Journal of Building Engineering 63 (2023) 105340

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Effect of stone wool waste from greenhouse agriculture in

brick production
Serdar Korpayev a, *, Meretdurdy Bayramov a, Serdar Durdyev b,
Hemra Hamrayev c, d, Dunyagozel Baymyradova d, Agamergen Nurmuhammedov a
a
Economic Society “Dowletli-Dowran”, Halach District, Lebap Velayat, Khalach, 746632, Turkmenistan
b
Department of Engineering and Architectural Studies, Ara Institute of Canterbury, 130 Madras Street, Christchurch, 8011, New Zealand
c
Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, Kuala Lumpur, 54100, Malaysia
d
International University of Oil and Gas Named after Yagshygeldi Kakayev, Department of Informatics and Information Technology, Turkmenistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The greenhouse agriculture sector, which strongly affects human health and the ecological bal­
Stone wool waste ance, is among the greatest generators of stone wool waste (SWW), which has adverse environ­
Greenhouse agriculture mental effects. The use of SWW from greenhouse agriculture in brick production is of particular
Clay replacement importance to protect natural clay sources and reduce waste materials. Therefore, this experi­
Brick production mental study examined the effects of the use of this SWW in brickmaking on the features of fired
Thermal insulation
clay bricks. In order to determine the maximum mixing ratios, brick samples were prepared from
mixtures of clay/SWW in the proportions of 95/5, 90/10, 87.5/12.5 and 82.5/17.5 wt%. Then,
the effects on the physical, thermal and mechanical features of the bricks were examined by firing
at temperatures of 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C. The physical and mechanical features of fired clay
bricks made with various percentages of SWWs are described and addressed. The qualities of the
prepared building bricks met the ASTM C62 requirements for building materials— the
compressive and bending strength performance values were 27 MPa and 13.79 MPa, respectively.
The results show that depending on the percentage of SWW introduced into the raw clay mate­
rials, the bulk density of fired bricks may be lowered by up to 13%. The pore-forming function of
SWW had a promising impact on thermal insulation of up to 20.75% decrease following the
addition of 10% at 1050 ◦ C. Freeze/thaw durability showed better performance in bricks con­
taining up to 10% SWW at 1050 ◦ C, and this value was found to be less than 3%. According to the
findings, using SWW in brick manufacturing can help recycle abundant greenhouse agriculture
wastes while also developing fired clay bricks with desired properties.

1. Introduction
Clay products, such as fired clay bricks, are widely used as building materials worldwide. Dried clay-based brick products have
been utilised since 8000 BC, and fired clay-based bricks were used as early as 4500 BC [1]. However, clay reserves have been
decreasing constantly because of the increasing use of clay in brickmaking [2]. Clays are used not only in the construction industry, but
also in other industries, such as pharmaceuticals, membranes, filters, bioceramics and thermal insulators [3,4]. For this reason, it is
necessary to reduce the use of clay and replace it with alternative materials to the maximum extent possible. In this case, waste

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Korpayev).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105340
Received 12 August 2022; Received in revised form 25 September 2022; Accepted 27 September 2022
Available online 13 October 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Korpayev et al. Journal of Building Engineering 63 (2023) 105340

