Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

Lecture-4

Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring

Instruments

4.1 Introduction

The dynamic characteristics are concerned with the measurement of a

quantities that vary with time. Generally, the dynamic systems are represented by
a differential equations. The measurement systems, in general, are consider as
linear, time-invariant and can be represented by an nth order differential equation
as follows:

+ +⋯+ + = + + ⋯+

+ …………………………………………………………………………………..(4.1)

Where,
t= time
qi= is the input quantity (measured quantity).
qo= is the output quantity (instrument reading).
ao,a1,………,an,b1, b2, ………, bm are constant depending on the parameters
of the instrument and n ≥ m.

There are only certain special and simplified cases of Eq.(4.1) applicable in
normal measurement situations. The response of the measuring instrument is
varied depending on the measured quantity. If we considered only the step

(1- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

+ +⋯+ + = …………………………(4.2)

Or by using the D operator (D = d/dt), we get:

+ + ⋯+ + = ……………………(4.3)

4.2 Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Systems

Depending on Eq.(4.3) above, and according to the highest order of the

differential equation describing them, we can classify the measurement
instruments as follows:

1. Zero-Order Instrument

The zero-order instrument is described by an algebraic equation as follows:

= …………………………………………………………………………………… (4.4)

Or

= …………………………………………………………………………………………… (4.5)

Or

= …………………………………………………………………………………………… (4.6)

(2- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

Where, k = is a constant known as the instrument sensitivity.

The relation between the output quantity qo and the input quantity qi according to
Eq.(4.6) is shown in Fig.(4.1).

output ,

Static sensitivity, K

Input ,

Fig.(4.1) The dynamic Characteristic of the zero-order instrument

The potentiometer, which is used for measurement of motion or the level

of a liquid in tank is a good example of the zero-order instrument, where the
output voltage changes as the slider is displaced along the potentiometer track.
This illustrated in Fig.(4.2).

Fig.(4.2) Application of potentiometer for liquid level measurement

(3- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

2. First-Order Instrument

The first-order instrument is described by a first-order differential

equation, i.e.

+ = …………………………………………………………….……… (4.7)

Or

( + ) = ……………………………………………………………………… (4.8)

Or

= ………………………………………………………………………………… (4.9)

Or

= …………………………………………………………………………..…… (4.10)

Or

= ………………………………………………………………………………… (4.11)

Where,
K = the static sensitivity.
= the time constant of the instrument (reading taw).
D = d/dt.
qi = is the measured quantity.
qo = is the output reading of the instrument.

(4- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

The solution 11) is given as follows:

= − ………………………………………………………………………………… (4.12)

Where, T is the time constant of the measuring system.

The output quantity qo in response to step change in qi and according to Eq.(4.12)

varies with time in the manner shown in Fig.(4.3).

Fig.(4.3) The dynamic Characteristic of the first-order instrument

The thermometer is a good example of the first-order instrument. If the

thermometer at room temperature is plunged into boiling water, the output
o
C but instead
approaches a reading of 100 oC in a manner similar to that shown in Fig.(4.3).

(5- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

3. Second-Order Instrument

The second-order instrument is described by a second-order differential

equation as follows:

+ + = ………………………………………………… (4.13)

Or

( + + ) = …………………………………………………… (4.14)

Or

= …………………………………………………………………………(4.15)

Or

= …………………………………………………………...……………(4.16)

Or

= ……………………………………………………………………….………(4.17)

Or

= ……………….…………………………………………………………………(4.18)

By comparing Eq.(4.18) with the standard equation of the second-order system

which is given as:

(6- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

= ……………………………………………………………….……………(4.19)

We get:

= (the static sensitivity)

= (the un-damped natural frequency)

= (the damping ratio)

The solution of the differential 9) is given as follows:

= − − + ……………………………(4.20)

The time response of the second-order instrument for a step change of input and
for different values of the damping ratio (ξ) according to Eq.(4.20) is shown in
Fig,(4.2) below:

Fig.(4.4) The dynamic Characteristic of the second-order instrument

(7- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

Examples – L4

Ex4.1 Derive an expression to describe the dynamic characteristic of the zero

order measuring instrument and then plot this characteristic.
Sol.
The dynamic measuring system is described by an n th order D.E. as follows:
+ + ⋯+ + = ………….……….………….……… (1)

The zero-order instrument is described by an algebraic equation as follows:

= …………………………….…………………………………………………………………….…… (2)

Or
= ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….…… (3)

Or
= ……………………………………………….…….…….…….…….……………………….…….……… (4)

Where, k = is a constant known as the instrument sensitivity.

The characteristic of the Zero-order instrument is shown in figure below:

output ,

Static sensitivity, K

Input ,

Ex4.2 Derive an expression to describe the dynamic characteristic of the first

order measuring instrument and then plot this characteristic.
Sol.
The dynamic measuring system is described by an n th order D.E. as follows:
+ + ⋯+ + = ………….………….……….……… (1)

The first-order instrument is described by a first-order differential equation, i.e.

+ = ………………………………………………………………………..……..……… (2)

(8- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

Or

( + ) = ………………………………………………………………………………………… (3)

Or

= …………………………………………………………………………………………………… (4)

Or

= …………………………………………..…………………………………………………..…… (5)

Or

= ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… (6)

Where,
K = the static sensitivity.
= the time constant of the instrument (reading taw).
D = d/dt.
qi = is the measured quantity.
qo = is the output reading of the instrument.

= − ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… (7)

The output quantity qo in response to step change in qi and according to Eq.(7) varies
with time in the manner shown in figure below.

(9- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

Ex4.2 Derive an expression to describe the dynamic characteristics of the second

order measuring instrument and then plot these characteristics at
different values of damping ratio.
Sol.
The dynamic measuring system is described by an n th order D.E. as follows:
+ + ⋯+ + = ………….……….………….……… (1)

The second-order instrument is described by a second-order differential equation as

follows:

+ + = ……………………………………………………………………… (2)
Or
( + + ) = ……………………………………………….………………………… (3)
Or
= …………………………………………………………………………..…………………(4)
Or

= ……………………………………………………………..………………...……………(5)

Or

= …………………………………..………………..…………………………………….………(6)

Or

= ……………….………………………………………………………..……………………………(7)

By comparing Eq.(7) with the standard equation of the second-order system which is
given as:

= ……………………………………………………..…………………………….……………(8)
We get:
= (the static sensitivity)

= (the undamped natural frequency)

= (the damping ratio)
The solution of the differential equation (9) is given as follows:
= − − + ……………………………………..…………(9)
The time response of the second-order instrument for a step change of input and for
different values of the damping ratio (ξ) according to Eq.(9) is shown in figure below:

(10- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif

Instrumentations and Measurements Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

(11- Lecture-4) Assist. Prof. Dr. Haider K. Latif