sensors

Article
Design and Analysis of a General Relay-Node
Selection Mechanism on Intersection in
Vehicular Networks
Dun Cao 1,2 , Bin Zheng 1 , Jin Wang 1, *, Baofeng Ji 3 and Chunhai Feng 4
1 School of Computer and Communication Engineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology,
Changsha 410114, China; [email protected] (D.C.); [email protected] (B.Z.)
2 Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Intelligent Processing of Big Data on Transportation,
Changsha 410114, China
3 College of Information Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China;
[email protected]
4 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019,
USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-731-8525-8462




Received: 31 October 2018; Accepted: 28 November 2018; Published: 3 December 2018


Abstract: Employment of a relay node can extend the coverage of a message in vehicular
networks (VNET). In addition, the prior information regarding the road structure, which determines
the structure of VNET, can benefit relay-node selection. However, the non-line-of-sight (NLOS)
communication in the intersection scenarios and diverse shapes for the intersection hamper the design
of a general relay-node selection on intersection. To resolve this problem, in this paper, we build
a model to describe the general intersection, and propose a general relay-node selection method
on intersection. Additionally, based on our mathematical description of the general intersection,
the performance models for the general relay-node selection on the intersection are first explored
in terms of message dissemination speed and Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR). The simulation results
validate these models and indicate the improvement of our proposal, especially in heavy traffic.
The improvement includes, at the high density of 3.0025 vehicles/m, the huge gain of up to 23.35% in
terms of message dissemination speed than that of other compared methods and PDR of over 90%.

Keywords: performance analysis; relay-node selection; general intersection; vehicular networks

1. Introduction
In vehicular network (VNET) [1,2], the information about the road, traffic and environment can be
shared among vehicles, pedestrians and networks to improve the efficiency and safety of transportation
via the technology of both vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET) [3–8] and Long-term Evolution enhance
Vehicle-to-Everything (LTE eV2X) [9–12]. Since the communication range of the node is limited,
the relay node should be employed to deliver the message that carries this information to a wider area.
How to select the relay node to ensure efficient and stable message dissemination, while avoiding the
typical problems in the ad hoc network such as the message storm and the hidden node problem, is an
interesting issue.
Different from the node in traditional ad hoc networks, the nodes (e.g., vehicles) in VNET
are restricted on the road, then the trajectory of nodes can be predicted, and the node distribution
can be attained, aided bythe road topology. Additional information on the road can facilitate the
relay-node selection. Hence, in the relay-node selection methods, the geography-based method
presents an improved performance. Moreover, the popularization of the positioning system and

Sensors 2018, 18, 4251; doi:10.3390/s18124251 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 2 of 26

Geographic Information System (GIS) service makes the access to the local road information no longer
a limited factor.
The existing relay-node selection methods based on geography information focus on the design
of a straight road and the crossroad. However, these methods present a performance degradation
in dense networks or sparse networks. In our earlier work [13], an exponent-based partitioning
broadcast protocol (EPBP) is proposed. EPBP performs a significant improvement under high node
density conditions in terms of message dissemination speed and packet delivery ratio (PDR). Based
on exponent partition, we explore a robust relay-node selection in [14], which presents an acceptable
performance in the adverse scenario and a high performance in general scenarios, even in sparse
density where EPBP is not expert. In the two methods, the application of the exponent partition is just
discussed on the straight road.
Aiming at the intersection scenario, this paper develops a stable relay-node selection on a general
intersection. The contributions of this paper are threefold: (1) building a model to describe the
general intersection with Nb branches and any angle between adjacent branches; (2) exploring a
general relay-node selection method on intersection based on the exponent partition, which presents
a significantly improved and stable performance; (3) constructing the performance analysis of our
proposal in terms of message dissemination speed and PDR for the evaluation and future optimization.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the related works
are described briefly. After presenting a mathematical description for a general intersection,
an exponent-partition-based relay-node selection method on the general intersection is discussed
in Section 3. Additionally, the analytic models for the proposed method are developed in Section 4. In
addition, Section 5 validates these models and evaluates the improvement of the proposed method by
simulation. Finally, our work is summarized.

2. Related Work
In the traditional relay-node selection methods for VNET, the information of speed, acceleration,
and location of neighbors, which is beneficial to the selection, is enclosed in a periodical beacon, e.g.,
the method in the known Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) [15] and its novel methods.
However, the interval of two successive beacons (100 ms) makes this information sacrifice its real-time
features. The position-based multi-hop broadcast protocol (PMBP) [16] and the trinary partitioned
black-burst-based broadcast protocol (3P3B) [17] take advantage of the information of local road
structure (the straight road) to select the relay node without the prior knowledge of the neighbor
location. However, in Ref. [18], the intersection is considered to develop the urban multi-hop broadcast
protocol (UMB) and ad hoc multi-hop broadcast (AMB), as well as the binary-partition-assisted
broadcast protocol (BPAB) in Ref. [19]. Based on the road structure, the above four methods partition
the communication range into multi-segments and select the node in the final empty segment as the
relay node. Consequently, these methods achieved a limited partition latency and relatively small
contention latency. However, in the heavy or sparse traffic, these methods would deteriorate seriously.
Meanwhile, there are many existing works to model and analyze the performance of the
relay-node selection [20–23]. However, efforts are still limited in the case of the typical crossroad and
straight road. The literature[24] and [25] study the impact of the obstacles in the intersection and
propose the network-coded intersection relaying and the selective intersection relaying to improve
the performance in terms of PDR, respectively. More efforts need to be made in the study to select the
node in realistic scenarios, not only a straight road and crossroad but also an atypical intersection and
curved road.
In our earlier work [13], an exponent-based partition method was proposed to select the relay
node in a straight road. With the aid of the black burst (BB) (i.e., a channel-jamming signal),
the communication range (R) of the sender is partitioned into Npart segments with Niter iteration.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 3 of 26

Figure 1 shows an example with ( Niter , Npart ) = (2, 3). In each iteration, the segment nearer to the
border has a smaller width. The width of the i-th segment in the j-th iteration can be given as
 (i −1) mod Npart 
((i−1) mod Npart )+1   
1  Npart
Npart i
Wseg ( j, i ) = (1 + A ) − (1 + A )  Wseg j − 1, , (1)
A Npart

where A is a compression coefficient, and d•e denotes the ceiling function. In our robust method [14],
based on the closed-form expression of the performance in terms of the message dissemination speed,
the optimal parameters of Niter , Npart , NA for EPBP are given. Moreover, a mini-black-burst-assisted
mechanism (mini-BBM) is developed to reduce the partition latency in the low node density. The robust
method performs a stable performance on the straight road. In this paper, the optimization of the
exponent partition and mini-BBM also are adapted to explore a general relay-node selection on
the intersection.

