDMT)
Actual time of operation (tactual)
40

Time-setting multiplier (TSM)

 But by adjusting only the time multiplier, we cannot set the actual time of
operation of the relay. The speed of clearing a fault is also based on the level
of the fault current in the coil.
 In other words, the time of operation of the relay also depends upon plug setting
multiplier (PSM).
 The relationship between the time of operation and plug setting multiplier is
important as show in the graph. It is known as time vs PSM graph (for TSM = 1).
 From time vs PSM graph, you can determine
the total time taken by the electromechanical
moving part of the relay when clearing a fault.
 Example: if we set out time-setting multiplier
(TSM) to 1 in a relay, while the calculated PSM
is 16, then the actual operating time is
calculated as follow:
 Time for PSM of 16 is found to be 2 seconds.
 Actual time (tactual) = 2 sec x TSM = 2 x 1 =
2 seconds
 (Fault current in a relay coil = IFault /CT ratio)

4.3.2 Relay Settings (PS current or pickup current)

Summary of Steps for Calculating the Actual time of the relay

41

 For calculating the actual relay operating time, we need to know the following
operations:
1. Current setting, 2. Fault current level, 3. CT ratio, 4. Time/PSM curve and
5. Time-setting multiplier (TSM) or time dial.
 Step 1: From the CT, we first need to see the secondary current. e.g. if CT ratio is
1500/5A, it simply means the secondary current is 5A.
 Step 2: From the relay plug setting, we need to know the current setting of the relay.
Say if the plug setting is 75%, then the current setting of the relay is 5A x 0.75 =
3.75 A. Therefore PS current is 3.75 A.
 Step 3: We need to calculate the PSM for the specific fault current, using CT ratio.
IFault
PSM =
PS current x CT ratio
 Step 4: After calculating the PSM, we find the total operation time of the relay from
the time vs PSM curve if the curve is given or calculate it using
β
topearing =
(PSM)α − 1
 Step 5: Lastly, determine the actual operation time by multiplying operating time by
TSM x β
the TSM. tactual = α
4.3.2 Relay Settings
IDMT Relay Characteristic
42
4.3.2 Relay Settings (Fault current in a relay = IFault /CT ratio)

Example 2 (PS current or pickup current)

43

 Example 2: Determine the actual operating time of a IDMT relay having a plug
setting of 125% and TMS = 0.8. It is connected to a supply circuit through a CT of
400/5A and a fault current is 5000 A. The time vs PSM curve is as shown below.
The CT secondary current is 5A (PS = 𝟏𝟐𝟓% = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓)

PS current = 5A x 1.25
= 6.25 A
TSM
IFault
PSM =
PS current x CT ratio
5 000
=
6.25 x (400 )
5
= 10
Operating time of the relay corresponding
to PSM of 10 is around 3 sec for TSM=1.
Then, for TSM = 0.8 the actual time =
operating x TSM = 3 sec x 0.8 = 2.4 sec
 4.3.2 Relay Settings (Fault current in a relay coil = IFault /CT ratio)

Example 3 (PS current or pickup current)

44

Example 3
 The supply CT is rated 400/5A and a fault current is 12 000 A. (a) Determine the
plug setting multiplier (PSM) of a IDMT relay having a plug setting of 200%.
(b) During the fault, what is the level of the fault current that enters the relay coil.

The rated CT secondary current is 5A & the CT ratio = 400/5 = 80

(a) PS current = 5A x 2 (200%) (b) coil fault current = IFault
CT ratio
= 10 A 12 000
=
80
IFault (PS = 𝟐𝟎𝟎% = 𝟐) = 150 A
PSM =
PS current x CTR

12 000
=
10 x (400 )
5
= 15
4.3.2 Relay Settings (Fault current in a relay coil = IFault /CT ratio)

Example 4 (PS current or pickup current)

45

Example 4: Calculate the TSM that an IDMT relay needs to be set at, if it must trip
within the following trip time. Its TSM scale increases from 0 to 1 in step of 0.05:
(a) 0.6 seconds for a given fault current.
(b) 0.35 seconds for a given fault current.

The rated CT secondary current is 5A

& the CT ratio = 750/5 = 150

PS current = 5A x 1 (100%)
=5A Characteristic equation for IDMT
TSM x β
tactual =
IFault (PSM)α − 1
PSM =
PS current x CTR
TSM x 0.14 TSM x 0.14
12 500 (a) 𝟎. 𝟔 = (b) 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 =
= (16.67)0.02 − 1 (16.67)0.02 − 1
5 x 150
= 16.67 TSM = 0.248 = 0.25 TSM = 0.145 = 0.15
4.3.2 Relay Settings (Fault current in a relay coil = IFault /CT ratio)

Example 5 (PS current or pickup current)

46

Example 5: Calculate the time it will take to trip the Circuit Breaker for a given fault
current if the TSM of a Very inverse relay is set 0.25.

