Crime Prevention

Welcome students to this class.

Below are some introductory notes – not necessarily to be read to the class.

Crime prevention is a broad topic that encompasses a great many programs and
initiatives. A great diversity of crimes can be the target of crime prevention and
different approaches to crime prevention target different factors contributing to
crime. Consequently, a diversity of actors will frequently be engaged in efforts to
prevent crime. This can range from international agencies such as the United
Nations Office of Drugs and Crime, to national crime prevention bodies, down to
local actors. Government, non-government, civil society, voluntary, activist,
private sector and individual citizens can and do engage in crime prevention
activities.

Preventing crime produces many positive outcomes. The prevention or non-

occurrence of some future criminal incident reduces the human costs for victims
of crime. Lives can be saved, physical harm can be prevented, and financial lost
can be minimised. For this reason, crime prevention is very attractive to many
governments and other groups, and it is the reason why crime prevention has
become an important area of policy and practice.

However, crime prevention is not without problems. Governments and private

entities can, in the name of crime prevention, seek to control and monitor

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citizens; crime prevention can become a commodity and sold to those who can
afford it, leaving those who cannot even more insecure; efforts to prevent crime
can stigmatise people and communities; and victims can be blamed for contributing
to their own victimisation. Therefore, it is always important to consider the
negative unintended consequences of efforts to prevent crime.

It is important to acknowledge that there are significant legal, cultural and political
differences across regional and local contexts that impact on how crime prevention
is considered and practiced. Even the term ‘crime prevention’ will be used
differently, if at all, across regions of the world. The body of knowledge about
crime prevention often comes from a small number of countries and regions, which
is highly problematic. Particular approaches might work well in one context but
have negative impacts in another.

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 Introduction to Crime Prevention

• Learning outcomes:
1. Understand the definition of crime prevention used by the United Nations
2. Distinguish between key terms used in crime prevention and community safety contexts
3. Describe different crime prevention typologies
4. Apply different crime problem-solving approaches to common crime problems
5. Critically analyse ‘what works’ in crime prevention (including what constitutes evidence and the
transferability of this evidence) and identify relevant clearinghouses of such information

Discuss the learning outcomes and mention that these outcomes guide the
lecture/presentation.

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 Exercise: What is crime prevention?
• A home visit by an early health nurse to all new parents is provided to check on how they are managing the demands of
parenthood. Is this a crime prevention measure?
• A landscape architect makes a number of recommendations in relation to the development of a new housing estate. Some
of these recommendations include the planting of low growing vegetation at the front of all homes and the installation of
a garden bed along the front of the fences. Is this a crime prevention measure?
• The diagrams below show an anti-theft device that fits beneath tables in bars. Is this a crime prevention measure?

Source: http://www.designagainstcrime.com/projects/grippa-clips/

• Machine-readable microchips will be implanted under the skin of thousands of offenders as part of an expansion of an
electronic tagging scheme. Tiny chips would be surgically inserted under the skin of offenders in the community, to help
enforce home curfews. The radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, as long as two grains of rice, are able to carry
scanable personal information about individuals, including their identities, address and offending record. Is this a crime
prevention measure?
• Mandatory drug testing has been introduced in some workplaces, especially where the performance of intricate physical
tasks is required. Is this a crime prevention measure?
• The work of security personnel responsible for the management of cash-in-transit (i.e. large collection and distribution of
cash to businesses) is governed by work safety guidelines. These guidelines seek to protect security personnel involved in
cash-in-transit activities. Is this a crime prevention measure?

This brief exercise is designed to encourage students to consider the breadth of

possible crime prevention measures and techniques. Below are a number of
scenarios that can be read to the class. After each scenario ask the students if
they would consider this to be a form of crime prevention. Beyond being useful in
discussing what might/might not be considered crime prevention, this exercise
also introduces the importance of considering the ethical and moral
dimensions of crime prevention – at what price might we pursue the
prevention of crime? It is designed to provoke discussion and debate.

Possible answers/discussion points:

• At least in some respects all of these examples could be considered to be
forms of crime prevention. This demonstrates the breadth of what might be
considered to be crime prevention and some of the ethical and moral
considerations arising from efforts to prevent crime. Some discussion points
that might arise from this exercise include:
• Technology is increasingly contributing to the prevention of
crime. For example, very successful crime prevention measures
have been applied to motor vehicles to make it harder to steal
them. However, the use of technology to prevent crime is not
without problems. Inserting microchips in known offenders
might technologically possible but raises numerous ethical and
moral issues. What lengths we should go to prevent crime and
the potential unintended consequences of crime prevention

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 measures should always be considered.
• Measuring the impact of the diverse techniques employed to
prevent crime is difficult. For example, an early intervention
program involving home visits to new parents might well help
families but it can be difficult demonstrating the crime
prevention benefits that accrue many years after the
intervention.