materials can help to diversify products, lower final prices, reduce the use of clay and produce alternative raw materials for a variety of
industries [5,6]. Glass waste [7], brick waste [2], waste sawdust, cigarette butts [8], waste pomace [9], marble powder [10], biomass
incineration [11], recovered paper processing wastes [12], bio-briquette ash [13] and sugarcane bagasse ash [14], granulated blast
furnace slag (GBS), ferrochromium slag (FCS), and steel slag (STS) as industrial slags [15], sludges of rice husk, glass, and marble [16]
are just a few examples of additives or substitutes. In addition, finding a practical, realistic solution to industrial waste is among the
greatest current concerns of humanity [17].
The main parameters that control the properties of clay bricks are usually raw materials, manufacturing processes, and firing
temperature [18]. Secondary materials are used for a variety of purposes, ranging from incorporation (such as inert filler) to achieving
specific goals such as light weighting, and insulation ability, and providing new properties such as electromagnetic shielding and
reinforcing [19]. Hence, in terms of brick performance, the incorporation of solid wastes in fired clay bricks is of great interest. Fired
bricks should have acceptable engineering properties that meet American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM C67) guidelines
[20]. It has been demonstrated that the addition of fibrous insulating materials to clay bricks or building ceramics, such as plastic fibre
[21], rock wool [22] and glass wools [23], influenced the technological properties of the bricks. In this line, a recent study found that
when combined with spodumene ore tailings, glass wool can potentially act as a fluxing agent in the production of building ceramics
[22]. In general, wool-based wastes studies aim to improve thermal performance or insulation while maintaining useable load carrying
capacity.
SWW has become an inevitable by-product of greenhouse agriculture. Crops are grown on stone wool in greenhouses, and this stone
wool is replaced annually. More than 1000 pieces of stone wool are used on a hectare of land in greenhouse cultivation. The amount of
this by-product is increasing constantly. Greenhouses comprise an important, growing sector of agriculture for they are used to feed the
rising world population while reducing environmental impact of agriculture and conserving natural resources for future generations.
Vegetables, trees, flowers, shrubs, ornamentals and cannabis are grown in commercial greenhouses. In the future, a new economic
activity of a region could be agriculture in high-tech greenhouses. Greenhouses are not only more environmentally friendly but also
offer more economical facilities and can support the lives of those in the overloaded agricultural sector. For instance, agriculture does
not have an excess of workers and land.
In this regard, given the large size and the continued growth of the greenhouse agriculture in Turkmenistan, pollution from stone
wool is a major concern. Turkmenistan has several greenhouse facilities that regularly produce SWW. This stone wool in the form of
wool is thrown into open areas and has harmful natural consequences. Further, the powdered form of stone wool can endanger and
damage other plants for it reduces soil fertility. Thus, SWW disposal could involve serious effects on human health. Similarly, high clay-
based brick production in Turkmenistan also causes soil degradation and clay depletion. Hence, the utilisation of SWW as a substitute
material in brick production may be both beneficial and inexpensive in terms of the environmental impact. Many studies have assessed
the feasibility of reusing various wool-based materials as secondary raw materials in the construction sector. For instance, in one study,
a similar material, glass wool waste, was used as a clay substitute to manufacture building ceramics [22]. Iron ore tailing and glass
wool residue were used in geopolymer production [24]. Mineral wool waste was used as an alkali-activated material precursor [25].
However, to our knowledge, the usability of SWW from greenhouses in brick production is yet to be examined. This is an important
research topic since such use of SWW will contribute to the conservation of the limited natural resources that are heavily utilised in the
construction industry.
Therefore, in this study, we aim to explore the feasibility of recycling SWW from greenhouse agriculture in order to recover residual
SWW for use in the production of fired ceramics. The reuse of SWW in brick production, as well as the thermal insulation effect of stone
wool in both clay- and waste-based building ceramics, was investigated experimentally. This process complements sustainability goals
and may provide an alternative to waste landfilling, thus complying with the EU waste management directive [26]. To determine both
the substitution proportion of natural clay by SWW (containing different proportions of SWW) and the optimal firing temperature, we
used a multidisciplinary approach to characterise the used raw materials and obtained ceramics fired at different temperatures
(850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C). We chose these temperatures based on the melting behaviour of clay and SWW, as well as the common
minimum temperature of 850 ◦ C utilised in the production of building-fired bricks.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Raw materials and brickmaking
The source of the fresh clay for this study was the Sakar district in the Lebap region of Turkmenistan, and all details of this clay were
given in a prior study [2]. In the present study, SWW as a by-product of Yigit H.J company (Turkmenistan) was utilised; its chemical
composition and primary physical features are shown in Table 2. Homogenous mixing of clay material was performed with 5%, 10%,
12.5% and 17.5% SWW by mass of the clay as a partial replacement. As a result of the preliminary study, the maximum addable

Table 1
The brick mixtures were prepared from the clay and stone wool raw materials (% by mass).

Mix code Clay (wt %) Stone wool (wt %) Added water%

M1 (Clay95%SWW5%) 95 5 22
M2 (Clay90%SWW10%) 90 10 24
M3 Clay85%SWW15% 87.5 12.5 25
M4 Clay80%SWW20% 82.5 17.5 25

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amount of SWW to the mixture was determined as 17.5%. As this value increased, the plasticity of the mixture decreased and prevented
the brick from being obtained properly from the extruder. Then, SWW was added to the mixture at a decreasing rate and examined in
order to examine the SWW effect. Table 1 shows the material compositions based on the mass percentage of SWW as well as the added
water percentages at room temperature. The percentage of water required for the mixture increased as the percentage of non-plastic
SWW in the mixture increased. Due to the low density or lightness of SWW, it was added to the mixture in high volume. This resulted in
an increase in the amount of water required to produce bricks. To ensure homogeneity, an estimated amount of water was combined
and then stored for 24 h (Table 1). Then, the brick mixtures with a volume of 120 × 30 × 18 mm3 were shaped with an extruder
(Verdés, Barcelona, Spain) and dried in a drying unit (TypeM40, Ceramic Instruments, Sassuolo, Italy). The firing temperatures of
bricks were set at 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C for a 26 h firing cycle. Fig. 1 depicts the sample preparation and flow of each stage.

2.2. High-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis (ICP-MS)

The heavy metal analysis was carried outconducted with ICP-MS (Agilent, Country). On SWW samples, total digestions were
conducted. Following modified aqua regia digestion, the total quantity of metals in sieved SWW samples was determined. A 0.5 g
sample aliquot was added to 3 ml of a 1:1:1 HCl–HNO3 –H2O combination. In a heating block, the mixture was digested for 1 h at
100 ◦ C. ICP-MS measurements were used to evaluate the samples and 18 MΩ water was used for dilution, which was brought to volume
with dilute 2% v/v HNO3 (1:2500).