Communication Range (R)

. . . . Other node . .. . . . .. . The border
x Sender . . . . . . . . . . . Relay node
1st 2nd segment 1st segment B
iteration Time
i 3 2 1
2nd
iteration 9 8
. 3rd 2nd 1st B
i 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Time
The segment where The final Other segment(s) in the Message Time slot of Time slot of
segment B
vehicles broadcast B broadcasting direction channel sensing B transmission

Figure 1. Example of the exponent-based partition, ( Niter , Npart ) = (2, 3).

For clear exposition, the primary notations throughout this paper are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of notations.

Notations Descriptions
B black burst
R communication range
Npart number of partitions in each iteration
Niter number of iterations
A compression coefficient
Nb number of branches
C center of intersection
Brn the n-th branch
θn angle between the n-th branch and positive axis
H hunter
RelayI relay node in Intersection Phase
RelayB relay node in Branch Phase
r radius of intersection range
m index of the branch RelayI
lBn coverage of H on the n-th branch
RelayBn relay node in Branch Phase on the n-th branch
Pnopt optimal oint on the n-th branch
Rp partition range
DA,B range between the points of A and B
Td one-hop delay
Tinit initial latency
Tpart average partition latency
Tcon average contention latency
Tdata data transmission latency
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 4 of 26

Table 1. Cont.

Notations Descriptions
v message dissemination speed
Tˆd delay in the whole procedure
β average one-hop message progress
Rmax maximal distance of message dissemination along the road in the whole procedure
PDR packet delivery ratio
λ̂ equivalent node density
j,i
Pseg_sel probability of the selection of the i-th segment in the j-th iteration
j,i average vehicle numbers in other segments in the message dissemination direction when the
µseg_bro
i-th segment is selected in the j-th iteration
j,i
µseg the average vehicle numbers in the i-th segment of the j-th iteration
NP_slot number of time slots spent when a segment is selected
Tslot duration of a time slot
Nseg ( j) number of segments in the j-th iteration
i,c
psuc_con single probability of the success case in the c-th contention of the i-th final segment
i,c
pcol_con single probability of the collision case in the c-th contention of the i-th final segment
pc probability of the selection of a back-off timer in the c-th contention
Cw (c) maximal number of back-off timers in the c-th contention
i,c
psuc whole success probability after c contentions in the i-th final segment
i
Tcon_seg contention latency of the i-th segment
Tcon_si (c) durations spent in the collision case in the c-th contention
Tsuc_si (c) durations spent in the success case in the c-th contention
Nrecon number of the contention re-attempt
Tpart_I partition latency in Intersection Phase
Tcon_I contention latency in Intersection Phase
βI message progress in Intersection Phase
PDRI PDR in Intersection Phase
n,i,m partition range on the n-th branch in Branch Phase when RaleyI is in the i-th final segment on
Rp_B
the m-th branch
n,i,m partition latency on the n-th branch in Branch Phase when RaleyI is in the i-th final segment on
Tpart_B
the m-th branch
n,i,m contention latency on the n-th branch in Branch Phase when RaleyI is in the i-th final segment
Tcon_B
on the m-th branch
message progress on the n-th branch when RaleyI is in the iI -th final segment on the m-th
βn,i,m
B branch
PDRBn,i,m PDR on the n-th branch when RaleyI is in the iI -th final segment on the m-th branch
Tpart_B partition latency in Branch Phase
Tcon_B contention latency in Branch Phase
βB message progress in Branch Phase
PDRB PDR in Branch Phase
vmax maximum speed of vehicles
dinter_veh average inter-vehicle distance
vmax_rule limit speed in a specific road scenario

3. Design of a General Relay-Node Selection on Intersection

In this section, we firstly construct a model to describe the general intersection. Based on the
model, a general relay-node selection method on intersection is further presented to make the message
cover the maximum range on every branch. Finally, the exponent-based partition on intersection is
explored to achieve less delay and higher PDR.

3.1. Description of a General Intersection

A general intersection with Nb branches is shown in Figure 2. A message comes from one branch
and is expected to be delivered to other Nb − 1 branches. Extend the branch so that the message comes
from the direction of the message dissemination and build a coordinate system with the origin point at
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 5 of 26

C (the center of the intersection). Branches are marked as Br1 , Br2 , ..., Br Nb in the counterclockwise
direction from the positive axis, and the angles between each branch and the positive axis are denoted
as θ1 , θ2 , ..., θ Nb , respectively. In the examples in Figure 2, the message comes from the western branch
assumed as Brk , and the coordinate axis goes from west to east. The angle between the branch Brk and
the positive axis is θk .
Based on the description of the general intersection, an exponent-partition-based relay-node
selection suitable to the realistic intersections is explored in the following subsection, and the analytic
performance models are presented in Section 4.

3.2. Procedure of the Relay-Node Selection on General Intersection

The objective of our relay-node selection is to deliver the message from Brk to other branches as
far and fast as possible. The proposal consists of two phases. The first phase is to find a node closest
to C, aiming to cover the largest range in all branches with the selected relay node, referred to as
Intersection Phase. In the second phase, referred to as Branch Phase, the farthest nodes in each branch
except Brk are selected as relay nodes.

3.2.1. Intersection Phase

Before a message reaches the intersection range, it is assumed to be delivered on a straight road,
which is one branch of the intersection. When a selected node finds itself in the Intersection Region,
it is assigned a function to select a node closest to C. We refer the node first in the Intersection Region
as Hunter (H) and the node closest to C as Relay Node in Intersection Phase (RelayI ). The Intersection
Region is defined as a circle region centered at C with radius of r, which is shown as the shadow area
in Figure 2.

2
Popt Br2
1
Popt

. Br1
.
Communication
R B .
B
Range of RI
k
E
W . I 1

Brk …
B
Intersection
Region
. Popt
Nb

BrNb

. Node RelayI Center B

Hunter RelayB I

Figure 2. General relay-node selection on intersection.

Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 6 of 26

The criterion for the selection of r is to cover every possible node which is nearer to C than H.
We consider the case that H is located at the border of Intersection Region, i.e., H is r away from C.
In this case the node superior to H is most unlikely out of the Intersection Region. So r should satisfy
the inequity as (
R2 = r2 + (lBn )2 − 2rlBn cos(θn − θm )
, (2)
lBn ≥ r

where n is the index of the n-th branch (n6=m), and lBn is the coverage of H on the n-th branch. Thus,
we can derive
r ≤ R/2. (3)

The larger the range in one-hop, the faster the message disseminates. Thus, in our relay-node
selection method, r = R/2.

3.2.2. Branch Phase

Having been selected as the relay node, RelayI becomes responsible for initiating the message
delivered to all branches except the branch the message comes from. The selection of relay nodes
on these branches proceeds independently and simultaneously. Each selection can use different
radio channels in VANET or different radio sources in LTE eV2X to transfer the different packets of
Request-To-Broadcast/Clear-To-Broadcasting (RTB/CTB) and use different frequency to carry different
black bursts on the different branches. In the communication range of RelayI , shown as the circle area
centered at RelayI in Figure 2, the farthest nodes on the branches except Brk from RelayI are expected to
be selected as relay nodes. The relay node in the n-th branch is referred to as RelayBn . In the following,
for simple expression, the relay node on the branch is denoted as RelayB .

3.3. Exponent-Based Partition on General Intersection

In each phase, we develop the exponent-based partition on the general intersection to select
RelayI and RelayB successively. Define the region where the partition is conducted as Partition Rang,
referred to as Rp . From our earlier works [14], it can be derived that the design of a small partition
range can reduce the contention latency. Therefore, the exponent-based partition method in each phase
is conducted as follows.

3.3.1. Intersection Phase

Since RelayI is expected to be closer to the center than H, the partition range Rp is the circle region
centered at C with the radius equal to the distance between H and C. In addition, the functionality
defined for “Communication Range” and “Border” in Figure 1 is now employed for the Rp and C,
respectively. The Rp is partitioned into Npart circular or ring regions for Niter iterations to find a
thinnest no-empty segment in each branch closest to C, and the thinnest no-empty segment is referred
to as final segment. Clearly, the inner segment has higher priority of getting selected over the outer
segment. And in each iteration, the segment closer to C has a smaller width. Once the final segment
in each branch is determined, nodes located in these segments enter the CTB-contention phase [13].
Finally, one of them is elected as RelayI , and the RelayI starts the branch phase.

3.3.2. Branch Phase

In the branch phase, the selection of the node farthest from RelayI means that the node nearest to
the junction of each branch and the circle for the communication range of RelayI . When RelayB is at
the junction, the message progress in the branch phase will be the maximum. We term the junction on
the n-th branch as the optimal point, Pnopt . Since the node nearer to the optimal point than RelayI is
expected, the partition range Rp is determined as the minimum range among the range from RelayI to
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 7 of 26

the optimal point and the range from C to the optimal point. Consequently, when RelayI in the m-th
branch, Rp on the n-th branch can be defined as

 DRelay ,Pn , when n = m
I opt
Rp = , (4)
 DC,Pn , when n6=m
opt

where DA,B represents the range between the points of A and B. Corresponding Rp and Popt n to

“Communication Range” and “Border” in Figure 1, the partition procedure proceeds. After CTB
contention, RelayB in each branch is selected. The general relay-node selection on intersection is
completed, then the message is delivered to every direction. The mini-Black-Burst-Assisted mechanism
in Ref. [14] is also applied in our proposal to alleviate the high partition latency in the adverse
scenario[14], in which numerous nodes distribute only in the final segment near the sender, and in the
sparse network.

4. Modeling and Analysis

Message dissemination speed and PDR are the metrics used widely to validate the efficiency
and reliability of vehicular networks. In the scenario of straight road, the selection of relay node in
each hop is independent. However, from the description in the above section, the partition range Rp
for the selection of RelayB is dependent on the location of RelayI . It means that the first hop (phase)
in the whole procedure decides the latter hop (phase). Thus, we analyze the two metrics in the two
hops for our proposed general relay-node selection on intersection. Please note that the two metrics of
message dissemination speed and PDR are related to the procedure of the relay-node selection, not the
message broadcast.
In the following analysis and the simulation in Section 5, the protocol in [13] is adopted to
proceed the message dissemination in one-hop. Message dissemination in this protocol has four
phases: Mini-distribute inter-frame space (mini-DIFS) for channel access, exponent-based partition,
CTB contention phase to resolve the problem of multiple nodes in the final segment and data
transmission. Thus, one-hop delay Td consists of initial latency Tinit in mini-DIFS, partition latency
Tpart , contention latency Tcon and data transmission latency Tdata . Td is given as

Td = Tinit + Tpart + Tcon + Tdata . (5)

Certainly, other protocol also can be adopted in the message dissemination, and the analysis is
similar. In the CTB-contention phase, the exponential back-off timer is applied to alleviate the collision.

4.1. Metrics Definition

Since the two phases depend on each other, we redefine Message dissemination speed and PDR to
evaluate the performance of our proposal.

4.1.1. Message Dissemination Speed v

v is the ratio of the message dissemination distance along the road and the delay Tˆd in the whole
procedure, defined as

Rmax β
v= , (6)
Tˆd
where Rmax represents the maximal distance of the message dissemination along the roads. β is the
message progress which is the message dissemination distance normalized by Rmax . In addition,Tˆd
is the delay of the whole procedure. In the scenarios of intersection, Rmax = 3R/2 in the case that H
locates at the border of the intersection range, RelayI and RelayB at C and Popt respectively. β and Tˆd
are the average value of those corresponding to the message delivered to each branch except Brk .
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 8 of 26

For simple presentation, the message dissemination distance represents the message dissemination
distance along the roads in the following subsection.

4.1.2. Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR)

PDR is the percentage of packets received successfully by all relay nodes in branches over the
total number of packets sent by Hunter. In this paper, we focus on the selection of the relay node,
thus only the failure caused by the collision in CTB contention is considered. This means that the
packet fails to be delivered if any relay node on one branch cannot be selected successfully.
In the following subsection, since the exponent-based partitioning method will affect Tpart and
Tcon in each phase, β (the three metrics determinate v), and PDR in the whole procedure, we only
develop the analytical models for the four metrics of our general relay-node selection on intersection.

4.2. Preliminary Analysis

In this subsection, we present the analytical models for these performance metrics in one-hop
given the partition range Rp and the equivalent node density λ̂. Based these results, the models of
Tpart , Tcon , β and PDR for our proposal are explored in the next subsection.

