Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

Offshore Wind, Wave and Integrated Energy

Conversion Systems: A Review and Future
Qiang Gao1, Nesimi Ertugrul1, Boyin Ding2, Michael Negnevitsky3
1School
of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
2School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
3School of Engineering, The University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—The offshore wind and wave are two promising However, the main barriers of developing offshore wind
renewable resources to address the concerns about the repaid growing and wave energy systems are primarily their high
energy demand across the world and the reduction of dependency on
fossil fuels. Although these two resources have experienced significant construction and operation/maintenance (O&M) costs. There
development in the past decades, few research studies have been have been few attempts to reduce these costs by integration
identified discussing the electrical systems as a part of various power of floating offshore wind turbines and wave energy converter
transfer topologies. There is a lack of study which effectively considers systems [2-4]. Different possibilities have been considered to
potential configurations of highly intermittent wind and wave energy
source and their impacts on the entire system operation, system combine wave and wind array configurations: co-located
efficiency, reliability and grid connection. This paper aims to fulfil this wave and offshore wind converters, hybrid energy converters
gap and to provide a comprehensive review on the electrical systems that and combination of both. Increased energy yield and
can be utilised in both wind and wave energy conversion systems. The reduction on the O&M costs (in particular in the electrical
types of generators and control systems with power electronics used in
the offshore wind turbines are presented and compared. The operation system) are the primary driving forces in a number of
principles within the wave energy converters are discussed and combined studies in the literature on wave and offshore wind
classified. The selection of generators in the wave power take-off systems energy arrays [5].
are discussed. A comprehensive guideline for the development of future
integrated systems is provided in this paper primarily to reduce the cost Since wave energy is more predictable than wind energy
of offshore systems, increase energy yield and improve reliability, [6], and due to the lagging nature of the wave energy, the
predictability and dispatchability.
inclusion of battery storage system is likely to reduce
Keywords— wind energy, wave energy, wave energy power combined power capacity (resulting in a smooth and
take-off systems, integrated wind and wave systems. continuous power output and smaller converter) and
intermittency related balancing cost in the power grid.
I. INTRODUCTION Moreover, hybrid systems offer shared common grid
infrastructure, shared substructure foundation system and
Wind turbine systems already offer low-cost energy as other shared operational costs. Furthermore, reduced
highly matured technologies which consist of turbine blades, environmental impacts and the shadow effects (reducing the
generators and converters. Among the various renewable mean wave height) are the other benefits.
energy technologies, on-shore wind resources have already
been utilised effectively, approaching various limits in terms Therefore, this paper aims to understand the state of art in
of availability of suitable lands, maximum power ratings and offshore wind and wave energy technologies. The existing
capacity factors. The offshore wind systems, although still in conversion systems for wind and wave energy are discussed
early-stage development, present significant potential to in detail in the consecutive sections. The paper concludes
expend the wind resources to much greater penetration levels. with a potential integrated solution to improve the desirable
As illustrated in Table I, the major advantages of the offshore characteristics from two highly intermittent renewable
wind turbines are the potential to build larger turbine systems energy resources which can also offer low capital cost and
at locations with higher wind energy density in form of reliable energy.
smaller footprint wind farms.
II. OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS
As the interests in offshore wind farms grow, another
form of ocean/marine based renewable energy, wave energy Although offshore wind farms are at their early-stage
has also received significant attentions. The wave energy development, they present greater potential for higher energy
converter is defined as a system converting the wave energy output due to vast and consistent offshore wind resources.
into more useful forms of energy such as electricity. The They also address issues on limited land space for
efficiency of wave conversion system is highly depended on constructing wind farms on shore and have higher capacity
the suitability of various power take-off (PTO) systems in factors. The principal components of offshore wind energy
specific wave site. Moreover, majority of energy contained in conversion systems are briefly discussed in the following
a wave is located between the water surface and the top of sections to provide the basis of the hybrid system.
one fourth of the wavelength. The marine area with water
A. Hardware Structures
depth more than 40m at medium-high latitudes is identified
as the best wave condition for harnessing wave energy, There are many similarities between onshore and offshore
approaching the power densities up to 70 kW/m [1]. Note that wind turbine components, such as nacelle, rotor hub, pitch
there are more than 16,000 km of coastline globally (about drive, blades, main shaft, mechanical brake, yaw drive,
2% of the world coastline) with a power density exceeding gearbox and generator. However, the tower foundation has
30kW/m. This indicates a wave energy potential of 2000- distinct features in offshore applications. Three main floating
4000TWh/year which is approximately equal to the total structures suitable in the deep-water area are illustrated in
wind energy potential globally. Fig.1: spar type, tensioned-leg platform and semi-
submersible.