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 Definition

The Prevention of Crime comprises:

“strategies and measures that seek to reduce the risk of crimes occurring, and their potential harmful
effects on individuals and society, including fear of crime, by intervening to influence their multiple
causes” (https://www.unodc.org/pdf/criminal_justice/Handbook_on_Crime_Prevention_Guidelines_-
_Making_them_work.pdf)

Invite the students to reflect on the definition. Ask them to consider and discuss
what might be some common crime types/problems that we might seek to
prevent. Consider and discuss what might be the multiple causes of crime.
Consider and discuss which agencies might be involved.

Possible answers/discussion points:

• Common crime types/problems – each jurisdiction will define what is
classified as a crime. Most criminal law statutes or laws will cover many
thousands of offences ranging from the minor (such as not paying to ride on
public transport or consuming alcohol in a public place) to the major (such as
murder, sexual assault, drug trafficking). This means that decisions often
need to be made about which crimes we might seek to prevent, which can
result in focus and resources perhaps unfairly or inappropriately going to
particular crime types.
• The causes of crime might vary depending upon the offence, the perpetrator
and the context. Some crimes might be motivated by need, such as theft of
food; others might be motivated by greed, such as fraud to acquire greater
wealth and assets; others might be politically motivated, such as anti-
government graffiti. It is not possible in this Module to explore all causes of
crime. This exercise is merely designed to trigger discussion of the diverse,
and often inter-connected, causes of crime.

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 Terminology

Invite students to define these terms. This can be done in small groups or as a
larger group.

Note that the terms might need to be modified to reflect regional and/or local
preferences in terminology.

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 Terminology
Term Definition
Community “Community safety is realized through an integrated consideration of diverse harms to the public, and ‘refers to the likely
Safety absence of harms from all sources, not just from human acts classifiable as crimes’ (Wiles and Pease, 2000). Community
safety also provides a strategic viewpoint on community harms by focusing attention towards the development of
programmes that set targets to manage risks and aims to maximise public safety” (2005:17-18)
Crime Crime prevention involves any activity by an individual or group, public or private, which attempts to eliminate crime prior
Prevention to it occurring or before any additional activity results. By drawing on the public health model, some theorists have
distinguished between primary crime prevention (universal), secondary crime prevention (at-risk) and tertiary crime
prevention (known offenders).
Crime “Crime reduction is concerned with diminishing the number of criminal events and the consequences of crime. Crime
Reduction reduction is applied within the bandwidth of an available resource input (e.g. financial input) and needs to be considered
as an action that brings net benefits, fear of crime and the impact of other programmes that may have contributed to any
specific crime reduction activity. Crime reduction promotes a spirit of optimism that actions towards a problem will reduce
crime or reduce the seriousness of criminal events … it aims to intervene directly in the events and their causes” (2005:
19).
Crime Control “Crime control considers that crime has already happened and that some management of these criminal activities is
required to ensure that it does not spiral out of control. It points to the need for maintenance of a problem, one where
crime is kept to a tolerable level, and not to a situation where crime can be prevented” (2005: 18-19).

Source: Chainey, S. and Ratcliffe, J. (2005) GIS and crime mapping, Wiley and Sons,
Chester.

Discuss the answers. Possible discussion points:

• Consider the different timeframes, focus and agencies responsible invoked by
these terms. Crime control is often considered narrower and more immediate
than crime prevention or community safety. Police are generally seen to be
responsible for crime control measures, whereas community safety and crime
prevention can be the domain of non-criminal justice agencies such as
education, health, housing, child protection, family support, urban planning,
voluntary, civil society, private companies and local government agencies.
• Community safety is broader than just focusing on crime. It is recognised that
many communities experience harms that are more important or devastating
than crime. Focusing on merely preventing crime might be unhelpful in
circumstances where communities face great hardship, loss of life and ill-
health on a daily basis. Discussing this can place crime and the associated
harms in a wider context.

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 Models of Prevention

“Primary crime prevention identifies conditions of the physical and social environment
that provide opportunities for or precipitate criminal acts. Here the objective of
intervention is to alter those conditions so that crimes cannot occur. Secondary crime
prevention engages in early identification of potential offenders and seeks to intervene in
their lives in such a way that they never commit criminal violation. Tertiary crime
prevention deals with actual offenders and involves intervention in their lives in such a
fashion that they will not commit further offenses” (Brantingham, P.J. and Faust, F.L. (1976) ‘A conceptual
model of crime prevention’, Crime and Delinquency, vol. 22, no. 3: 290).

Ask students to identify possible primary, secondary and tertiary forms of crime
prevention.

Some possible answers/discussions points (drawing from Brantingham and Faust,

1976):
• ‘Primary crime prevention identifies conditions of the physical and social
environment that provide opportunities for or precipitate criminal acts. Here
the objective of intervention is to alter those conditions so that crimes
cannot occur’. This covers a myriad of approaches to crime prevention which
are truly preventative – they work before a crime has been committed.
Designing out crime by making a new product inherently secure or providing
parenting skills or after-school programs in disadvantaged areas/communities
can prevent crime.
• ‘Secondary crime prevention engages in early identification of potential
offenders and seeks to intervene in their lives in such a way that they never
commit criminal violation’. This form of prevention is often directed at ‘at-
risk’ young people. Young people who are showing signs of potential
involvement in crime might be considered ‘at-risk’. Young people not actively
engaged in school (where it is provided), who associate with known
offenders, and who use alcohol and other drugs, might be considered to be
at-risk of involvement in crime. Providing programs to help these young
people before they become entrenched in offending would be considered to
be a form of secondary crime prevention.