4.2.1. Partitioning Latency Tpart

Under the assumption that the number of vehicles follows Poisson distribution [16–19],
the probability of the selection of the i-th segment in the j-th iteration can be derived with a similar
procedure in [13] as
j,i j,i
−µseg_bro (λ̂,Rp )
P j,i seg_sel (λ̂, Rp ) = e (1 − e−µseg (λ̂,Rp ) ), (7)
j,i j,i
where µseg_bro (λ̂, Rp ) and µseg (λ̂, Rp ) are the average vehicle numbers in other segments in the
message dissemination direction and in the i-th segment of the j-th iteration, respectively. Note that
j,i j,i
µseg_bro (λ̂, Rp ) and µseg (λ̂, Rp ) are the function of the parameters of Rp and λ̂.
Based on the above results, the average duration Tpart spent during the partitioning phase can be
obtained as   
Niter Nseg ( j)  
Tpart (λ̂, Rp ) =  ∑ ∑
j,i
Np_slot (i ) Pseg_sel (λ̂, Rp )  + 1 Tslot , (8)
j =1 i =1

where Np_slot (i ) is the number of time slots spent when the i-th segment is selected, Tslot is the
duration of a time slot, and Nseg ( j) = ( Npart ) j .

4.2.2. Contention Latency Tcon

With the exponential back-off timer applied, the maximum width of the back-off timer doubles
after each collision. Since the contention happens in the nonempty segment, following the similar
analysis in [14], the single probabilities of the two cases (success, collision) in the c-th contention of the
i-th final segment can be derived as

i,c µi (λ̂, Rp ) pc e−µi (λ̂,Rp ) pc

psuc_con (λ̂, Rp ) = , (9)
1 − e−µi (λ̂,Rp ) pc

i,c µi (λ̂, Rp ) pc e−µi (λ̂,Rp ) pc

pcol_con (λ̂, Rp ) = 1 − , (10)
1 − e−µi (λ̂,Rp ) pc
where µi (λ̂, Rp ) = λ̂Rp Wseg ( Niter , i ) is the average number of vehicles in the i-th final segment, and
pc = C 1(c) ( Cw (c) is the maximal number of back-off timer in the c-th contention ). Therefore, the
w
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 9 of 26

success probability of the whole contention process when the c-th contention succeeds in the k-th final
segment is computed as

c −1
i,c
psuc i,c
(λ̂, Rp ) = psuc_con (λ̂, Rp ) ∏ pcol_con
i,l
(λ̂, Rp ), (11)
l =0

k,0
where pcol_con (λ̂, Rp ) = 1 and c = 1, 2, ....
i
For the similar reasons, the whole contention latency Tcon_seg (λ̂, Rp ) of the i-th segment can be
derived as
∞
!
c −1
i
Tcon_seg (λ̂, Rp ) = ∑ psuc
i,c
(λ̂, Rp ) ∑ Tcol_si (l ) + Tsuc_si (c) , (12)
c =1 l =0

where Tcon_si (c) and Tsuc_si (c) are the durations spent in the collision case and the success case in the
c-th contention, respectively.
It is noteworthy to mention that after some collisions in the case of high vehicle densities, the last
success contention cost a little time since multiple nodes contend, and it can be approximated by the
success contention duration in the first contention. Finally, the average contention latency in one-hop
can be computed as

Nseg ( Niter )
∑ i N
iter ,i
Tcon (λ̂, Rp ) = Tcon_seg (λ̂, Rp ) Pseg_sel (λ̂, Rp ). (13)
i =1

4.2.3. One-Hop Message Progress β

One-hop message progress β is the average one-hop transmission distance relative to Rp in
one hop, which can be calculated as

Nseg ( Niter )
∑
Niter ,i
β(λ̂, Rp ) = Mi Pseg_sel (λ̂, Rp ), (14)
i =1

where Mi is the average message progress if the i-th segment is the final segment. Since vehicles
distribute in the final segment randomly and each contender has the same probability of being selected,
the expected location of the relay node is the middle of the final segment.

4.2.4. PDR
Since in the paper the collision is considered to be the factor for the failure of message delivery,
PDR in one hop can be attained as

Nseg ( Niter )
! !
Nrecon
∑ ∏ i,c Niter ,i
PDR(λ̂, Rp ) = 1 − pcol_con (λ̂, Rp ) Pseg_sel (λ̂, Rp ) . (15)
i =1 c =1

where Nrecon is the maximal times for the CTB contention.

4.3. Modeling for General Relay-Node Selection on Intersection

To evaluate the selection of the relay-node, we consider the scenarios that there is at least one
node in the Intersection Region and in partition range on every branch respectively. In addition,
it is assumed that the Hunter locates at the point R/2 from C to analyze the lower bound of the
performance since this case has the biggest partition range in the Intersection Phase. In the following,
based on the results in the previous subsection, we will first explore the analytic model for the metrics
( i.e., Tpart , Tcon , β and PDR) in Intersection Phase and Branch Phase, respectively.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 10 of 26

4.3.1. Metrics in Intersection Phase

In Intersection Phase, our proposal finds the nearer node to C than H in the circle region centered
at C with radius of D HC . In addition, H is R/2 from C. Therefore, the optimal position Popt is C, and
Rp = R/2. Moreover, since the circle region covers Nb branches, λ̂ = Nb λ, where λ is the vehicle
density in a branch. From (8) and (13), we can obtain the partition latency Tpart_I and the contention
latency Tcon_I in Intersection Phase as
  
  Niter Nseg ( j)   
R R
=  ∑ ∑
j,i
Tpart_I = Tpart Nb λ, Np_slot (i ) Pseg_sel Nb λ,  + 1 Tslot , (16)
2 j =1 i =1
2

  Nseg ( Niter )    
R R R
∑ i N ,i
iter
Tcon_I = Tcon Nb λ, = Tcon_seg Nb λ, Pseg_sel Nb λ, , (17)
2 i =1
2 2

and message progress β I and PDRI in Intersection Phase from (14 ) and (15) as

  Nseg ( Niter )  
R R
∑
Niter ,i
β I = β Nb λ, = Mi Pseg_sel Nb λ, , (18)
2 i =1
2

  Nseg ( Niter ) Nrecon  !  !