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 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020
TABLE I COMPARISON OF ONSHORE AND OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY (HTSG) in the near feature offering lighter, smaller and more
efficient power conversion characteristic [7-9].
Types Advantages Disadvantages

• Larger wind turbines per

• High cost of C. Converters Used in Wind Energy
construction including
unit installed;
marine foundations,
Power electronics converters are an integral part of the
• Elimination of visual wind energy conversion which do not only perform
undersea cables and
impact and noise; voltage/current regulations but also offer accurate power flow
Offshore substations;
• Greater and more stable
marine wind source;
• Restricted access due to control as well as protection [10] when required. The
weather conditions; integrated wind generator and turbine control system has the
• Easy to transport large
• Limited access for ability to perform voltage control, reactive power support
systems components by sea.
O&M.
• Road restriction for
functions and maximum power tracking during the changes
Onshore
• Mature technology;
transporting large wind in wind and loading conditions. The utilisation of power
• Lower installation and electronics converters with high switching frequencies are
turbines.
O&M cost. desirable to increase power density (gravitational and
• Territory constrains.
volumetric) of the converters that are working in harsh
environmental conditions. Therefore, wide bandgap devices
Spar Tension-Leg Semi- are likely to replace the silicon based power switches in the
Type Platform submersible future converters [11], which will not only offer high
reliability (due to higher operating temperature and higher
dv/dt and di/dt) but higher efficiency.
The converter ratings in large scale wind generators
primarily depend on the type of generators used. Three well-
known and adapted converters are illustrated in Fig.3.
Transformer

DFIG

Rotor side Grid side

Fig. 1 Three main floating substructures. converter converter

B. Types of Generators Used in Wind Energy

Fig.2 illustrates the major generator types and suitable
drive techniques used in wind energy applications, which can
(a)
be divided into two groups: induction generators and
synchronous generators. Three phase
diode bridge
Boost
converter
Grid side
converter
Transformer
Types of Generator
PMSG

Synchronous Induction
generator generator
Rotor side Grid side
converter converter
Transformer

PMSG WRSG WRIG SCIG PMSG

Full-scale power
electronic

Variable speed Partially rated WRIG DFIG

With Slip Fixed-speed
generator power electronic generator (b)
Direct-Drive Geared
Fig. 3 Types of converter used wind generators: a) Partially-rated power
electronic converter arrangement in DFIGs, b) Fully-rated converters used in
Fig. 2 Types of generators used in wind turbines: Permanent Magnet brushless PMSGs.
Synchronous Generator (PMSG), Wounded Rotor Synchronous Generator
(WRSG), Wounded Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG), Double Fed In DFIGs, two back-to-back converters are used to
Induction Generator (DFIG) and Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG). connect the rotor circuit to the grid via slip rings as it is shown
DFIGs, WRSGs and PMSGs are commonly used in large in Fig.3a. The generator provides about ±30% of rotor speed
scale wind turbines. However, due to harsh marine variation to capture the varying turbine speed. This scheme
environments, access restrictions and maintenance offers capability of real and reactive power control,
difficulties, direct drive (no-gearbox) PMSGs are currently eliminating the need for reactive power compensation. The
the prime generator types preferred in offshore as well as in rotor side converter is typically to control the active and
onshore wind turbines. In addition, due to the absence of rotor reactive power output of the induction machine, while the
windings, PMSGs offer much greater efficiency. Although grid side converter is employed to maintain the DC link
the requirement of fully rated power electronics converters voltage constant and provide limited reactive power support
may be seen as a major disadvantage compared to the to the grid. Furthermore, a power electronics circuit known
converters of DFIGs, their variable speed and four quadrant as Crowbar [12] for rotor circuit of DFIG is developed to
operation are highly desirable features. Furthermore, it is protect the rotor side converter, since when there severe
envisaged that large power PMSGs are likely to voltage sage occurs on the grid side leads to large current in
accommodate high temperature superconducting generators the stator and then transfer it to the rotor and consequently,