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• ‘Tertiary crime prevention deals with actual offenders and involves
intervention in their lives in such a fashion that they will not commit further
offenses’. This form of prevention is generally linked to criminal justice
agencies, particularly courts, prisons and community correctional agencies.
Rehabilitation programs offered by these agencies that seek to prevent further
offeoffending would be considered to be forms of tertiary crime prevention.

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 Models of Prevention

The typology proposed by Tonry and Farrington is frequently used and includes four major
prevention strategies: “law enforcement, and developmental, community, and situational
prevention” (Tonry, M. and Farrington, D. (1995) ‘Preface’, in Tonry, M. and Farrington, D. (eds) Building a Safer Society:
Strategies Approaches to Crime Prevention, Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Volume 19, The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago and London: 1-2).

Briefly introduce this typology.

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 Model Explanation Examples
Developmental Often known as early intervention, developmental The most celebrated examples of developmental crime prevention
crime prevention seeks to address the early causes of include parenting programs, school enrichment initiatives like skills
criminality. Reducing community and individual risk training, pre-school regimes and improvements in transition to school
factors and increasing protective factors, help to arrangements.
prevent crime later in life.

Community / Strengthening neighbourhoods helps prevent crime. Community building activities, provision of welfare services and
Social Local communities that have strong bonds and where increasing community support groups all help to enhance the sense of
people know each other are generally less prone to community and can contribution to the prevention of crime.
experience crime. Enhancing ‘social capital’ or the
relationships between people can be beneficial in
protecting people from crime.

Situational Stopping the opportunities for crime is an effective Situational crime prevention can be as simple as installing locks and
way of preventing crime. Increasing the risks of alarms, increasing surveillance through lighting and making buildings
detection, reducing the rewards for offending and harder to enter, damage or hide near.
increasing the difficulty of offending are all ways to
prevent crime.
Law Enforcement This form of crime prevention is associated with the Problem-oriented policing can help prevent recurring problems
/ Criminal criminal justice system - police, courts and prisons – requiring a policing response through detailed analysis of crime
Justice and is the most commonly understood form of crime problems and inter-agency responses; community-oriented policing is a
prevention. strategy for encouraging the public to act as partners with the police in
preventing and managing crime; treatment programs offered through
court processes can address causes of crime; rehabilitation programs in
prison can prevent re-offending.

Discuss these different approaches to crime prevention.

This could be done as an exercise. The table could be copied and key text
removed. Students could then be invited to define the forms of crime prevention
and to identify examples. This could be done individually, in pairs, small groups or
as a larger group.

Mention that each model will now be dealt with in a little detail.

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 Developmental Crime Prevention

‘Developmental prevention involves the use of scientific research to guide the provision of
resources for individuals, families, schools or communities to address the conditions that give
rise to antisocial behaviour and crime before these problems arise, or before they become
entrenched … Doing something about crime early, preferably before the damage is too hard to
repair, strikes most people as a logical approach to crime prevention. The twin challenges, of
course, are to identify exactly what it is in individuals, families, schools and communities that
increases the odds of involvement in crime and then to do something useful about the
identified conditions as early as possible’ (Homel, R. and Thomsen, L. (2017) Chapter 4: ‘Developmental Crime
Prevention’, in Tilley, N. and Sidebottom, A. (eds.) Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety, Willan Publishing, Devon: 57).

Introduce developmental crime prevention by reading the above text.

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 Risk Factors
• Risk is cumulative and risk factors are inter-related (not easy to isolate causal link)
• The most significant risk factors associated with offending:
Individual Risk Factors Family Risk Factors Environmental Risk Factors
Low intelligence and attainment Criminal or antisocial parents Growing up in a low SES status
household

Personality and temperament Large family size Associating with delinquent peers

Empathy and impulsiveness Poor parental supervision Attending high-delinquency-rate

schools
Parental conflict and Living in deprived areas
disrupted families

(Farrington, D. and Welsh, B. (2007) Saving Children From a Life of Crime, Oxford University Press, Oxford:159)

Introduce risk factors as a key feature of developmental crime prevention.

Ask students to consider what challenges might exist in effectively isolating key
risk factors for later offending behaviour?

Some possible answers/discussions points:

• Many theorists in this area stress that risk is not destiny. This means that the
mere presence of risk factors does not mean that someone will necessarily
commit crime or become a persistent offender. It is important to stress this
point.
• Similarly, it is important to stress the point that risk factors are not
necessarily universal. What might be considered a risk factor from crime in
one country or region might not be considered a risk factor in another. For
example, large family size has been identified by Farrington and Welsh (and
others) as a risk factor for crime. This might be considered to be a protective
factor in particular cultural or regional contexts.
• Many people in any one area might have a number of the aforementioned risk
factors. Few will become persistent offenders. Consequently, predicting who
will become a persistent or repeat offender is difficult. Identifying someone
as potentially at-risk of future offending can have important consequences
for that individual, including increased policing surveillance. Consequently,
great care needs to be taken when trying to identify risk factors and at-risk
individuals.