2.3. Characterisation
The clay and the SWW materials were chemically analysed using the x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) technique (Spectro,
Germany). Samples as pressed pellets were made by weighing 5 g of clay or SWW into a Fluxana mixing container with a polyamide
ball, and then adding a 0.2 ratio of Spectro Wac C binder (wax) to both clay and SWW (<63 μm). X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis on a
Bruker-AXS D8 powder diffractometer by using Cu Ka radiation (λ = 1.54186 nm) operating in the range of 2◦ and 70◦ (2θ) identified
that crystalline phases occur in raw materials and elaborated materials. DiffracPlus EVA software was used to determine the mineral
phases and quantify their abundances. The particle size distribution of the clay and SWW was measured with a laser particle size
analyser (Mastersizer 3000E, UK), and the specific surface area (m2/kg) was measured according to the ISO 13320-1 standard. For the
water absorption measurement, the ASTM C67-07 standard was followed [27]. Briefly, the dried brick samples were at 110 ◦ C, the
weight was noted and these samples were fully submerged in water at an ambient temperature for 24 h. The specimens were then
removed and weighed again after being cleansed with a moist cloth. The bulk density and apparent porosity values of the calcined
samples were calculated through the Archimedes method according to ASTM C20 (2015) [28]. The apparent density (ρa) was
calculated using the mass and dimensions of the specimens, as well as the mass-to-apparent-volume ratio. The mechanical features of
the brick specimens, such as compressive strength and bending strength, were assessed according to ASTM C67 (2019) [20]. Scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analyses of selected brick samples were also performed to
investigate their microscopic structure and elemental analysis. The pore size analysis of unfired and fired bricks was carried out on SEM
images using ImageJ software. The average of 10 different pore size values was taken. A thermal analysis instrument (Mettler Toledo
DSC 1, Switzerland) operating in an air atmosphere with a heating rate of 10 ◦ C/min was used to perform the thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). As a reference, an empty aluminium crucible was also employed and the
samples were heated to 1000 ◦ C. In line with Kazanskaya et al., 2021 MIT-1 equipment was used to determine the thermal conductivity
of concrete according to the standard 30256-94 for ‘Construction materials and products’. The plasticity, reabsorption, the loss on
ignition (LOI) and the freeze/thaw tests were performed following ASTM C 67 and our previous study [2].

3. Results and discussion

Two raw materials (clay and SWW) were used for each formulation. The clay used as a raw material contained 12.5% CaCO3, 2.08%
C, 0.3% Cl2 and 0.07% S, whereas SWW contained only 0.75% CaCO3 [2]. On arrival from the deposit, the moisture content of the clay
was 2.80%. In the next paragraphs, only average data are shown and analysed. Fig. 2 shows images of stone wool in greenhouse
agriculture, the fibre form of SWW, the SWW powder, the surface analysis of SWW with a microscope and clay. Fig. 2d and e shows the
morphology of stone wool under a microscope. The fibrous structure of SWW can easily be observed. The colours of the clay and SWW,
the two raw materials, were light brown and green, respectively (Fig. 2).

3.1. Characterisation of raw materials

3.1.1. Mastersizer analysis
The clay and SWW particle size distribution curves are demonstrated in Fig. 3 and were calculated via Mastersizer analysis. Clay
and SWW are classed as clay and silty loam by the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) (ASTM D2487-17) because 77% and 59%
of the volume contain particles with fractions <2 μm and 2–50 μm, respectively [30]. The table insets in Fig. 3 show the particle size,

Table 2
Total metal contents (mg/L) in SWW from Greenhouse.

Element concentration (mg/L) Cr Co Ni Cu Zn As Se Mo Pd

0.185 0.102 0.157 0.132 3.296 0.793 0.376 0.0741 0.703

Element concentration (mg/L) Cd Sb Cs Ba Hg Pb Th U
0.204 0.00346 0.00188 0.216 0.0131 0.0789 0.0342 0.0193

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Fig. 1. Production flow chart for fired bricks.

Fig. 2. (a) Stone wool at greenhouse agriculture; (b) Fibre form of SWW; (c) Powder of SWW; (d–e) Surface analysis of SWW with microscope; (f) Clay.

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Fig. 3. Particle size distributions of raw clay and SWW. The table insets show the particle size distribution of clay and SWW material.

the density and the specific surface area of clay and SWW that were measured. Clay and SWW consist mainly of clay-sized (<2 μm) and
silt-sized particles (2–50 μm), and their average particle size was 0.288 μm and 34.6 μm, respectively. The specific surface area of clay
and SWW was 15740 m3/kg and 247.3 m3/kg, respectively. The higher specific surface area of clay compared with that of SWW is
distinguishable because of the non-equant and elongated shape of its particles [24].

Table 3
Chemical analysis of raw materials (Clay and SWW).

Chemical analysis

Oxides (%) Clay Stone wool waste

SiO2 51.78 41.47
Al2O3 13.99 21.70
Fe2O3 5.81 4.50
MgO 3.60 8.13
CaO 9.62 18.01
K2 O 3.07 0.81
Na2O 1.38 1.51
MnO 0.1 0.51
P2O5 – 1.65
TiO2 0.61 0.96
LOI 10.35 0.75

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3.1.2. ICP-MS
Table 2 shows the heavy metal content of the SWW from the greenhouse industry determined using the ICP-MS method. The heavy
metal content in SWW was significant, and the result of using it as a raw material in the brickmaking process is that it prevents the
release of this heavy metal content into the environment.