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 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

damage the rotor side converter. Note that a transformer is mechanism that how the movement energy involved in the
usually accommodated to match the voltage rating of the grid incident wave field can be obtained by a wave converter by
at common connection point. interacting together (hydrodynamics).
Power electronics converters used in PMSGs system are Based on the working principle of wave observation [15],
designed to handle the full voltage and current ratings of the there are three primary types of wave energy converters:
generator and control the full power and in four quadrants to Oscillating Water Column (OWC), Oscillating Bodies (OB)
be fed to the grid [13]. As it is illustrated in Fig.3b, a back- and Overtopping (OT) as shown in Fig. 5.
to-back voltage source converter provides the speed
flexibility in wind turbines for optimal operation of capturing Wave Energy Converter
the wind energy while controlling the active and reactive
power for the grid via grid side converter. The benefits of
brushless PMSGs were listed in the previous section. Noting
that the utilisation of fully-rated converters presents few Oscillating Water Oscillating Overtopping
drawbacks: high-cost converters, higher voltage stress on the Column(OWC) Bodies (OB) (OT)

switches and higher converter loses. However, these

drawbacks are about to be eliminated with the technological
Floating- Fixed- Heaving Multi-mode
developments in switch technologies (using wide bandgap structure structure devices
OWSC Attenuator
devices
devices) and converter topologies (such as using resonant
converters). Fig. 5 Three main operating principles of wave converters

Note that converters in offshore wind turbines (which can The OWC converter utilizes the change of wave-induced
accommodate in a dedicated substation) are connected to the water level inside a chamber to compress or decompress the
main grid using underwater cables (AC or DC). trapped air which drives the air turbine by the different air
III. WAVE CONVERSION SYSTEMS forces between inside and outside of chamber. A rotatory
generator is usually used for power generation which is
The common components of the wave energy conversion driven by the air turbine.
systems are illustrated in Fig. 4. The power take-off system
(PTO) can involve hydraulic, pneumatic and The OB wave energy converter is preferred in offshore
mechanical/electrical power transmitter and controller. The applications. It utilises the energy contained in oscillating
type of generator attached to a PTO primarily depends on the bodies, either floating or fully submerged. Therefore, it can
wave characteristics, the operation principles and exploit more powerful wave in the deep-water regime with
specifications. The remaining components (power electronics typical depth of 40m. Based on the oscillating modes, it can
and transmission cables) depend on the proximity of the be identified under four different categories: heaving devices,
nearest substation. oscillating wave surge converters, attenuator and multi-mode
converters.
Incident wave
PTO systems
Hydraulic system
Grid The OT converter converts wave energy by capturing the
Power
Transmission/
water closed to the wave crest and introduce it to over-spill
Pneumatic system Electronic
Cables/HVDC into a reservoir. Due to the different average free-surface
Converter
level between the surrounding sea and the reservoir, the water
Electrical euqipment
is returned to the ocean by flowing through a number of
turbines. The conventional low-head hydraulic turbines are
commonly used.
Controller

B. PTO Systems used in Wave Energy Converters

The PTO system can be used to convert the wave energy
Fig. 4 The components of a wave energy conversion system.
into electrical energy, which can have different types as
Unlike the wind energy conversion system discussed in illustrated in Fig. 6: hydraulic system, pneumatic system,
the previous section, the technology used in wave energy hydro and direct-drive electrical linear generator. It was
conversion systems have a wide range of options, which is reported in [16] that 42% of recent wave energy converters
subject to the operating principles of PTO systems used, and use a hydraulic PTO, 30% of wave energy converters use a
the location of the system (shoreline, nearshore and offshore). direct drive PTO (such as a linear generator), 11% of that use
More than one hundred wave energy conversion system hydro turbines and 11% for pneumatic system with 5.6%
designs are reported in [14]) which displayed various stages unspecified.
of the developments from prototypes to commercialization Hydraulic system Mechanical power
(as in Japan, UK and China). Piston Accumulator
Hydraulic
motor
Fluid Power
Electrical Power

A. Operating Principles of Wave Energy Converters Pneumatic

The waves essentially contain three motions: a horizontal

Air chamber Air turbine Rotatory
Wave generator Power
front/back motion (the surge), a horizontal side to side motion interaction
with WECs
Hydro
electronics
Grid

(the sway) and a vertical up/down motion (the heave). It was Accumulator Hydro turbine

identified that all of the wave energy available in a wave is Direct Drive
Directive
located between the water surface and the top ¼ of the mechanical drive

wavelength, which can be extracted by various technologies Linear

electric

(such as roll, pitch or yaw rotation). Therefore, operating

generator

principle of a wave energy converter defines the method or Fig. 6 Different PTO systems utilized in wave energy converters.