The rated CT secondary current is 5A

& the CT ratio = 750/5 = 150
Characteristic equation for a very inverse
PS current = 5A x 1 (100%) Relay
=5A
TSM x β
IFault tactual =
PSM = (PSM)α − 1
PS current x CTR
0.25 x 13.5
12 500 =
(16.67)1 − 1
=
5 x 150
= 16.67 = 0.215 = 0.22 seconds
4.3.2 Relay Settings (Fault current in a relay coil = IFault /CT ratio)

Example 6 (PS current or pickup current)

47

Example 6: Calculate the PS needed for an IDMT relay, if the trip time is 0.6
seconds and TSM is 0.25. Assume that the relay plug setting range is from 50% to
200% in steps of 25%. (PS = 𝟓𝟎% − 𝟐𝟎𝟎%)

The rated CT secondary current is 1A

& the CT ratio = 800/1 = 800
PS current = ??????????? IFault
PSM =
PS current x CTR
Characteristic equation for IDMT
15 900
17.026 =
TSM x β PS current x 800
tactual =
(PSM)α − 1 PS current = 1.167 A (this current is how many
percent of the relay current
rating?)
0.25 x 0.14
𝟎. 𝟔 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟐 1.167 A
Relay plug setting (PS) =
(PSM) −1 1 A x 100%
= 116.7 %
PSM = 17.026
Therefore plug setting is 125%
4.3.3 Relay Time Grading Margin
48

 When the number of feeders are connected in series, it is desired that when a
fault occurs, it does not trip all circuit breakers (CB) connected in that radial
system.
 This is achieved by employing time graded protection.

 The overcurrent relay protection

system should be adjusted in such
a way that the relay situated
furthest from the generation station,
should have the lesser time of
operation.
 The relay closer to the generation
station, must have the operating
highest time.
 When the fault occurs next to CB5,
relay R5 should operate first and
not any other relays.
4.3.3 Relay Time Grading Margin
49

 The difference in operating times between the adjacent relays is referred to as

discrimination time.
 For proper grading of relays, discrimination time/period should not be less than
0.4 seconds between the adjacent relays.
 If the fault happens within relay 4
(R4) region, the fault current will be
the highest within that region
(because the fault current varies
with the position of the fault.)
 Since the time setting for R4 is
more that R5, R5 is supposed to
trip first. So, why not tripping?
 Answer: R4 will trip first because
the current in its position is very
high. Therefore, the high fault level
will make a reduction in the tripping
time of R4.
 (Fault current in a relay coil = IFault /CT ratio)

4.3.3 Relay Time Grading Margin

Example 7 (PS current or pickup current)
50

Example 7: Calculate the TSM for both IDMT relays, if Relay 2 must trip in 0.3
seconds for a fault shown in the sketch. Assume that the grading margin (time
discrimination) of 0.4 seconds between the relays. Plug setting on Relay 1 is 130%
and on Relay 2 is 160%.
(PS = 𝟏. 𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟏. 𝟔)
Furthest point from the supply
Relay 2
The rated CT secondary current is 1A
& the CT ratio = 800/1 = 800
Characteristic equation for IDMT
PS current = 1A x 1.6 (160%) TSM x β
tactual =
= 1.6A (PSM)α − 1
IFault
PSM =
PS current x CTR TMS x 0.14
𝟎. 𝟑 =
(9.7)0.02 − 1
12 410
=
1.6 x 800
TSM = 0.0996 (for Relay 2)
= 9.7
 (Fault current in a relay coil = IFault /CT ratio)

4.3.3 Relay Time Grading Margin

Example 7 (Continues) (PS current or pickup current)
51

Example 7: Calculate the TSM for both IDMT relays, if Relay 2 must trip in 0.3
seconds for a fault shown in the sketch. Assume that the grading margin (time
discrimination) of 0.4 seconds between the relays. Plug setting on Relay 1 is 130%
and on Relay 2 is 160%.

(PS = 𝟏𝟑𝟎% = 𝟏. 𝟑)

Relay 1
The rated CT secondary current is 1A
& the CT ratio = 750/1 = 750 due to grading margin, actual time for relay 1
is 0.3 sec + 0.4 sec = 0.7 seconds
PS current = 1A x 1.30 (130%) Characteristic equation for IDMT
= 1.3 A
TSM x β
tactual =
PSM =
IFault (PSM)α − 1
PS current x CTR
TMS x 0.14
12 410 𝟎. 𝟕 = (12.73)0.02 − 1
=
1.3 x 750
= 12.73 TSM = 0.26 (for Relay 1)
 (Fault current in a relay coil = IFault /CT ratio)

HOMEWORK
(PS current or pickup current)
52

The sketch below shows a typical power system. The TSM for relay 1 is 0.3.
Calculate the actual operating time for each relay, as well as the TSM for relay 2, for
the given fault current. Plug setting on Relay 1 is 125% and on Relay 2 is 150%.
Assume a grading margin of 0.35 seconds between the relays.

ANSWERS:

tactual = 1.11 seconds (for Relay 1)

tactual = 1.46 seconds (for Relay 2)

TSM = 0.355 (for Relay 2)