3.1.3. Chemical analysis

The chemical composition of the two raw materials is shown in Table 3. The clay was primarily composed of silica (51.78%) and
alumina (13.99%); it also had a minor amount of other oxides, such as calcium oxide (CaO, 9.62%), iron oxide (Fe2O3, 5.81%),
magnesium oxide (MgO, 3.60%), potassium oxide (K2O, 3.07%) and sodium oxide (Na2O, 1.38%), and traces of titanium oxide (Ti2O,
0.61%) and manganese oxide (MnO, 0.1%). In general, clay for brick manufacture should contain SiO2 and Al2O3 in proportions of
50–60% and 10–20%, respectively [31]. The quantities of SiO2 (51.78%) and alumina (13.99%) in the current study were found to be
within the intended ranges. Further, SWW was mainly composed of SiO2 (41.47%), Al2O3 (21.70%), Fe2O3 (4.50%), MgO (8.13%),
CaO (18.01%) and Na2O (1.51%) and had small quantities of K2O (0.81%). It had just some traces of other oxides, such as TiO2 (0.96%)
and P2O5 (1.65%). The LOI values of clay and SWW are 10.35% and 0.75%, respectively.

3.1.4. Mineralogy
The XRD images of clay and SWW are shown in Fig. 4. The clay mineralogical phases are quartz (Q), illite (I), calcite (Cc), K-feldspar
(Kf), dolomite (Do), Kaolinite/chlorite (Chl/Kao), smectite (Sm), bassanite (Bs), and traces of halite (Hl). The SWW was found to be
amorphous is consistent with the results of prior studies on mineral wool-based materials [22,24,25].

3.1.5. SEM/EDX analysis of raw samples

The SEM analyses of the investigated clay and SWW samples are revealed in Fig. 5a and b. The particles of clay were in the form of
different, micron-sized agglomerates with irregular shapes with angularity (Fig. 5a). The form of fibres and laths in the SEM images of
the clay sample demonstrates the presence of illite [32]. The clay sample contained a sufficient amount of rhombic calcite (CaCO3)
crystals, also validated by carbonate analysis. The appearance of the SWW after grinding is demonstrated in Fig. 5b. The SWW
exhibited a fibrous structure; the fibre widths of fibres ranged from 3.83 μm to 25.05 μm, and the unbroken fibre lengths differed by
several hundred micrometres. To examine the elements of clay and SWW, the EDX test was performed. The results (mass% and atom%)
from the fracture surface of the clay and SWW are shown in Fig. 4b and Table 4. The primary components of clay and SWW were the
elements Si, Al, Fe, Ca and Mg, and this result is consistent with that of the chemical analysis using XRF.

3.1.6. Dilatometric analysis

Fig. 6 presents the dilatometric curves of the four mixtures (M1, M2, M3 and M4). A gradual increase in the expansion value was
observed, probably owing to the complete removal of physically bound water near 500 ◦ C in all groups. The dilatometric curves of all
samples exhibit a slight expansion in the temperature zone between 550 and 608 ◦ C due to the existing quartz, which undergoes the
α⇌β transition at 573 ◦ C [33]. A rapid expansion occurs, perhaps correlated with the development of the anhydrous form between
~600 and 750 ◦ C [34]. This expansion is followed by a large contraction up to 850 ◦ C, followed by a rapid expansion. The expansion is
caused by gaseous dissociation products expanding within the material. Therefore, the firing process should be conducted with
prudence, with a low-heating-rate phase in the decarbonation zone (850–1000 ◦ C).

3.1.7. TGA/DSC analysis

The TGA curves for clay and SWW are shown in Fig. 7. Brown et al. (1987) reported that the interlayer water is pushed off in the
range of 110–140 ◦ C; accordingly, the first weight loss was observed at 125 ◦ C, which corresponds to the dehydration of the interlayer
water [35]. The TGA curve of the clay demonstrated a total mass loss of 8.6% at 660 ◦ C because of the release of physically absorbed
water, the dehydroxylation reactions of minerals and the combustion reaction of organic matter (Fig. 7a) [36]. Weight loss from SWW

Fig. 4. XRD patterns of (a) clay and (b) SWW.

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Fig. 5. SEM images and EDX spectrum of clay (a, c) and SWW (b, d).

Table 4
Oxide analysis (mass% and atom%) from EDX analysis.

Element (Wt%) Clay SWW

Mass % Atom % Mass % Atom %

SiO2 50.59 53.29 36.80 40.54
Al2O3 14.84 16.27 12.51 14.35
CaO 6.49 4.79 10.83 8.36
Fe2O3 5.03 2.66 5.58 3.09
Mg2O 4.95 6.02 4.83 6.15
Mn2O n.d n.d 0.35 0.20
Na2O 1.60 2.06 0.94 1.26

n.d: Not defined.

was also observed at the same temperature range. The total mass abruptly decreased after 660 ◦ C due to the breakdown of carbonates,
resulting in considerable CO2 release from the carbonate content of clay. The LOI values from TGA analysis for clay and SWW at
1000 ◦ C are 10.48% and 0.96%, respectively. According to TGA data, the endothermic events at 98 ◦ C and 285 ◦ C in the DSC curve
correspond to the elimination of adsorbed water and crystalline water, respectively. The large and small endothermic peaks at 836 ◦ C
in the DSC curve for clay and SWW are caused by the decomposition of calcite [2]. In both samples, after about 900 ◦ C, distinct
exothermic effects appeared because of the crystallisation of high-temperature phases [36].

