Lecture 2: Transmission Lines: Review for Circuit Designers Designers must be extremely careful to control layout of the circuit as

well as selecting values and types for the components they use in the
Transmission Lines: an easy way to describe and manipulate wave circuit. --- try to reduce design iterations
behavior in components, circuits and measurement systems.
When do we need to use transmission line theory in circuit
Key questions to answer: analysis?
• How do we connect components together in an efficient and How high does the frequency need to be?
controlled way, when they are running at RF/microwave
frequencies? How do we do that on PCB’s? How about integrated Rule of thumb: if the physical size of a circuit is larger than 0.1 λ.
circuits? Limits of traditional circuits
• How do we describe behavior of these connections in the circuit What prevent traditional circuits from working at high frequencies?
and in measurements?
Parasitics in wires, connections and active/passive devices. For
• With this new circuit behavior, what new parameters can we use to example, at RF/microwave frequencies, the wire becomes lossy,
describe component and circuit characteristics, and how do we radiates power, and has significant reactance and is difficult to
interpret these parameters? model accurately.
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 1 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 2

Transmission Line Theory Applying Kirchoff’s voltage and current laws to the
Lumped-element model of transmission lines lumped-element circuit, we get
i(z,t) Z and Y are the impedance and v ( z , t ) − Z • ∆z • i ( z , t ) = v ( z + ∆z , t )
admittance per unit length in z-
+ v(z,t)
direction.
i ( z , t ) − Y • ∆z • v ( z + ∆z , t ) = i ( z + ∆z , t )
-
Z = R + jωL and Y = G + jωC, Dividing both equations by ∆z and taking ∆z->0, we get
I where
Z dV/dz= -ZI and dI/dz= -YV, simultaneous solution of which yields
R is the series resistance per unit 2
Z = R + j ωL
length →z, Ω/m d2V dI
dz 2
= ZYV and dz 2 = ZYI; z here represents distance along the
V
L is the series inductance per unit
Y transmission line, ZY=(R+jωL)(G+jωC)=γ2, therefore, we have
length →z, H/m
G is the shunt conductance per unit d 2V − γ 2V = 0
Y = G + j ωC length →z, S/m
C is the shunt capacitance per unit
dz 2 Wave
Expression of the transmission line for length →z, F/m d 2I − γ 2I = 0 Equations!
a small section between z and z+∆z dz 2
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 3 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 4
 For a single wave solution in one direction, the ratio V(z)/I(z) is the same
Wave Propagation along a Transmission Line everywhere on the line given by
The solution of these equations is in the form of waves in the V ( z ) Z ( R + j ωL ) R + j ωL
+z and -z direction, which for sinusoidal excitation take the = = = = Z0
I ( z) γ γ G + j ωC )
form
V(z) = V+ejωt-γz + V- ejωt+γz and I(z) = I+ ejωt-γz+ I- ejωt+γz Zo is defined as the characteristic impedance.
which for a lossless line is a real number
The propagation constant γ is given by V+ Z L
γ = α + jβ = ZY . Zo = I + = Y = C , where L and C are the inductance and capacitance
For ωL>>R and ωC>>G (low or zero loss case), per unit length.
2π
β = ω LC , so β = λ , Thus we can rewrite the current equation as

V+ V−
* To distinguish it from the free-space wavelength nomenclature λ or λo, the I(z) = I+e(ωt-jβz) + I-e(ωt+jβz) = Z ej(ωt-βz) - Z ej(ωt+βz)
o o
wavelength on a waveguide or coaxial transmission line is often referred to
as the guide wavelength λg. Z0 only represent the relationship between voltage and current
waves of the same direction!
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 5 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 6

If we solve for Zo of coaxial and microstrip line, we have

Transmission Line Parameters Zo =
377
ln(b/a) for coaxial line, and
2π ε r
(see pp. 60-65 in Pozar’s book 377
a Zo ≈ d/W for microstrip line, ignoring fringing fields.
for details) D εr
Determine L, C, R, G for a
transmission line by Parallel Wire Line

Solving Maxwell’s equations

b
W

a d

Microstrip
Coaxial Line

Parameter Two-wire Coaxial Microstrip

µ µ
L ln (D/a) ln(b/a) µd/W
π 2π
πε 2πε
C εW/d
ln( D / a ) ln(b / a )
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 7 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 8
 Infinite lines: the wave in the +z direction will continue Transmission Line Discontinuities and Load Impedances
indefinitely and never return in the -z direction. +z
Z o -z Z L≠ Z o