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 Case Study: Elmira Home Visiting Program
• The seminal Elmira prenatal and infancy home visiting program provided support to 400 young mothers who
were single or from low socioeconomic backgrounds in the city of Elmira, New York. It intended to address
issues of poor birth outcomes, child maltreatment, welfare dependence and poor maternal life courses.
Nurses visited young mothers on a bi-weekly basis until their child reached the age of two. The home
visitation sessions were focused on providing prenatal care, baby health care and support to keep the young
mothers’ lives on track, through helping them find employment, planning for the future or linking them up
with much needed services within the community.
• Very positive outcomes emerged from the Elmira home visitation program. Participants in the home visitation
program exhibited the following outcomes in comparison the control group (Olds et al, 1999 p.44): improved
pregnancy outcomes; better parenting skills; higher maternal employment; fewer and more widely spaced
pregnancies; more mothers returned to education; less abuse and/or neglect the children; less smoking and
drinking; and by the time the children were at 15 years of age, fewer arrests and convictions (both mother
and child).
• The home visitation program was also successful in delivering considerable cost savings for the government.
Every $1USD spent on the home visitation program resulted in future savings of $4USD (Olds et al, 1999,
p.56).

• Olds, David L., Henderson, Charles R., Kitzman, Harriet J., Eckenrode, John J., Cole, Robert E. and Tatelbaum, Robert C. (1999) “Prenatal and infancy
home visitation by nurses: recent findings.” Future Child vol.9, no.1.
• Olds, David L. (2002) “Prenatal and Infancy Home Visiting by Nurses: From Randomized Trials to Community Replication.” Prevention Science vol.3,
no.3.

Discuss this case study. In particular, it is beneficial to focus on the nature of the
intervention, the benefits and the cost-benefit analysis. It is also important to
consider the challenges of taking programs delivered at this scale and trying to
deliver them across many communities. Invariably, problems in scaling-up arise
which means that we do not always get the same benefits when taking small,
successful programs to scale.

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 Community Crime Prevention
• “Community crime prevention refers to actions intended to change the social conditions that
are believed to sustain crime in residential communities. It concentrates on the ability of
local social institutions to reduce crime” (Hope, T. (1995) ‘Community crime prevention’, in M Tonry & D Farrington (eds.) Building
a safer community: strategic approaches to crime prevention, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 21)

• Generally speaking, high levels of informal social control and collective efficacy in local
communities result in lower crime. The following provides an insight into the nature of these
constructs:
►“Sampson and his coauthors then introduced the term ‘collective efficacy’, which is
defined in terms of the neighbourhood’s ability to maintain order in public spaces such as
streets, sidewalks, and parks. Collective efficacy is implemented when neighbourhood
residents take over actions to maintain public order, such as by complaining to the
authorities or by organizing neighbourhood watch programs. The authors argued that
residents take such actions only when ‘cohesion and mutual trust’ in the neighbourhood
is linked to ‘shared expectations for intervening in support of neighbourhood social
control’. If either the mutual trust or the shared expectations are absent, then residents
will be unlikely to act when disorder invades public space” (Vold et al, 2002, Theoretical Criminology, pages 131-
132)

Introduce community crime prevention through this slide.

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 Case Study: Communities that Care
• Communities That Care (CTC) is a community-based prevention system. CTC aims to promote the healthy development
of children and young people through long term community planning to prevent health and social problems.
• CTC guides communities towards identifying and understanding local needs, setting priorities and implementing
effective evidence-based interventions to address those needs. The CTC model has been implemented in numerous
countries around the world and is currently operating in over 500 communities.
• CTC is founded upon the ‘Social Development Strategy’, it is a strategy that promotes positive youth development by
organising the all the evidence-based protective factors into a simple strategy for action. It comprises of the following
five key components (CTC, 2018):
► Healthy beliefs and clear standards of behaviour – young people are more likely to engage in prosocial and responsible behaviour when
they are surrounded by teachers, parents and a community that communicates healthy beliefs and standards
► Bonding – young people need to develop and maintain strong relationships with those who hold healthy beliefs and clear standards
► Opportunities – developmentally appropriate opportunities should be provided to young people, for active participation and meaningful
interaction with prosocial others
► Skills – young people should be taught the skills they need to succeed in life
► Recognition – consistent, specific praise and recognition should be provided to young people for effort, improvement and achievement
• Results reported eight years after implementation of the CTC prevention system reveal that:
► Students in CTC communities were more likely than students in control communities to have abstained from any drug use, smoking
cigarettes, and engaging in delinquency; and
► They were also less likely to ever have committed a violent act.
• More information about CTC and their prevention programs can be found at
https://www.communitiesthatcare.org.au/ or https://www.communitiesthatcare.net/

This case study provides an example of community crime prevention. Discuss the
multiple strategies employed through this approach. Invite students to visit the
websites provided and to review relevant materials.