3.2. Physical features of the dried and fired samples

The clay used in the formulation was used alone in making bricks, and its properties are summarised in Table 5. The penetrometer
consistencies of M1, M2, M3 and M4 were 2.2, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.5 kg/cm2, respectively. The Pfefferkorn PPI plasticity values of clay, M1,
M2, M3 and M4 were 28.56, 25.14, 24.38, 22.92 and 21.84, respectively. The plasticity and reabsorption values of samples decreased
with the increase in the SWW percentage. After firing, there were no defects, such as cracks or expansion, at 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and

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Fig. 6. Dilatometric curves of four formulations (M1, M2, M3 and M4).

Fig. 7. Thermal behaviour of clay and SWW up to 1000 ◦ C during (a) TGA and (b) DSC analysis.

Table 5
Technological features of unfired brick specimens.

Type Clay Clay95%SW Clay90%SWW10% (M1) Clay87.5%SWW12.5% (M1) Clay92.5%SWW17.5% (M1)

W5% (M1)

Penetrometer consistency 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.5

Plasticity (PPI) 28.56 25.14 24.38 22.92 21.84
Readsorption (%) 5.47 4.96 4.78 4.63 4.46
Drying Shrinkage % 6.66 ± 0.45 4.61 ± 0.18 4.56 ± 0.33 3.98 ± 0.15 4.56 ± 0.12
LOI (%) fired at 1000 ◦ C 12.75 11.51 ± 0.033 10.82 ± 0.04 10.93 ± 0.05 11.83 ± 0.05

1050 ◦ C. On the fracture section of the SWW-residue-containing burnt samples, there was no black core. Controlling the firing
shrinkage, the LOI percentage, the bulk density, the water absorption, the apparent porosity, the thermal conductivity, the bending
and the compression strength is a crucial priority. The LOI percentage values obtained by firing at 1000 ◦ C are summarised in Table 5.
The LOI values of the mixtures were found to be lower than those of the clay values.

3.2.1. Drying and firing shrinkage

When the samples were dried at 110 ◦ C and fired at 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C, 1050 ◦ C, the firing mechanisms encouraged higher particle

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closeness, which resulted in shrinkage (Supplementary Fig. S1). The drying shrinkage values of M1, M2, M3 and M4 were 4.61 ±
0.18%, 4.56 ± 0.33%, 3.98 ± 0.15% and 4.56 ± 0.12%, respectively (Table 5). The percent of firing shrinkage for bricks fired at all
temperatures (850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C) did not exceed 0.5% (Fig. 8a). However, no significant difference was observed between the
brick formulations fired at 850 ◦ C and 950 ◦ C because the clay used in the mixture contains calcium carbonate [2]. Bricks fired at
1050 ◦ C have higher shrinkage values than bricks fired at other temperatures. In general, higher temperatures and a faster shrinkage
rate cause more densification for bricks.

3.2.2. LOI percentage

Fig. 8b shows the loss on ignition (LOI), which represents the mass loss of the sample after firing at different temperatures (850 ◦ C,
950 ◦ C, 1050 ◦ C). Processes such as compound decomposition and organic matter combustion result in mass loss during the firing
process. The LOI percentage of the clay used was 12.93% at 1050 ◦ C. The maximum LOI value observed in the prepared mixtures was
approximately 12%. With the addition of SWW to the mixture, a slight decrease in LOI values occurred. No significant difference was
observed between the different brick formulations (M1–M4). A slight increase in the LOI percentage values was observed with the
increase in the firing temperature of the bricks.

3.2.3. Apparent porosity

Apparent porosity is an important parameter in brick production since it directly affects the durability of fired bricks. Large porosity
makes the material susceptible to weathering and chemical attacks [37]. Further, when the porosity is large, the material is more likely
to be affected by humidity, which leads to premature failure. The apparent porosity of the produced fired bricks from different
mixtures is depicted in Fig. 8c. Increase in the SWW replacement percentage through up to 10% SWW addition results in increasing the
apparent porosity. The AP value of the brick made of clay by firing at 1050 ◦ C was 18.3%. Following the addition of 5%, 10%, 12.5%
and 17.5% SWW to the clay, these values increased by approximately 56%, 76%, 75% and 74%, respectively. Then, a very slight
decrease was observed in the M3 and M4 samples. According to the findings, SWW inclusion provides a more porous structure than
that of the control (clay brick) specimens. The AP values decreased with increasing temperature. The outcomes also show that the
firing temperature has an significant effect on the porosity of the bricks. At higher firing temperatures, there is more partial vitrifi­
cation and the formation of a viscous amorphous phase that tends to get closer to the pores of the brick samples, resulting in greater

Fig. 8. (a) Firing shrinkage; (b) LOI percentage; (c) Apparent Porosity; (d) Water absorption.