Zo +z M is m a tc h e d L o a d C r e a te s R e f le c te d W a v e

Infinite Transmission Line When ZL ≠Zo, reflected wave is required to satisfy the
different impedance on both sides of the junction
Matched termination: all power of +z wave delivered to
the load, no reflected wave On the left V(z)/I(z) = V+/I+ = Zo
on the right V(z)/I(z) = (V++V-)/(I+-I-) = ZL.
Zo +z Z = Zo
Since I+= V+/Zo and I-= V-/Zo , we can solve V- as
Z L − Z0
Matched Termination Same as Infinite Line V-= V+, reflection coefficient Γ is given as
Z L + Z0
V− Z L − Z 0
Boundary conditions at a matched load are the same as Γ= =
for the infinite transmission line. V+ Z L + Z 0
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 9 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 10

What happens when waves exist in both +z and -z The Complex Reflection Coefficient Γ
directions along a transmission line?
Full Wave Equations:
• Both waves are coherent and interference patterns exit V(z) = V+ej(ωt-βz)+V-ej(ωt+βz), and
• The interference pattern will be stationary with respect to
the point of reflection, and will thus be a standing V+ V-
I(z) = Z ej(ωt-βz) - Z ej(ωt+βz).
wave such as may be found on the strings of musical o o
instrument. The standing wave interference pattern is consider a complex load impedance ZL terminating a
present both in the resulting V(z) and I(z). transmission line Zo, the magnitude of the -z wave is
related to that of the +z wave at the termination by a
complex quantity defined as the reflection coefficient ΓL,
defined such that V = Γ V , where
- L +

V- -I-
ΓL = V = I = |ΓL|ejθ = ρ ejθ = ρ/θ
+ +
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 11 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 12
 If we move in the -z direction (away from the load) by a
At the reflection point (z=0) distance z, we have
V L = (1+ Γ)V +
V- = ΓLV+ and V - = ΓV + V(z) = 1+Γ(z) = 1+ΓL e-j2βz = 1+|Γ| ej(θ-2βz),
VL = V++V- = V+(1+ΓL )
(resulting wave)
V+ 1+ Γ
Γ
θ-2 βz
1+ Γ
1+ Γ 1 Γ
Γ
Normalized expression (V+=1) θ-2 βz
θ V(z) varies from a maximum 1

1 of V+(1+|Γ|) to a minimum of v min

V+(1-|Γ|) and the distance

between the maximas or v max

minimas is 2βz=2π
⇒z=π/β=λ/2
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 13 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 14

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) (or VSWR) In a lossless network, the transmitted power is
Pt = P+ - P- = P+(1-ρ2), and the transmission loss TL is
vmax 1+|ΓL| 1+ρ TL = -10 log10 (1-ρ2) dB.
SWR = v = 1-| | =
ΓL
. Note that this can be solved for ρ, yielding
min 1-ρ
SWR characterize the Transmission line impedance equation
SWR-1
ρ = SWR+1 , so if we know SWR we know ρ. degree of impedance
mismatch! At a distance z= -l, the input impedance is given by
For a matched load ρ=0, SWR =1 and the voltage on the line is just
V ( −l ) V+ [e jβl + Γe − jβl ] 1 + Γe −2 jβl
V(z) = V+ for all z; under such a condition the line is termed flat Z in = = Z = Z0
I ( −l ) V+ [e jβl − Γe − jβl ] 1 − Γe − 2 jβl
0

Return Loss Which yields

P- |V-|2
P+ = |V+|2 = ρ , the ratio of the power in the reflected wave to that in the incident wave
2 Z L + jZ 0 tan βl
Z in = Z 0
or, expressed as a loss (a positive number) in dB
Z 0 + jZ L tan βl
RL = -10 log10 ρ2 = -20 log10 ρ (dB) = -20 log10 Γ (dB).

ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 15 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 16

 Special cases of lossless terminated lines
Special cases of lossless terminated lines Terminated in a short circuit, ZL=0,

Z in = jZ 0 tan βl Z in = − jZ 0 cot βl
Terminated in a short circuit, ZL= 0,
Z in = jZ 0 tan βl
Terminated in an open circuit, ZL= ∞,
Z in = − jZ 0 cot βl

Considering transmission lines with some special lengths

• l = λ/2 (half-wavelength line): Z in = Z L
• l = λ/4 (quarter-wavelength line): Z 02
Z in =
(impedance transformer) ZL

ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 17 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 18