Consider asking students what might be some of the challenges of delivering

interventions and programs like these?

Some possible answers/discussions points:

• Maintaining political will for long-term investment – programs of this kind
often take a long time to produce outcomes (which is similar to
developmental crime prevention)
• Combating international trends that impact on local crime trends through
programs designed to operate at the local or community level
• Everyone’s but no one’s responsibility - “The crux of the problem is that in
this new-found era of ‘crime is everybody’s problem’, responsibility has
become so diffused as to no longer reside anywhere in particular, with all the
problems for funding to which that gives rise” (Crawford, A. (1998) Crime
Prevention and Community Safety: Politics, Policies and Practices,
Longman, Harlow: page 122)
• Some communities and neighbourhoods will feel that they are being labelled
and stigmatised if they are selected for a program or intervention
• There are numerous difficulties of conducting quality evaluations when
multiple programs are running simultaneously

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• The ‘criminalisation of social policy “refers to the situation in which social
welfare issues become redefined as crime problems. When goals of providing
affordable homes, improving health, and providing incomes through
employment become secondary to crime reduction in social policy,
criminalisation of social policy has occurred” (Knepper, P. (2007) Criminology
and Social Policy, Sage, Los Angeles, page 139)

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 Definition - Situational Crime Prevention
“Situational prevention comprises opportunity reducing measures that
(1) are directed at highly specific forms of crime,
(2) involve the management, design or manipulation of the immediate environment in as
systematic and permanent way as possible,
(3) make crime more difficult and risky, or less rewarding and excusable as judged by a
wide range of offenders” (Clarke, R. V. (1997) Situational Crime Prevention – Successful Case Studies, Harrow and
Heston, New York: 4).

Introduce situational crime prevention. Note that it is a significant departure from the
previously discussed approaches – the focus turns to opportunities for crime rather

than individuals and communities .

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 Elements of a Criminal Act – The Crime Triangle
Motivated Offender

Suitable Target / Victim Absence of Capable Guardian

Felson, M. and Cohen, L. E. (1980) ‘Human Ecology and Crime: A Routine Activity Approach’, Human Ecology, Vol. 8, No. 4: 392.

Discuss the Crime Triangle – a key aspect of situational crime prevention..

Consider what might assist motivated offenders to come together with suitable
targets/victims in time and space in the absence of capable guardians. This
encourages some consideration of the way that cities and neighbourhoods are
constructed and operate. It also raises the impact of work and leisure routines,
population densities, urban sprawl, increasing consumer items of increasing
portability, etc.

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 25 Opportunity-Reducing Techniques
Increase the Effort Increase the Risks Reduce the Rewards Reduce Provocations Remove the Excuses
1. Target Harden 6. Extend guardianship 11. Conceal targets 16. Reduced frustrations and stress 21. Set rules
Steering column locks Take routine precautions Off-street parking Efficient queues and polite service Rental agreements
Anti-robbery screens ‘Cocoon’ neighbourhood watch Gender-neutral phone directories Expanded seating Harassment codes
Tamper-proof packaging Unmarked bullion trucks Soothing music/muted lights Hotel registrations

1. Control access to facilities 7. Assist natural surveillance 12. Remove targets 17. Avoid disputes 22. Post instructions
Entry phones Improved street lighting  Removable car radio Separate enclosures for rival soccer  ‘No parking’
Electronic card access Defensible space design  Women’s refuges fans  ‘Private property’
Baggage screening Support whistleblowers  Pre-paid phone cards for pay Reduce crowding in pubs  ‘Extinguish camp fires’
phones Fixed cab fares
1. Screen exits 8. Reduce anonymity 13. Identify property 18. Reduce emotional arousal 23. Alert conscience
Ticket needed for exit Taxi driver IDs  Property marking  Controls on violent pornography  Roadside speed display boards
Export documents ‘How’s my driving?’ decals  Vehicle licensing and parts  Enforce good behaviour on soccer  Signatures for customs
Electronic merchandise tags School uniforms marking field declarations
 Cattle branding  Prohibit racial slurs  ‘Shoplifting is stealing’
1. Deflect Offenders 9. Utilise place managers 14. Disrupt markets 19. Neutralise peer pressure 24. Assist compliance
 Street closures CCTV for double-decker buses Monitor pawn shops ‘Idiots drink and drive’ Easy library check-out
 Separate bathrooms for women Two clerks for convenience stores Controls on classified ads ‘It’s OK to say no’ Public lavatories
 Disperse pubs Reward vigilance License street vendors Disperse troublemakers at school Litter bins

1. Control tools/weapons 10. Strengthen formal surveillance 15. Deny benefits 20. Discourage imitation 25. Control drugs and alcohol
‘Smart’ guns Red light cameras  Ink merchandise tags  Rapid repair of vandalism  Breathalysers in pubs
Disabling stolen mobile phones Burglar alarms  Graffiti cleaning  V-chips in TVs  Server intervention
Restrict spray paint to juveniles Security guards  Speed humps  Censor details of modus operandi  Alcohol-free events

Cornish, D. B. and Clarke, R. V. (2003) ‘Opportunities, precipitators and criminal decisions: A reply to Wortley’s critique of situational
crime prevention’, in Smith, M. and Cornish, D. B. (eds) Theory for Situational Crime Prevention, Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 16,
Criminal Justice Press, Monsey, New York.