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 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

The Hydraulic PTO is a system designed to transmit the administrative and technological limitations. As it was
high-pressure hydraulic oils between pistons, motors and mentioned previously the capital cost of a typical offshore
accumulators for driving an electrical generator. It is suitable wind power system is 2 to 3 times higher than the onshore
to convert energy from a very large force or moments systems (3300-5000 US$/kW in offshore versus 1700-2450
associated in slowly oscillating bodies in wave converters. US$/kW in onshore systems) [20]. Although the cost share of
The system includes a hydraulic cylinder or rams which can the wind turbine has decreased, the cost share of grid
convert the mechanical energy from motion of oscillating connection, construction and other capital cost has increased
body into the hydraulic energy. Then the hydraulic circuit significantly.
transmits the hydraulic energy to other system components, Table II COMPARISON OF LINEAR GENERATORS
such as a gas accumulator which has the capacity to storage
the energy over a few wave periods for smoothing the output Types Advantages Disadvantages
energy absorbed from irregular waves, and a fast hydraulic Longitudinal • Simple/robust stator.
• Limitation on geometry
motor to drive a conventional electrical generator design.
Flux PM • Low synchronous
• Low power rating per air
Generator reactance.
The Pneumatic PTO utilizes the movement of trapped air gap area.
caused by wave action to drive a conventional air turbine. The • No limitation on • High synchronous
time-average of an air turbine used in OWC device is lower geometry design reactance.
Transverse between cross-section • Complex stator
than conventional hydro turbine, gas turbines and wind Flux PM of yoke and armature • High armature current
turbines, resulting from the reciprocated flow through the Generator conductor. produced.
turbine which is random and high variable time scales • High power per air • Phase compensation or PE
ranging from seconds to the seasonal variations. There are gap area. equipment are required;
three air turbines utilized in OWC systems: Well, Denniss- Variable
• Short pole pitch with • High synchronous
reluctance
Auld and Impulse turbines. large magnets fluxes. reactance.
PM Gen.
The Hydro PTO systems are widely used in overtopping Tubular air
• No normal forces in
waver converters, which are classified as impulse and cored PM
air gap.
• Low power/air gap area.
reaction turbines. generator

The direct-drive PTO directly connects the prime mover A. Synergies and Challenges
via mechanical linkages (belts, pulleys, gearboxes and clutch A number of synergies makes the offshore wind and wave
mechanisms). A 1/100 scale and a 1/10 scale prototype have integrated system highly desirable. These include enhanced
been tested [17]. Its simplicity and robust structure makes its energy yield, better predictability, smoothed power output,
maintenance much easier and cheaper, but it has low shared common facilities (including platforms and
efficiency in maximum power output since the energy can be substations) and operation/maintenance, shadow effects and
extracted for half of a wave period [18]. environmental benefits. Note that power output per unit area
C. Generators Used in Wave Energy Converters increases, and the dynamic motions also improve and
consequently increasing the power output [21]. The
Two generator types are used in wave energy converters:
integrated system also minimizes the power interruptions and
rotatory and linear generators. As in the wind generators, the
fluctuations [22] due to lagging nature of the wave energy
PMSGs are also preferred in wave energy due to their high
reference to the wind [23]. The shadow effects [6] created by
power density and high efficiency at low speed.
converter arrays can be used to obtain a milder wave climate
Due to the absence the mechanical interface (which inside the park via suitable design. Furthermore, the
reduces the conversion efficiency and increases complexity) integration results in reduction in environmental impacts [24,
linear generators (see Table II, adapted from [19]) with 25] including noise, visual impact and maritime transport.
direct-drive is preferred in PTO systems that offer linear or However, full-scale integration of wind and wave energy is
reciprocal motion. The linear generators in such systems are still in its infant state.
directly coupled to a vertical cylinder (which is commonly
B. Classification of Integrated Systems
used a heaving oscillating device). However, their simplicity
in few intermediated conversion steps can make the The integrated systems can be classified based on the
regulation challenging. Moreover, more strict support technology used (stand-alone, hybrid or co-located), or on the
structures are required in linear generators to overcome the water depth (shallow, transition or deep water) or their
attraction force and maintain a suitable air gap width. distance from the shoreline (shoreline, nearshore or offshore).
An alternative classification is also reported in [2] that is
D. Power Converters Used in Wave Energy Converters based on the degree of connectivity between three types of
converters (co-located system, hybrid system and island
Due to the synergy between the wind turbine and wave system). However, the primary criteria about the selection of
turbine generators, similar power electronic converters are a system integration in a specific site are feasibility, ease of
used in both systems. Although the final PTO system and construction and the cost of electricity produced [21].
wave energy pattern defines the generator ratings, the power
electronics converter may require specific attention to 1) Co-located System
withstand potential large transients. Availability of battery It is relatively the simplest option as independent
storage system and the integration of wind energy also define foundations are used for wind and wave energy but sharing
the converter type and ratings. the same site, energy storage facilities, operation and
maintenance equipment and grid connection. Note that there
IV. INTEGRATED CONVERSION SYSTEMS
are two groups within the co-located systems, covering
Since the offshore wind and the wave energy systems independent arrays and combined arrays as illustrated in Fig.
share the same environment and platforms, they face various 7.