R R R
∑ ∏ i,c Niter ,i
PDRI = PDR Nb λ, = 1− pcol_con Nb λ, Pseg_sel Nb λ, (19)
2 i =1 c =1
2 2

4.3.2. Metrics in Branch Phase

In Branch Phase, the selection of RaleyB is processed on each branch individually and depends on
n,i,m
the location of RaleyI . Hence, λ̂ = λ, and the partition range Rp_B on the n-th branch in Branch Phase
when RaleyI is in the i-th final segment on the m-th branch can be achieved as
(
n,i,m
R, when n=m
Rp_B = q (20)
lCi cos(θn − θm ) + R2 − (lCi )2 sin2 (θn − θm ), when n6=m

where lCi is the distance between RaleyI and C when RaleyI is in the i-th final segment. The derivation of
n,i,m
Rp_B can be seen in Appendix A.
To avoid confusing, the indexes of the final segments where RaleyI and RaleyB exist are denoted
as iI and iB , respectively. Moreover, for simplicity, the notation i and iI have the same meaning.
n,i,m n,i,m
From (8) and (13), the partition latency Tpart_B and the contention latency Tcon_B on the n-th branch in
Branch Phase when RaleyI is in the iI -th final segment can be achieved as
! !
  Niter Nseg ( j)   
n,i,m n,iI ,m n,iI ,m j,iB n,i ,m
Tpart_B = Tpart_B = Tpart λ, Rp_B = ∑ ∑ Np_slot (iB ) Pseg_sel λ, Rp_BI + 1 Tslot , (21)
j =1 iB =1

  Nseg ( Niter )    
∑
n,i,m n,iI ,m n,i ,m iB n,i ,m Niter ,iB n,i ,m
Tcon_B = Tcon_B = Tcon λ, Rp_BI = Tcon_seg λ, Rp_BI Pseg_sel λ, Rp_BI (22)
iB =1

From (14) and (15), the message progress βn,i,m

B and the PDRBn,i,m on the n-th branch when RaleyI
is in the iI -th final segment can be derived as

  Nseg ( Niter )  
∑
n,iI ,m n,iI ,m Niter ,iB n,i ,m
βn,i,m
B = βB = β λ, Rp_B = MiB Pseg_sel λ, Rp_BI , (23)
iB =1
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 11 of 26

  Nseg ( Niter )  Nrecon    

n,iI ,m n,iI ,m iB ,c n,i ,m Niter ,iB n,i ,m
PDRBn,i,m = PDRB = PDR λ, Rp_B = 1− ∑ ∏ pcol_con λ, Rp_BI Pseg_sel λ, Rp_BI . (24)
iB =1 c =1

As we know, RaleyI may exist on any branch, meanwhile RaleyB will be located on the branches
except Brk where message comes from. Moreover, the probability that the RaleyI lies on any branch is
equal. Therefore, the average partition time Tpart_B and the average contention time Tcon_B in Branch
Phase can be attained as
Nseg ( Niter )
! !
Nb Nb 
1 1 R
∑ ∑ ∑ Tpart_B Pseg_sel Nb λ, 2 ,
n,i,m Niter ,i
Tpart_B = (25)
i =1
Nb m =1
Nb − 1 n=1&n 6=m

Nseg ( Niter )
! !
Nb Nb 
1 1 R
∑ ∑ ∑ Tcon_B Pseg_sel Nb λ, 2 .
n,i,m Niter ,i
Tcon_B = (26)
i =1
Nb m =1
Nb − 1 n=1&n 6=m

Message progress β B is defined as the average distance between RaleyB and C relative to R.
From (14) and (15), β B and PDRB can also be attained as
! !
Nseg ( Niter ) Nb Nb    
Niter ,i
βB = 1
R ∑ 1
Nb ∑ 1
Nb −1 ∑ βn,i,m
B
n,i,m
Rp_B + lCi (n == m) Pseg_sel Nb λ, R
2 (27)
i =1 m =1 n=1&n6=m

and
Nseg ( Niter )
!! !
Nb N 
1 R
∑ ∑ ∏
Niter ,i
PDRB = PDRBn,i,m Pseg_sel Nb λ, . (28)
i =1
Nb m =1 n=1&n6=m
2

4.3.3. Metrics in Whole Procedure

Based on the previous results, the one-hop delay in each phase can be achieved from (5), and the
delay Ttwo_hop in the whole relay-node selection on intersection is the summation of one-hop delay in
two phases. β in the whole procedure can be derived as
 
R 3R
β= βB R + = (2β B + 1)/3, (29)
2 2

From (6), we can get the message dissemination speed in the whole procedure. In addition, PDR
in the whole procedure is
PDR = PDRI × PDRB . (30)

5. Numerical and Simulation Results

In the section, we will simulate our proposal and some prior works on a crossroad to validate the
analytical models and to evaluate the performance of our proposal. The crossroad is a type of
intersection with Nb = 4 and (θ1 , θ2 , θ3 , θ4 ) = (π/2, π, 3π/2, 2π ). These prior works include
AMB in Ref. [18] and BPAB in Ref. [19]. ( Niter , Npart ) in our proposal and BPAB are set as (2, 4)
and (4, 2) according to [14] and [19], respectively, Nmax = 10 for AMB and A = 2 for our proposal. To
measure the gain benefited from the exponent-based partition method and mini-BBM [14], we also
simulate an Iterative Partition with Equal Segment which has the same setting of ( Niter , Npart ) with
our proposal (referred to as IPES24) and the proposal without mini-BBM applied.

5.1. Simulation Environment

The simulation environment is VANET with MATLAB. Since the focus of these relay-node
selection methods lies on link level, just 802.11p MAC layer is simulated in this paper. The major
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 12 of 26

communication parameters are identical to those used in [13,14,19], listed in Table 2. Since most
distance between adjacent intersections are in the range of (200, 800) m, R is set as 400 m, a small value
for R in VANET.

Table 2. Major communication parameters.