Situational crime prevention techniques rest on five key pillars:

1. Increasing the effort
2. Increasing the risks
3. Reducing he rewards
4. Reducing provocations
5. Removing the excuses

This table provides an overview of the different types of situational crime prevention.

Ask students to review the 25 opportunity-reducing techniques and to identify

those techniques currently being used in their local area.

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 Examples of Situational Crime Prevention
Electronic Article Surveillance Car Locking Devices and Immobilisers

Source: https://www.watcherprotect.com/electronic-article-surveillance-eas /
Bank Counter Screens Source: https://www.confused.com/car-insurance/guides/car-engine-immobilisers-alarms-trackers
Airport Security

Source: http://www.architecturalarmour.com/security-sectors/bank-counters-security-desks Source: https://www.thedailymeal.com/travel/things-you-didn-t-know-you-could-bring-through-airport-security-slideshow

Use these images as a prompt for further consideration about situational crime
prevention techniques operating in their local area.

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 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)

• “the physical environment can be manipulated to produce behavioural effects that will
reduce the incidence and fear of crime, thereby improving the quality of life” (Crowe, T.
(2000) Crime prevention through environmental design: applications of architectural design and space management
concepts, 2nd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston: 34-35).

• http://www.securedbydesign.com/industry-advice-and-guides/interactive-design-
guide/

Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) is related to situational

crime prevention. Discuss the definition of CPTED.

CPTED now commonly includes a series of design techniques, which Cozens et al

(2005) list as:
• Surveillance: natural and technical surveillance increases the risks for would-
be offenders. Surveillance can be achieved through promoting ‘eyes on the
street’, as advocated by Jane Jacobs, through land use to maximise the
presence of pedestrians throughout the day and night, or technical
surveillance through the use of closed circuit television (CCTV);
• Access control: blocking access to venues and items reduces the
opportunities for crime. This might be in the form of fencing, landscaping,
and video and telephone activated entry to residential areas;
• Territoriality: designing in a sense of ownership over a space promotes
territoriality. Owners of a space will often intervene if there is antisocial
behaviour. Design can influence the likelihood of such action being taken or
not;
• Activity support: public spaces can be activated through the use of music or
performances which draw people into a space. The presence of people will
often make an area feel safer;
• Image/maintenance: maintaining an area helps to send cues about capable
guardianship. An area that appears not to be maintained or cared for might
invite illicit activity. Conversely an area that suggests high levels of capable

19
 guardianship will be less likely to attract illicit activity; and
• Target hardening: hardening targets makes them less attractive to would-be
offenders. This might include installing security devices to make items less
likely to be stolen.

Use the Secured by Design interactive guide to demonstrate different features of

CPTED. This is aimed at providing an insight into CPTED rather than encouraging
any particular expertise or competence.

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 Law Enforcement / Criminal Justice Crime Prevention

“deals with offending after it has happened, and involves intervention in the lives of known
offenders in such a fashion that they will not commit further offences. In so far as it is
preventative, it operates through incapacitation and individual deterrence, and perhaps
offers the opportunity of treatment in prisons or through other sentencing options (Cameron,
M. and Laycock, G. (2002) ‘Crime prevention in Australia’, in Graycar, A. and Grabosky, P. (eds.) The Cambridge handbook of
Australian criminology, Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, Australia: 314).

The final form of crime prevention, according to the Tonry and Farrington
typology, is law enforcement or criminal justice prevention.

Discuss the definition provided here. Note that this aspect of crime prevention
will not be covered in detail. Other Modules deal with these elements in more
detail including:
• Module 3: Access to Legal Aid
• Module 5: Police Accountability, Integrity and Oversight
• Module 6: Prison Reform
• Module 7: Alternatives to Imprisonment
• Module 8: Restorative Justice
• Module 14: Independence of the Judiciary and Role of Prosecutors

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 Policing for Prevention
Community-based Policing Problem-oriented Policing Pulling Levers or Focused Deterrence Policing

This approach recognises that police are of This approach, developed by Professor This approach, developed by Professor David
the people and for the people. Without Herman Goldstein, seeks to ensure a more Kennedy and his colleagues, seeks to prevent crime
community support police are not very responsive policing. Rather than just through detailed analysis of pressing crime
effective because a considerable amount responding to calls for service, Goldstein problems, communicating with high risk offenders,
of crime is cleared as a result of reports suggested that problems should be defined providing swift policing resources if these high risk
from community members. Community- with much greater specificity; that effort offenders continue to offend while also extending
based policing favours tactics which needed to be invested in researching the opportunities to exit crime through engaging with
connect the police to local communities. problem; that alternative solutions should be relevant support services and mobilising local
This might be through police involvement considered (including physical technical community voices to condemn ongoing criminal
in community events; the creation of changes, changes in the provision of (especially violent) activity. This approach relies and
police-community committees to establish government services, developing new coordination of various services, including police,
local policing priorities; the creation of community resources, increased use of city probation and parole, prosecutors, welfare services,
community-based roles to help the police ordinances, and improved use of zoning); youth workers, local community members impacted
connect with hard-to-reach groups such as and that implementation should be carefully by crime, and other agencies. Its effectiveness rests
those from minority communities. managed (Goldstein 1979, pp. 244–58). This on the swift delivery of a policing and criminal
approach utilizes the SARA model. justice response if offending persists and the
opportunities to exit offending.