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 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

combined ratings can be reasonably low due to the lagging

nature of wave energy, the PTO system used and on-site
battery storage.

Floats

Offshore Offshore
substation substation PTO
system

(a) (b)
Fig. 7 Schematic of co-located combined systems with the peripherally (a) (b)
distributed arrays (a) and the non-uniformly distributed arrays (b).

It is also possible to classify the integration of wind

turbines and wave energy conversion based on the initially
development technology and technology readiness level [26].
Compared to the co-located systems, the hybrid system
presents a further step of cost reduction in construction and
operation/maintenance because of sharing more common
(c) (d)
infrastructure. Fig. 9 Hybrid System, wave system with added wind energy: a) W2Power
[32], b) Wave star hybrid [33], c) W2P [34] and d) Poseidon Floating Power
2) Hybrid System [35].
If a smaller level of wave energy system (less than 20%
of the power output) is combined with the existing wind Fig.10 illustrates a feasible solution of hybrid conversion
energy systems [26], there are few design options as system with a wind turbine and a wave energy system with
illustrated in Fig.8. DC link energy storage. Note that such topology can reduce
intermittency, transmission cost (and associated losses) and
size of the offshore substation. In addition, the complexity of
control is reduced and redundancy is offered in an energy
farm application. Note also that as the cost of power
electronic systems reduce and new switching devices become
Hydraulic
system and
Hydraulic
cylinder PTO
available (wide bandgap devices), high voltage dc
generator
transmission becomes highly feasible even at short distances.
MSC
Piston
Platform Floating PMSG AC
Torus buoy PTO /Linear-
PMG DC
Gravitation
Power or voltage

PWM

(a) (b) (c) Control

Dc-link Capacitor GSC
Vector
control DC
Wind Energy
turbine storage
AC
Vdc
MSC Qref

Power, voltage and

AC
PMSG
DC

current
Power or voltage

PWM

WEC-
Flap ωref Pref
PWM

Vector
Pitch angle

control
control

Maximum
Pitch angle Grid/generator
power
controller side controller
controller
(d) (e) (f)
Vwind
MPPT Algorithm

Fig. 8 Hybrid System, wind turbine concept with added wave energy: a) Fig. 10 A possible integration principle of wind and wave energy, DC
Spar-Torus combination [27], b) Wave treader [28], c) Wave energy coupled with a battery storage and transmitted with a DC-DC link
gravitational absorber [29], d) Wind wave float [14], e) Tension Leg
Platform with 3-point absorber [30], f) Semi-submersible flap [31].

Alternatively, a smaller level of wind energy can be added V. CONCLUSION

to the existing wave energy systems, which can be classified This paper has highlighted the growing need in offshore
under four different categories as shown in Fig. 9. wind and wave energy. The distinct features and the
similarities of the energy conversion systems of both
C. Future Integrated Systems
technologies are provided to demonstrate their potential
Due to the increasing trend to utilise offshore wind and towards the integration. Since the wind energy systems are
wave energy there are significant benefits for integrated highly mature, a specific attention is given to the wave energy
solutions. It is likely that the future systems may systems which can be utilised to develop the most suitable
accommodate different permanent magnet generator power take-off technology to increase power transfer while
technologies due to their inherent benefits (high power reducing the complexity of the system and to reduce the
density and high efficiency). Although full-rated power development and operation cost.
converters can be used in such integrated systems, their

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 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

The existing hybrid systems are discussed in detail, and it [14] A. Weinstein, D. Roddier, and K. Banister, "WindWaveFloat (WWF):
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This work is supported by Ocean Renewable Energy [20] I. Irena, "Renewable energy technologies: Cost analysis series,"
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