Parameters Default Values

Bit Rate 18 Mbps
Message Packet Size 500 Bytes
RTB Packet Size 20 Bytes
CTB Packet Size 14 Bytes
Slot Time 13 µs
DIFS 58 µs
SIFS 32 µs
Transceiver’s Switching Time 1 µs
Communication Range 400 m
Confidence Interval 95%

Each branch has a length of 700 m to ensure the simulation zone long enough for two hops.
To assure nodes available in the partition range and evaluate the enhancement of our proposal in
heavy traffic, the vehicle density λ for the simulation to compare the performance in Section 5.3 is
set from 0.0025 to 3.0025 vehicle/meter at the interval of 0.2 vehicle/meter. Vehicles are distributed
on every branch randomly, following Poisson distribution of the density λ. For simple simulation
without loss of generality, the Hunter is located at the position R/2 far from C on the eastern branch in
each simulation.
In the simulation, the value of the maximum speed vmax of vehicles is determined with the value of
the distance between the adjacent vehicles to comply with the rule related to the safe inter-vehicle
distance [26,27]. vmax can be given as

vmax = min(dinter_veh , vmax_rule ), (31)

where dinter_veh is the average inter-vehicle distance, and vmax_rule represents the limit speed in a
specific road scenario. The units of vmax and dinter_veh are km/h and m, respectively. Each vehicle
chooses a random speed following a uniform distribution in ( 21 vmax , vmax ) at the beginning of the
simulation and keeps the chose speed during the simulation. Lane change and overtaking are not
modeled for vehicle movement. From the simulation results, the duration for the message going
through the intersection range is less than 3 ms. Moreover, the minor impact of node mobility on the
relay-node selection has been proved in Ref. [28,29]. Hence, the above assumptions about the vehicle
movement and the adoption of MATLAB are acceptable.
The arrival rate of messages is set to 2 EMs/s, Nrecon = 3 for the validation of the PDR model to
separate the curves and Nrecon for others. CW(1) is chose as 1 for AMB because of a few candidates in
the CTB contention, and 4 for others. Tm_slot in mini-BBM and Tinter in CTB contention are selected as
Tinter /3 and Tinter /2 to reduce the partition latency in sparse vehicles and the contention latency in
heavy traffic, meanwhile to avoid the spurious forwarding [30].
We performed 20,000 repetitions of Monte Carlo simulation [31,32] for PDR results and
1000 repetitions for other results to get statistical significance. These outcomes are averaged to
produce the graphs presented in this section with 95% confidence intervals. The confidence intervals
are marked with the error bars in the plots.

5.2. Validations of Analytical Model

Figures 3–8 show the comparison of the results of analytical models (lines) and the simulation
(symbols). These results are a function of vehicle density with varied Npart , Niter and A. As can be
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 13 of 26

seen from these figures, the analytical predictions coincide with simulation results well, showing the
validity of the obtained analytical expressions.
From these figures, some new interesting observations can be got as follows: (1) With one of
the three parameters (Npart , Niter and A) decreasing, the partition latency is reduced. In addition,
the gain of the partition latency benefited from the decreasing of the three parameters falls as the
parameter becomes a smaller value. The similar tendency is also observed for the contention latency,
message progress and PDR with the three parameters increasing. (2) The partition latency approaches
a constant value when the traffic becomes heavier. This is because when the vehicle density rises over
a particular value, at least one node exists in the final segment near the optimal position, then the
number of B spent in the partition phase is fixed as Niter − 1. (3) We also find that the bigger values
have the three parameters, the smaller the contention latency varies with density, shown as the lowest
curve in Figures 4 and 6. The observation is because the bigger values of the parameters can result in a
thinner final segment. (4) Increasing these parameters can improve the contention latency but prolong
the partition latency, and the influence is different at different vehicle densities. It is confirmed again
that there are some optimal values for these three parameters to get a maximum message speed.

0.022
A=0.1(analysis)
Partition Latency in Intersection Phase (ms)

0.021
A=2(analysis)
0.02 A=32(analysis)
A=0.1(simulation)
0.019 A=2(simulation)
A=32(simulation)
0.018

0.017

0.016

0.015

0.014

0.013

0.012
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(a)
0.032
N part =3(analysis)
Partition Latency in Intersection Phase (ms)

0.03
N part =4(analysis)
0.028
N part =5(analysis)
0.026 N part =3(simulation)
N part =4(simulation)
0.024
N part =5(simulation)
0.022

0.02

0.018

0.016

0.014

0.012
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(b)

Figure 3. Cont.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 14 of 26

0.08
N iter =2(analysis)

Partition Latency in Intersection Phase (ms)

0.07 N iter =3(analysis)
N iter =4(analysis)
0.06 N iter =2(simulation)
N iter =3(simulation)
0.05 N iter =4(simulation)

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(c)

Figure 3. Validation of the model for partition latency in Intersection Phase. (a) When (Niter, Npart ) = (2,
3); (b) When ( Niter , A) = (2, 2); (c) When ( Npart , A) = (4, 2).

0.16
Contention Latency in Intersection Phase (ms)

A=0.1(analysis)
0.14 A=2(analysis)
A=32(analysis)
A=0.1(simulation)
0.12 A=2(simulation)
A=32(simulation)
0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202

Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(a)
0.08
Contention Latency in Intersection Phase (ms)

N part =3(analysis)
0.07 N part =4(analysis)
N part =5(analysis)
0.06 N part =3(simulation)
N part =4(simulation)
0.05 N part =5(simulation)

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(b)

Figure 4. Cont.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 15 of 26

0.08
N iter =2(analysis)

Contention Latency in Intersection Phase (ms)

N iter =3(analysis)
0.07
N iter =4(analysis)
N iter =2(simulation)
0.06
N iter =3(simulation)
N iter =4(simulation)
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(c)

Figure 4. Validation of the model for contention latency in Intersection Phase. (a) When (Niter, Npart ) = (2,
3); (b) When ( Niter , A) = (2, 2); (c) When ( Npart , A) = (4, 2).

0.022

0.021 A=0.1(analysis)
A=2(analysis)
Partition Latency in Branch Phase (ms)

0.02 A=32(analysis)
A=0.1(simulation)
0.019 A=2(simulation)
A=32(simulation)
0.018

0.017

0.016

0.015

0.014

0.013

0.012
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density(Vehicle/Metre)
(a)
0.032
N part =3(analysis)
0.03 N part =4(analysis)
Partition Latency in Branch Phase (ms)

0.028 N part =5(analysis)

N part =3(simulation)
0.026
N part =4(simulation)
0.024 N part =5(simulation)

0.022

0.02

0.018

0.016

0.014

0.012
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(b)

Figure 5. Cont.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 16 of 26

0.08
N iter =2(analysis)
N iter =3(analysis)

Partition Latency in Branch Phase (ms)

0.07
N iter =4(analysis)
N iter =2(simulation)
0.06
N iter =3(simulation)
N iter =4(simulation)
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(c)

Figure 5. Validation of the model for partition latency in Branch Phase. (a) When ( Niter , Npart ) = (2, 3);
(b) When ( Niter , A) = (2, 2); (c) When ( Npart , A) = (4, 2).