Consider these different approaches to policing. Police are key players in crime
prevention but they can adopt different approaches to their work. The above lists
three approaches that relate to crime prevention.

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 Crime Problem-Solving Approaches

https://youtu.be/87Ne-Qic5r4

Various crime problem-solving approaches exist – two are covered here.

This video provides a basic introduction of two commonly used crime problem-
solving approaches. Play the video (5 mins 9 seconds) and discuss the different
approaches.

Questions that might be asked (answers provided in bold):

• What are the two crime problem-solving approaches introduced in the video?
(SARA Model, Ekblom’s 5Is)
• What are the five key elements of Ekblom’s 5Is? (Intelligence, Intervention,
Implementation, Involvement, Impact)
• What are some of the problems with crime data – a key feature of
Intelligence? (Accessing appropriate data, reporting of crime, getting data
from small local areas)
• What are some of the challenges to effective implementation? (Programs
drift from original intention, clash of agencies with different
perspectives, technological failures, staff changes, electoral changes
resulting in different policies).

22
 23

SARA Model

Source: http://www.popcenter.org/learning/60steps/index.cfm?page=Welcome

The SARA model, mentioned in the video, is frequently used by policing agencies.
While the methodologies will differ, crime problem-solving approaches aim to
encourage some form of analysis, planning and evaluation. It is important to stress
that moving through such steps helps to build more robust responses to particular
crime problems.

23
 24

Ekblom’s 5Is

http://www.designagainstcrime.com/files/crimeframeworks/04_5i_framework.pdf

Ekblom’s 5Is is another commonly used crime problem-solving approach.

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 Crime Problem-solving Exercise

• Crime problem: There has been a significant increase in the number of burglaries in the
local neighbourhood in the last six months. This is causing concern in the community
and residents want action.

• Prompts:
► What data will be needed to analyse the problem in fine detail?
► How would you decide what should be done to respond?
► What steps might need to be considered in developing a response to this problem?
► What agencies and individuals might usefully be involved?
► How would you determine the impact, remembering to consider both process and impact evaluation
issues?

Some possible prompts/answers:

Ekblom’s 5Is
• Intelligence – it will be important to get data from the police. Ideally, the
more specific the better. Information about the number of incidents, the
location, the day/time of offending, the modus operandi (where known), the
nature of the items stolen, any information from arrested offenders, and any
information about where items are being sold or traded. Police will be key
sources of data but other agencies might also be helpful.
• Intervention – based on the intelligence gathered, decisions will need to be
made about best approaches. Rather than have the students generate
definitive approaches, it will be appropriate to ask them the steps they might
move through in deciding what might be done. Ideally, this will involve
consulting relevant evidence, consulting relevant stakeholders, and
developing a range of interventions.
• Implementation – prompt students to think of the potential steps in
developing a plan to respond to this crime problem. Again, only indicative
steps might be outlined.
• Involvement – prompt students to consider which agencies/individuals might
participate in developing and implementing a plan. Local and regional
variation will determine who might be involved. Nonetheless, police, local
government, resident action groups, locksmiths and security personnel, and
second hand dealers might be some of those likely to be involved.

25
• Impact – prompt students to discuss how they might evaluate the impact of
the response. Consider process and impact evaluation issues such as measuring
what was actually done to respond to the problem and whether there is any
change in burglary pre and post implementation, while also considering any
displacement to other areas.

25
 Campbell Collaboration
• The Campbell Collaboration was established in 2000 to address the gaps in knowledge
base by drawing together the evaluations that have been conducted into particular
crime prevention activities. This is achieved by systematic reviews.
• Systematic reviews summarise and evaluate the best available research on specific
programmes and interventions (Campbell Collaboration, 2018). The results from
multiple high-quality studies are synthesised to produce the best possible evidence.
Great importance is placed upon the integrity of the process in which systematic
reviews are produced from.
• The Crime and Justice coordinating group has published 43 systematic reviews in the
Campbell Collaboration library as of August 2018. Plain language summaries (PLS)
accompany 18 of the 43 reviews. And 37 of the 43 reviews are related to crime
prevention interventions.
• http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/

A key aspect of any crime problem-solving approach is evaluation. If we do not

evaluate then we do not know if our interventions worked.

Evaluation is generally a complex activity. These complexities will not be

considered here. Rather, two different clearinghouses will be introduced. These
clearinghouses draw on evaluations of different types of crime prevention and
provide summaries about their effectiveness. The Campbell Collaboration is one of
these clearinghouses.