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densification [15]. The findings are also consistent with those of previous investigations [38,39]. The results match the SEM images of
the constructed bricks as well as the water absorption measurements (both parameters will be provided later). Bricks having higher
porosity are excellent insulators and should be used wherever heat and cold resistance are required [40]. Therefore, the inclusion of
SWW in brick production causes the formed porous bricks to have promising insulation.

3.2.4. Water absorption

When building materials are to be exposed to a harsh weathering environment, water absorption (WA) is one of the most important
qualities to consider [22]. WA is a durability indicator that reveals the open porosity of a sample [41]. Fig. 8d shows the WA values of
clay brick and brick mixtures at different firing temperatures. The WA percentages of brick formulations varied from 16.5 to 20.5%.
The difference in these values between fired clay brick (without SWW) and M1 was 15.98% from 14.33 to 16.62% with the addition of
5% SWW. The 5% increase in the SWW ratio seems to result in a slightly higher WA capacity than that of M1 (Clay95%, SWW5%). This
result reveals that the high amount of SWW increases the porosities of bricks to a certain extent [42]. Contrary to expectations, the WA
capacity of bricks fired at 950 ◦ C was found to be higher than that of bricks fired at 850 ◦ C, and the capacity of the bricks fired at
1050 ◦ C was found to be lower than that of bricks fired at 850 ◦ C. This result is attributable to microstructural changes, and in
particular, a decrease in porosity and the production of glassy phases, or melt, at higher temperatures. In general, the internal pore
structure and size, which plays an important role in WA, is the result of water evaporation, organic matter combustion, and mineral
decomposition and formation during the firing process [43]. Consequently, the WA capacity of all mixtures did not exceed the 22%
threshold [2].

3.2.5. Mechanical properties of dried and fired formulations

The bending strength and the compressive strength are undoubtedly the most essential qualities of building materials. A three-point
bending trial on extruded bricks with dimensions of 120 mm × 30 mm × 18 mm and a uniaxial-compressive loading test on extruded
and fired bricks with dimensions of 250 mm × 120 mm × 65 mm was conducted to investigate the load-bearing capacity of the brick
samples. The outcomes are shown in Fig. 9. The bending strength values for unfired M1, M2, M3 and M4 were 4.71 ± 0.3, 3.42 ± 0.13,
3.69 ± 0.28 and 3.97 ± 0.9 MPa, respectively. After firing at 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C, the bending and compressive strength of all
formulations of prepared bricks increased. At 850 ◦ C, the bending strength of the bricks increased with the increasing SWW ratio.
However, the bending strength of M2 and M4 decreased at 950 ◦ C, even after increasing the firing temperature. This decrease was
likely caused by the decomposition of the CaCO3 content of the clay used in the formulations of the bricks, considering that carbonates
typically decompose at high temperatures (e.g. 950 ◦ C).. The bending strength reduced slightly mainly because of the increase in the
microstructural flaw size and the porosity due to the CO2 released from the carbonate content of clay [2,41]. At 1050 ◦ C, the highest
bending strength was observed in M1 specimens; thus, the bending strength of the specimens decreased on addition of SWW. The
compressive strength of the samples showed almost similar behaviour to that of the bending strength. The highest and lowest values
were noticed for M1 and M4 bricks, whose compressive strength were 20.68 ± 1.23 MPa and 18.76 ± 1.23 MPa at 1050 ◦ C,
respectively. Compared with the strength of M1 bricks at 1050 ◦ C, the strength losses were 3.8%, 5.3% and 9.3% for M2, M3 and M4,
respectively. The high compressive strength in samples containing high SWW content can be attributed to the lower density, the
increased porosity and the pore size distributions [41,44]. Furthermore, non-homogeneous mixtures formed after the addition of waste
materials also contribute to the lower compressive strength of brick samples [45]. In summary, although the brick specimens lost
strength, all specimens still had excellent strength. According to ASTM C126, brick samples should have a minimum compressive
strength of 10.3 MPa, and the compression strength values of the bricks in the present study were higher than this value [46].

3.2.6. Bulk density

The bulk density, as determined by porosity, reflects the degree of densification during the firing process [43]. The bulk density of

Fig. 9. Bending strength and compressive strength values of brick formulations.

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S. Korpayev et al. Journal of Building Engineering 63 (2023) 105340

prepared clay and mixture bricks at various firing temperatures is shown in Fig. 10a. The bulk density ranges from 1.68 g/cm3 to 1.86
g/cm3. The bulk density of the fired bricks reduced as the SWW component increased. The bulk density of used clay was 1.86 g/cm3 at
the highest temperature. The bulk density reduction percentages for M1, M2, M3 and M4 were 5.91%, 8.06%, 7.52% and 6.45%,
respectively. The density of the prepared fired brick formulations dropped as the identified parameters, such as voids, pores and
cavities, increased [47]. One study reported that the addition of glass wool waste to fired bricks increases the softening point, decreases
the bulk density and creates porosified fire clay bricks [22]. Further, the bulk density of the brick increases as the firing temperature
rises. The pore-forming impact of SWW created porosity in the clay body, resulting in increased porosity along with decreased bulk
density. Density reduction has a positive effect on the thermal insulation of the bricks (which will be provided below).