0.08
A=0.1(analysis)
A=2(analysis)
Contention Latency in Branch Phase (ms)

0.07 A=32(analysis)
A=0.1(simulation)
A=2(simulation)
0.06 A=32(simulation)

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density(Vehicle/Metre)
(a)
0.08
N part =3(analysis)
Contention Latency in Branch Phase (ms)

N part =4(analysis)
0.07
N part =5(analysis)
N part =3(simulation)
0.06
N part =4(simulation)
N part =5(simulation)
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(b)

Figure 6. Cont.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 17 of 26

0.08
N iter =2(analysis)

Contention Latency in Branch Phase (ms)

N iter =3(analysis)
0.07
N iter =4(analysis)
N iter =2(simulation)
0.06
N iter =3(simulation)
N iter =4(simulation)
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(c)

Figure 6. Validation of the model for contention latency in Branch Phase. (a) When (Niter, Npart ) = (2, 3);
(b) When ( Niter , A) = (2, 2); (c) When ( Npart , A) = (4, 2).

100

95
Message Progress (%)

90

85

80
A=0.1(analysis)
A=2(analysis)
A=32(analysis)
75 A=0.1(simulation)
A=2(simulation)
A=32(simulation)
70
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(a)
100

95
Message Progress (%)

90

85
N part =3(analysis)
N part =4(analysis)
80
N part =5(analysis)
N part =3(simulation)
75 N part =4(simulation)
N part =5(simulation)
70
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(b)

Figure 7. Cont.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 18 of 26

100

95

Message Progress (%)

90

85
N iter =2(analysis)

80 N iter =3(analysis)
N iter =4(analysis)
N iter =2(simulation)
75
N iter =3(simulation)
N iter =4(simulation)
70
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(c)

Figure 7. Validation of the model for message progress in Branch Phase. (a) When ( Niter , Npart ) = (2, 3);
(b) When ( Niter , A) = (2, 2); (c) When ( Npart , A) = (4, 2).

100

90

80

70

60
PDR (%)

50

40 A=0.1(analysis)
30 A=2(analysis)
A=32(analysis)
20 A=0.1(simulation)
10 A=2(simulation)
A=32(simulation)
0
0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202
Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)

(a)
100

80

60
PDR (%)

Npart=3(analysis)
40
Npart=4(analysis)
Npart=5(analysis)
20
Npart=3(simulation)
Npart=4(simulation)
0
Npart=5(simulation)

0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202

Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(b)

Figure 8. Cont.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 19 of 26

100

80

60
PDR (%)
Niter=2(analysis)
40
Niter=3(analysis)
Niter=4(analysis)
20
Niter=2(simulation)

0 Niter=3(simulation)
Niter=4(simulation)

0.002 0.042 0.082 0.122 0.162 0.202

Vehicle Density (Vehicle/Metre)
(c)

Figure 8. Validation of the analytical model for PDR. (a) When ( Niter , Npart ) = (2, 3);
(b) When ( Niter , A) = (2, 0.1); (c) When ( Npart , A) = (3, 0.1).

5.3. Evaluations of Performance

Figures 9 and 10 reveal that the exponent partition mechanism is advantageous to the partition
latency within a limited value (seen from the curves of ‘’Proposal without mini” in Figure 9a and
Figure 10a ), meanwhile is favorable of a significant gain in terms of the contention latency compared
to BPAB and IPES24 (seen from Figure 9b and Figure 10b). Although at high vehicle densities (e.g.,
3.0025 vehicles/meter), the gain in partition latency cannot make up the gap in contention latency
compared to AMB, the mini-BBM mechanism benefits our proposal to defeat AMB in terms of the sum
of partition latency and contention latency.
As a result, shown in Figure 11a, our proposal achieves more than 18.10%, 15.26% and 19.24%
lower two-hop delay than that of BPAB, IPES24 and AMB. In particular in heavy traffic, the
enhancement is more significant. Additionally, our proposal attains the second-best performance in
terms of message progress, which is only 0.37% worse than the best performing AMB. Consequently,
it can be observed in Figure 11b that the message dissemination speed achieved by our proposal
outperforms that of BPAB, IPES24 and AMB by at least 21.89%, 17.87% and 23.35%. The improvement
even goes up to 125.23%, 123.87% compared to BPAB and IPES24 at the high vehicle density of
3.0025 vehicles/meter, and 63.78% compared to AMB at the relatively low vehicle density of 0.2025
vehicles/meter. It is also observed from Figure 11b that, at the heavy vehicle density, the performance
of BPAB and IPES24 in terms of message dissemination speed drops gently, not as drastically as
expected. The reason is that when the re-attempt number of CTB contention is over the pre-selected
number Nrecon , the performance of this case in terms of message dissemination speed does not need to
be evaluated, and the contention latency in average one-hop delay is decided by the duration of Nrecon
contentions in heavy traffic.
Figure 12 demonstrates that our proposal presents the second-best performance in terms of
PDR, which is over 90% stably. Although our proposal performs worse than the best performing
AMB, it can be promoted by choosing a bigger A in dense networks. It is also observed that the
performance of BPAB and IPES24 in terms of PDR degrades sharply as the vehicle density increases.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 20 of 26

0.25

Partition Latency in Intersection Phase(ms)

0.2
Proposal
Proposal without mini
AMB
0.15 IPES24
BPAB

0.1

0.05

0
0.0025 0.6025 1.2025 1.8025 2.4025 3.0025
Vehicle Density(Vehicle/Metre)
(a)
1.5
Proposal
Contention Latency in Intersection Phase(ms)

Proposalt without mini

AMB
IPES24
BPAB

0.5

0
0.0025 0.6025 1.2025 1.8025 2.4025 3.0025
Vehicle Density(Vehicle/Metre)
(b)

Figure 9. Comparison of Latency in Intersection Phase. (a) Comparison of partition latency;

(b) Comparison of contention latency.

0.25
Partition Latency in Branch Phase(ms)

0.2

Proposal
Proposal without mini
0.15 AMB
IPES24
BPAB
0.1

0.05

0
0.0025 0.6025 1.2025 1.8025 2.4025 3.0025
Vehicle Density(Vehicle/Metre)
(a)

Figure 10. Cont.

Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 21 of 26

1
Proposal
0.9 Proposal without mini

Contention Latency in Branch Phase(ms)

AMB
0.8 IPES24
BPAB
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.0025 0.6025 1.2025 1.8025 2.4025 3.0025
Vehicle Density(Vehicle/Metre)
(b)

Figure 10. Comparison of Latency in Branch Phase. (a) Comparison of partition latency.
(b) Comparison of contention latency.