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 Exercise: Analyse a Campbell Collaboration Review
Police-initiated diversion for youth to prevent future delinquent behaviour
Authors: David B. Wilson, Iain Brennan, Ajima Olaghere
Published Date: 1 June 2018
URL: https://campbellcollaboration.org/library/police-initiated-diversion-to-prevent-
future-delinquent-behaviour.html
Plain Language Summary: Available
Conclusions: The authors support the use of police-led diversion as an appropriate
response to address youth crime, especially in response to first time young offenders.

Read the Plain Language Summary and discuss how this might be used by policymakers.

Invite students to read the Plain Language Summary of the Police-led diversion of
low-risk youth … (file:///C:/Users/gclancey/Downloads/0287_CJCG_Wilson_-
_Police-initiated_diversion.pdf) (either on screen or as a hand out) and ask them,
in small groups, to discuss how this evidence might be used by policymakers. More
advanced students might be asked to interrogate the review document
(https://campbellcollaboration.org/library/police-initiated-diversion-to-prevent-
future-delinquent-behaviour.html) and to discuss the limitations of the review.

Possible discussion points:

• While criminal justice policymaking is a highly contested area with competing
views being common, a review of this kind can help to inject an independent
source of information into relevant debates. Evidence of the kind generated
by the Campbell Collaboration helps to inject relevant policy debates with
robust research findings which should provide greater confidence in adopting
an approach covered by one of the Campbell Collaboration reviews.
• Possible limitations of this review include the following: All of the studies
were originally conducted in developed Western countries; 11 studies were
conducted in the United States, 4 in Australia, 2 in Canada and 2 in the
United Kingdom. Follow up periods ranged from 4 months to 30 months.
Sample sizes ranged greatly between studies. Many of the studies had sample
sizes between 100-200 participants in each of the treatment and control
groups. The largest study had 1232 participants in the treatment group and
595 participants in the control group. But a few of the included studies had

27
very small sample sizes, one of them had 8 participants in the treatment group
and 11 in the control group. The way in which outcomes were measured also
varied between studies, some used self-reported delinquency, others used
contact with certain criminal justice institutions. Most of the studies were also
conducted in the 1970s-80s and whether those findings continue to be an
accurate reflection of current times is an issue to be considered. Similarly,
questions of comparability, generalisability, transferability and relevance of
the included studies with other jurisdictions arise.

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 EMMIE
Effect Impact on crime Whether the evidence suggests the intervention led to an
increase, decrease or had no impact on crime.
Mechanism How it works What is it about the intervention that could explain its effects?

Moderators Where it works In what circumstances and contexts is the intervention likely to
work/not work?
Implementation How to do it What conditions should be considered when implementing an
intervention locally?
Economic Cost How much it costs What direct or indirect costs are associated with the
intervention and is there evidence of cost benefits?
Source: http://whatworks.college.police.uk/toolkit/About-the-Crime-Reduction-Toolkit/Pages/About.aspx

Academics at the University College London have developed the rating and ranking
system known as EMMIE. EMMIE seeks to go beyond what a Campbell Collaboration
achieves. By providing some insight into the way an intervention works, the
moderating variables, and how much it costs, EMMIE is more helpful in shaping
decisions of policymakers than just merely outlining whether it works or not.

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 Summary - http://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/14164
• What are the four models of crime prevention?
►
►
►
►
• How might criminal justice agencies prevent crime and why might these approaches have limited crime prevention benefits?

• What are the three elements of the crime triangle?

►
►
►

• What changes in our ‘routine activities’ increased opportunities for crime in the latter part of last century?

• What is informal social control and what are some examples?

• What are the challenges of implementing social crime prevention?

• What are some early intervention programs?

This concludes this Module. This final exercise gets students to reflect on the key
elements of the Module. A video can be downloaded and played before posing
these questions to the students. The questions can be asked even if the video
cannot be shown.

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 Summary
• What are the four models of crime prevention?
► Developmental
► Social (or community)
► Situational
► Criminal justice / law enforcement
• How might criminal justice agencies prevent crime and why might these approaches have limited crime prevention
benefits?
Incapacitation, deterrence, rehabilitation. Always after an offence (or offences) has been committed.
• What are the three elements of the crime triangle?
► Motivated offender
► Victim or target
► Absence of capable guardianship
• What changes in our ‘routine activities’ increased opportunities for crime in the latter part of last century?
Suburbanisation, dual income families, increased wealth, weight of consumer items,,, …
• What is informal social control and what are some examples?
Action taken by residents in response to antisocial behaviour. Graffiti removal and stopping antisocial behaviour.
• What are the challenges of implementing social crime prevention?
Free-rider effect; imposed; some people/communities will be left out.
• What are some early intervention programs?
Nurse visitation and child enrichment programs.

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 More information

@DohaDeclaration [email protected]

unodc.org/dohadeclaration unodc.org/e4J

Thank the students for their participation and encourage them to familiarise
themselves with local/regional/national crime prevention policies and
approaches.

31