Name: ____________________________________ Class: _________ Date: ______________

NOTES
Chapter 2: Cells

2.1 Cell Structure and Organisation

How can we study the parts of a cell?

1. We can use an electron or light microscope.

Viewing cell from different perspectives

1. Longitudinal section: cutting along the length of the cell.

2. Transverse section: cutting across the length of the cell.

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 Parts of a cell

1. Each living cell consists of living material called protoplasm. This comprises the

nucleus, cytoplasm and cell surface membrane.

cell surface membrane

cytoplasm

chromatin
nuclear nucleolus nucleoplasm
envelope

nucleus

2. The cell surface membrane is also known as plasma membrane. It is partially

permeable, that is, it allows only some substances to cross it.

3. Most cell activities occur in the cytoplasm.

4. The cytoplasm contains special membrane-bound structures called organelles.

5. The nucleus consists of a small round denser protoplasm called nucleoplasm which is

surrounded by a nuclear envelope. It controls the activities of cells and is essential for

cell division.

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 6. The cell wall is made of cellulose. It is fully permeable and protects the cells from

injuries. The cell wall is absent in animal cells.

cell wall

7. The nucleus contains a network of threadlike structures that control cell activities like

cell division. These structures are known as chromatin.

8. Chromatin is made of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA that stores hereditary information.

Chromatin threads condense into chromosomes when the cell is actively dividing.

What are the parts of the cytoplasm?

1.

rough endoplasmic reticulum

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

ribosome

Golgi apparatus

mitochondrion

2. Cytoplasm contains organelles and a network of tubules lined by a membrane.

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 3. The endoplasmic reticulum or ER is a network of membrane. There are two types of

ER: rough ER and smooth ER.

4. The rough ER appears rough because small particles called ribosomes are attached to

its outer surface. The surface of the rough ER is continuous with the nucleus.

5. Ribosomes are either free in the cytoplasm or attached to rough ER. They are needed

to synthesise proteins for the cell. Ribosomes on the rough ER usually synthesise

proteins that are transported out of cells. Ribosomes that lie freely within the

cytoplasm make proteins that are used within the cell.

6. The smooth ER is more tubular and does not have ribosomes. It synthesises

substances such as fats and steroids. It is also involved in detoxification.

7. The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened spaces surrounded by a membrane. It also

stores and modifies substances made by the ER. The Golgi apparatus packages the

substances in vesicles for secretion out of the cell.

8. The mitochondrion performs aerobic respiration in which glucose is oxidised to

release energy.

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 Organelles specific to a plant cell

1.

chloroplast

vacuole

tonoplast

2. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which absorbs light energy to carry out

photosynthesis.

3. Unlike animal cells which have many vacuoles containing water and food

substances, plant cells have a large central vacuole that is surrounded by the

tonoplast. The vacuole of a plant cell contains cell sap (made up of sugars, mineral

salts and amino acids).

Differences between plant cell and animal cell

Plant cell Animal cell

Cell wall present Cell wall absent

Chloroplast present Chloroplast absent

Centrioles absent Centrioles present

A large central vacuole Numerous small vacuoles

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2.2 Specialised Cells, Tissues, Organs and Systems

1. Differentiation is the process by which a cell becomes specialised for a specific function.

2. Haemoglobin in cytoplasm of red blood cells transports oxygen from lungs to all parts of

body. A red blood cell has no nucleus enabling it to load more oxygen. It has a

biconcave shape that increases the surface area to volume ratio for the efficient

diffusion/ transfer of oxygen.

cytoplasm containing
haemoglobin

thinner central portions

2. Xylem vessels do not have cross walls and protoplasm. This enables water and mineral

salts to move easily through the lumen. A substance called lignin is deposited on xylem

vessels. Lignin strengthens the xylem walls and prevents xylem from collapsing, thus

keeping the plant upright.

lumen

lignin

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 3. A root hair cell is long and narrow. This increases the surface area to volume ratio and

allows the root hair to absorb water and mineral salts efficiently.

How do cells work together in a multicellular organism?

1. A group of similar cells working together to perform a specific function is called a

tissue.

2. A simple tissue is made up of cells of the same type. Examples include the epithelial

tissue and the muscle tissue in animals, and the epidermis in plants.

3. Tissues made up of several different cell types are called complex tissues. Examples

include the nervous tissue and blood tissue in animals, and the vascular tissue in plants.

4. Different tissues may be united to form an organ to perform a specific function.

5. The stomach is an example of an organ. It digests food and is made up of the glandular

tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue.

6. The leaf is a plant organ. It is also made up of several types of tissues, namely, the

mesophyll tissue, xylem tissue, and phloem tissue.

7. Different organs work together to form an organ system such as the digestive system and

the respiratory system.

8. All the organ systems work together to make up an organism.

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