3.2.7. Thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivity (TC) of brick formulations fired at 1050 ◦ C with different SWW concentrations was evaluated. Fig. 10
shows the relationship between heat conductivity and mixtures with SWW. The results show that before firing (at 30 ◦ C), the TC of the
clay brick without SWW was 0.54 W/m K. Further, 5% and 10% SWW addition to the clay decreased the TC to 0.47 and 0.42 W/m K,
that is, a decrease of 12.96% and 22.22%, respectively. The highest decrease in TC was observed for M2. The addition of up to 10%
SWW increased porosity and decreased bulk density and, as a result, decreased the TC characteristics of bricks, which aided the
thermal insulation of these new building bricks. Because air is trapped in the pores, increasing the porosity in the microstructure
improves thermal insulation [48]. For M3 and M4, there was a slight decrease in apparent porosity and a consequent increase in the TC
of bricks. The mechanical properties of bricks also affect TC [48]. A decrease in these properties improves thermal insulation. The type
of porosity (open or closed), the pore size and the distribution that affect the TC can be shown by the fluctuation that occurs with this
increased SWW [49,50]. A more uniform and densely dispersed porosity can contribute to increased insulation [50].

3.2.8. Mineralogy after firing

The clay 87.5% + SWW 12.5%, or M3, fired at 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C was selected for XRD analysis to highlight mineralogical
analysis of fired brick. The XRD patterns of fired samples are shown in Fig. 11. The main crystalline phase in M3 bricks fired at 850 ◦ C
involved quartz, augite, albite and lazurite. The minor crystalline phase minerals were hematite, cristobalite and zirconium oxide
(ZrO2). Next, the main crystalline phase in M3 bricks fired at 950 ◦ C was quartz, anorthite, zirconolite and lazurite, and the minor
minerals were halite, pinakiolite, hematite, groutite, rutile, manganosite, wüstite and stilleite. Further, the main minerals of M3 fired
at 1050 ◦ C were quartz, anorthite, zirconolite and halite, and the minor minerals were groutite, hematite, lazurite, rutile, pinakiolite,
wüstite and stilleite. The distinctive peaks of illite and calcite disappeared unlike in the crystalline phases observed in raw clay,
indicating that these minerals disintegrated or were a part of other reactions [51,52]. The increasing temperature resulted in the
formation of hematite and anorthite. It is seen that Fe3O4 (magnetite), one of the oxides defined in clay and SWW, was oxidized and
transformed into hematite during firing process.

3.2.9. Efflorescence
Fig. S1 shows the view of unfired and fired M4 bricks (at 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C) for the efflorescence test. In bricks containing
maximum SWW, there is no discernible efflorescence effect. The level of efflorescence is determined by the presence of grey and white
deposits on the surface [42]. A slight efflorescence was observed in brick fired at 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C. Salt efflorescence, or the
formation of salt crystals on a surface caused by the evaporation of salt-laden water, is a common surface defect found on brick, mortar,
and concrete facades [53]. It mostly refers to whitish deposits of water soluble salts, such as alkali sulphates or sodium chloride that
appear shortly after the facade is built. As mentioned above, both raw materials have low soluble salt percentages. The fact that no
significant efflorescence is observed on the brick surfaces can be attributed to this reason.

Fig. 10. (a) Bulk density (g/cm3) and (b) thermal conductivity of clay versus SWW-containing samples.

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S. Korpayev et al. Journal of Building Engineering 63 (2023) 105340

Fig. 11. XRD patterns of M3 fired at 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C.

3.2.10. SEM analysis

The SEM analysis of unfired and fired bricks was conducted to observe the microstructure of the elaborated M3 sample, which is
presented in Fig. 12. In this figure, the SWW particles in the brick surface are shown with blue arrows. Because of the high calcium
content revealed by the XRF and the EDS analyses, elongated particles with a light grey colour were attributed to residual or new
crystals from glass wool. The fractures and pores are more evident, which could be due to reactions between existing oxides and
carbonates. As the firing temperature increased from 850 to 1050 ◦ C, the microstructure of these specimens became denser owing to
the production of a more amorphous melted phase. In the image of a brick sample fired at 1050 ◦ C, the densest structure and smaller
pores than that of unfired bricks and bricks fired at 850 ◦ C and 950 ◦ C can easily be observed. The average pore sizes of the unfired and
fired bricks at 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C were found as 41.93 ± 14.70, 28.16 ± 7.90, 16.11 ± 4.76 and 13.36 ± 4.06 μm,
respectively. These values have a high standard deviation, indicating that the pores are not homogeneous. Inhomogeneity in pore size
distribution was critical in lowering brick thermal conductivity even further [54]. It appears that these molten structures are greater in
density at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures. Furthermore, the porous structure and pore size have long been thought to
be critical for mechanical strength [55]. Pore size reduction, in particular, improves mechanical strength significantly. These findings
corroborate the compressive strength, apparent porosity (AP) and thermal conductivity which reveals that M1 had a high strength of
28.68 MPa and a low porosity of 29.10% at 1050 ◦ C.