100 4

3.5
95

Two-hop Delay in Branch Phase(ms)

Proposal
AMB
3
IPES24
Message Progress(%)

90 BPAB

2.5
85
2

80
1.5

75
1

70 0.5
0.0025 0.6025 1.2025 1.8025 2.4025 3.0025
Vehicle Density(Vehicle/Metre)

(a)

900

Proposal
800
AMB
Message Dissemination Speed(Km/s)

IPES24
700 BPAB

600

500

400

300

200

100
0.0025 0.6025 1.2025 1.8025 2.4025 3.0025
Vehicle Density(Vehicle/Vehicle/Metre)

(b)

Figure 11. Comparison of efficient performance in whole procedure. (a) Comparison of two-hop delay
and message progress; (b) Comparison of dissemination speed.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 22 of 26

From the results in Figures 9–12 and the above analysis, some conclusions and suggestions
can be given as follows: (1) In traffic jams, effective and real-time message dissemination is highly
needed. However, the relay-node selection is more likely to fail due to the high collision rate
caused by the high number of vehicles, and the performance will deteriorate in terms of message
dissemination speed and PDR. In this sense, our proposal provides an effective solution by employing
the design of exponent-based partition. It generates thinner final segments and thus improves message
dissemination speed and PDR in the dense traffic. (2) From Figure 11b, it is clear to observe that all
approaches perform the best message dissemination speed at the density of 0.2025 vehicle/meter.
It demonstrates that the relay-node selection method based on the distance has an optimal vehicle
density at which the method performs the best in terms of the message dissemination speed. Thus,
when considering the real-time dissemination of the message, to select the branch that has the vehicle
density closest the optimal value is a good suggestion in the routing design [33–38].

100

90

80
PDR(%)

70

60 Proposal
AMB
50 IPES24
BPAB

40

0.0025 0.6025 1.2025 1.8025 2.4025 3.0025

Vehicle Density(Vehicle/Vehicle/Metre)

Figure 12. Comparison of PDR.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, after building a model for a general intersection with any number of branches
and any angles between branches, we investigated a general relay-node selection method based on
exponent-based partition. Several mechanisms are combined to improve the performance, including:
the design of the minimum partition range and mini-BBM mechanism. Compared with the prior
methods, our proposal gains remarkable improvement in efficiency and reliability. In addition, based
on the mathematical description of the general intersection, we explore the analytical model for
performance in terms of both the message dissemination speed and PDR. Our work focuses on
modeling the partition latency, contention latency, message progress and PDR, which the exponent
partition mechanism will affect. These models account for the adaptation of the exponential back-off
timer. The results of computer simulation justify the accuracy of these models and the improvement of
our proposal.
Some interesting observations in the paper bring up some instructive ideas, such as the branch
selection based on the optimal vehicle density in the route problem, and the parameter optimization
according to the communication range and the vehicle density. In the future, we will further our work
on the design of the relay-node selection on the curve road, a typical road structure, and an adaptive
relay-node selection scheme aided with NS-3 and mobility generators such as Bonnmotion including
more-realistic traffic scenarios.

Author Contributions: D.C. conceived the mechanism design and wrote the paper, B.Z. performed simulations,
B.J. built the models and analyzed the performance, C.F. developed the mechanism, J.W. revised the manuscript
and will contribute to the refinement of the article.
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 23 of 26

Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.51675059,
No.51408069, No.61702052, No.61801170, No.61501405, No.61671144 and U1404615), and National Thirteen Five
National Defense Fund (Grant No.6140311030207).
Acknowledgments: We thank the reviewers and all people for their helpful comments and valuable efforts to
improve the paper, specially to Xiaomin Ma in Oral Roberts University for his encourage.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

VNET Vehicular NETwork

NLOS Non-Line-Of-Sight
PDR Packet Delivery Ratio
VANET Vehicular Ad hoc NETworks
LTE eV2X Long-Term Evolution-based enhanced Vehicle-to-Everything
GIS Geographic Information System
GPSR Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
PMBP Position-based Multi-hop Broadcast Protocol
3P3B Trinary Partitioned Black-Burst-based Broadcast protocol
UMB Urban Multi-hop Broadcast protocol
AMB Ad hoc Multi-hop Broadcast
BPAB Binary-Partition-Assisted Broadcast protocol
EPBP Exponent-based Partitioning Broadcast Protocol
CTB Clear-To-Broadcasting
RTB Request-To-Broadcasting
mini-BBM mini-Black-Burst-assisted Mechanism

Appendix A. Proof of the Partition Range in Branch Phase

Assume message comes from the k-th branch, and RelayI lies on the m-th branch. One RelayB is
expected to be selected on the n-th branch. It is worth pointing out that m 6= n. Denote the distance
between RelayI and the center of intersection (C) as lC , and the distance between the optimal position
Popt on the n-th branch and C as lBn . The relationship between lC and lBn can be presented as
(
lBn = R + lC , when n = m
2 2 n 2 n (A1)
R = lC + (lB ) − 2lC lB cos(θn − θm ), when n6=m

The second sub-equation in the above equation can be represented as

(lBn )2 − 2lC cos(θn − θm )lBn + (lC 2 − R2 ) = 0. (A2)

Since lC ≤ R/2, then

R2  
R2 ≥ ≥ lC 2 ≥ 1 − cos2 (θn − θm ) lC 2 . (A3)
4
So
(2ll cos(θn − θm ))2 − 4(lC 2 − R2 ) ≥ 0. (A4)

From the above analysis, we can derive that lBn obtained from (A2) has a real value. Moreover,
lBn ≥ 0. Then lBn can be presented as
(
R + lC , when n = m
lBn = q . (A5)
lC cos(θn − θm ) + R2 − lC 2 sin2 (θn − θm ), when n6=m
Sensors 2018, 18, 4251 24 of 26

Since RelayB is expected to be closer to the optimal position than RelayI , the partition range for
RelayB is the range between Popt and RelayI when RelayB and RelayI on the same branch (i.e., m = n).
n,i,m
Therefore, the partition range Rp_B in the branch phase on the n-th branch when RelayI lies in the i-th
final segment on the m-th branch is
(
n,i,m
R, when n = m q
Rp_B = . (A6)
lCi cos(θn − θm )+ R2 − (lCi )2 sin2 (θn − θm ), when n6=m

The expected location of the relay node is the point in the middle of the final segment. Thus,
when RelayI is in the i-th final segment, the distance lCi can be expected as
!
i −1   1
lCi = ∑ Wseg( Niter ,b) + Wseg( Niter ,i)
2
× R. (A7)
b =1

where Wseg ( Niter , i ) can be obtained from (1).

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