3.2.11. Freeze/thaw test outcomes

Brick specimens are considered to have failed the freeze/thaw test if the mass loss percentage exceeds 3% or if the brick has cracks
or breaks. For this test, the temperature (1050 ◦ C) that gives high strength to the bricks was chosen. No huge cracks were observed on
the edges of the brick samples after 50 cycles. The test outcomes are shown in Table 6. The number of freeze/thaw cycles that the bricks
containing up to 10% SWW passed exceeded the 50 cycles mandated by ASTM C 67 for designation as a severe weather brick [20]. M3
bricks slightly exceeded the 3% threshold, whereas M4 exceeded this value significantly (~1.10%). Thus, brick samples containing up
to 10% SWW have better freeze/thaw resistance.

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Fig. 12. SEM micrographs of unfired M3 and fired M3 bricks at 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C. Blue arrows show SWW fibres. (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Table 6
Freeze/thaw test outcomes of brick mixtures at 1050 ◦ C.

Mixture name M1 M2 M3 M4

Mass loss% 2.49 ± 0.14 2.91 ± 0.12 3.49 ± 0.24 4.10 ± 0.19

4. Conclusion
In this study, SWW was utilised in order to determine whether it can replace conventional clay in brick production. The qualities of
5%, 10%, 12.5% and 17.5% SWW replacement by mass were explored and compared with those of conventional fired clay bricks. The
maximum replacement rate of SWW with clay was found to be 17.5% without causing crack in the brick body. From the experiment
results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. When SWW is used instead of clay, less dense brick specimens can be produced. After adding 17.5% SWW to the brick sample, the
bulk density of fired clay bricks decreased by 6.45% at higher firing temperature (1050 ◦ C). The highest decrease in bulk density
was 8.064% in M2.
2. Clay brick specimens had the highest compressive strength, whereas clay bricks had a lower compressive strength after adding
SWW. The compressive strength decreased by 10.83% and 12.73% in fired clay bricks that had 12.5% and 17.5% SWW addition,
respectively. Compressive strength and bulk density have a similar tendency to increase with temperature; specifically, they all
increase moderately to a maximum value between 850 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C.
3. The increase in SWW up to 10% concentration in brick specimens resulted in an increase in the perceived porosity and the water
absorption. Similarly, when SWW was used to replace clay in fired clay bricks, the apparent porosity increased. As required by
ASTM C62, all of the brick specimens had water absorption of less than 22% and may be utilised as moderate weather-resistant
bricks. Fired clay bricks with SWW that are used in building construction may perform better than clay bricks in terms of ther­
mal conductivity.
4. As a result of SEM analysis, the average pore size of the bricks obtained from the extruder was found to be 41.93 ± 14.70 μm. The
pore sizes of the bricks fired at 850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C decreased by 33%, 62% and 68%, respectively. This result showed the
effect of increasing temperature and it was found to be in agreement with the results of water absorption, bulk density and me­
chanical strength. Increased firing temperature causes a decrease in pore volume and number of pores, indicating that some of the
pores have become filled or sealed and that high-temperature ceramic crystal phases have formed in the final fired body.
5. Increasing SWW concentration resulted in decreasing thermal conductivity of fired clay bricks. The thermal conductivity of clay
brick specimens was 0.54 W/mK, but after adding 10% WGS to brick specimens, it decreased to 0.42 W/mK. After incorporating

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SWW into brick specimens, a less dense and heterogeneous structure with increased porosity was discovered, which enhanced the
thermal insulation of fired clay bricks incorporating SWW.
6. The freeze/thaw durability of fired clay and mixture bricks up to 10% SWW were promising since it was less than 3% at 1050 ◦ C
after 25 cycles. Fired clay bricks containing the highest percentage of SWW (12.5% and 17.5%) were found to have less durability.
The freeze-thaw durability decreased with the increase in the SWW ratio, which can be shown by the increased porosity and water
absorption parameters.
The main benefits of using SWW in the production of traditional bricks are that it facilitates the recycling of the increasing quantity
of waste generated daily as new plants to produce energy are built, the reduction of raw material costs and the production of a high-
porosity material with lower density and increased insulation ability. Using SWW to prepare bricks is a promising solution for the
treatment of greenhouse agriculture waste. Therefore, this study recommends that SWW be used as a replacement for clay to lessen the
environmental impact of SWW and to transform the scarcely degradable greenhouse agriculture waste into a value-added alternative
material for the brick and building industries.

CRediT author statement

Serdar Korpayev, Meretdurdy Bayramov: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software Serdar Korpayev, Hemra Hamrayev,
Meretdurdy Bayramov: Data curation, Writing- Original draft preparation. Serdar Korpayev, Meretdurdy Bayramov, Agamergen
Nurmuhammedov, Dunyagozel Baymyradova: Visualization, Investigation. Serdar Durdyev: Supervision: Serdar Korpayev,
Meretdurdy Bayramov: Software, Validation.: Serdar Durdyev, Serdar Korpayev, Hemra Hamrayev: Writing- Reviewing and
Editing Serdar Korpayev, Meretdurdy Bayramov: Resources, Project administration, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

The authors do not have permission to share data.

Acknowledgements
The authors responsively acknowledge the financial support provided by Economic Society “Dowletli-Dowran”.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105340.

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