Considering transmission lines with some special lengths Applications of transmission line design techniques
• l = λ/2 (half-wavelength line): Z in = Z L Circuits: useful at high frequencies (above 2 GHz) because
• l = λ/4 (quarter-wavelength line): transmission lines can easily have Q factors above 100 beyond 20
Z 02
Z in = GHz, 5-10 times higher than what can be obtained in
(impedance transformer) ZL conventional lumped-element components.
Junction of two transmission lines with different characteristic
Not practical at low frequencies since their sizes become too
impedances
Γ large.
T
Instrumentation and measurements:
Z0 1 Z1
At high frequencies (>50 MHz), voltages and currents are hard to
0 measure, whereas wave-based qualities (such as reflection
Z1 − Z 0 Using the boundary condition at z=0, we have
Γ= coefficient) are easier to measure.
Z1 + Z 0 2 Z1
T = 1+ Γ = What need to be specified to design a transmission line?
Z1 + Z 0
2
Insertion loss (IL): IL = −20 log T ( dB ) = −10 log T 2 = −10 log(1 − Γ )( dB ) Material description, frequency, phase shift along the line.
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 19 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 20
 Microstrip Transmission Line Microstrip: Quasi-TEM Mode
One of the most popular types of planar tranmission lines because of
the easy of fabrication and integration with other devices, either on
PCBs or semiconductor substrate.
Structures:
a) a conductor of width W --- the strip; b) a grounded dielectric
substrate of thickness d and relative permittivity of εr.
• The presence of two different dielectric regions complicated the
analysis of microstrip lines
– Phase velocities in the two regions are different.
– Impossible to have a phase match at the dielectric-air interface.
– TEM mode does not exist in microstrip lines

ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 21 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 22

Formulas for effective dielectric constant, characteristic

• The exact fields of a microstrip line constitute a hybrid TM-TE impedance, and attenuation
wave. When d << λ, the fields are quasi-TEM.
εr +1 εr −1 1
– The fields are essentially the same as those of the static case. εe = +
– Phase velocity, propagation constant, and characteristic 2 2 1 + 12d / W
impedance can be obtained from quasi-static solutions.
A homogeneous medium
• Phase velocity and propagation constant can be expressed as: with effective dielectric
c
vp = β = ε e k0 constant replaces the air and
εe dielectric region.
– Where εe is the effective dielectric constant of the microstrip
line. Since some of the field lines on in the dielectric and
some are in the air, the effective dielectric constant satisfies
the relation, 1 < ε e < ε r and is dependent on the
dielectric substrate thickness d, and conductor width, W.

ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 23 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 24

 60 8d W for W / d ≤ 1 Attenuation constant
ln( + ) k0ε r (ε e − 1) tan δ
Z0 = { εe W 4d
120π
ε e [W / d + 1.393 + 0.667 ln(W / d + 1.444)]
for W / d ≥ 1
Dielectric loss: αd =
2 ε e (ε r − 1)
Np/m

Rs
Conductor loss: αc = Np/m
8e A for W / d ≤ 2 Z 0W
W
d
= { e2 A − 2
2
 B − 1 − ln( 2 B − 1) +
εr −1 
ln( B − 1) + 0.39 −
0.61 

see example 3.7 on Page 163 of Pozar

π 2ε r  ε r 

Z0 ε r + 1 ε r − 1  0.11  for W / d ≥ 2
Where, A= +  0.23 + 
60 2 εr + 1  ε r 
377π
B=
2Z0 ε r

ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 25 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 26

Field Interaction with Media Plane Waves in a Lossy Medium

• Interaction of applied electric field and the atomic or molecular
structure results in the relationship D = ε E , where ε may be • The same derivation applies in the case of lossy media (either σ
complex ε = ε' - jε", the imaginary part accounting for loss in the ≠ 0 or ε = ε' - jε", or both). The propagation constant becomes
media (dielectric materials). complex, signifying a decay term as well as the propagation
term of the propagation constant.
• In a material with conductivity σ, a conduction current density will
exist as J = σ E. • A case of particular interest is that of a good conductor, defined
as σ >> ωε. In this case a wave propagating into the material
• A related quantity of interest is the loss tangent, tan δ = ωε "+σ
can only penetrate a depth called the skin depth, which is
defined as ωε ' defined as
• In a magnetic material, an applied magnetic field may align δs = 2
magnetic dipole moments to produce a magnetic polarization ωµσ
resulting in the relationship B = µ H , where µ may be complex
The skin depth varies as 1/ f , and is of the order of 10-6 m at f =
µ = µ' - jµ", the imaginary part accounting for loss. 10 GHz for most conductive metals such as aluminum, copper,
• In free space, D = ε 0 E , εo = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m gold and silver.
B = µ0 H , µo = 4π x 10-7 H/m
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 27 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 28
 The Smith Chart Writing Γ and z in terms of their real and imaginary parts,
z = r + jx, and Γ=Γr+jΓi
Developed by Phillip Hagar Smith in Bell Labs in 1939 where r is the normalized resistance and x is the normalized
reactance.
The Smith chart is a polar plot of reflection coefficient Then, (1 + Γr ) + jΓi
jθ
r + jx =
ZL
Γ = Γe (1 − Γr ) − jΓi
ZL-Zo Zo - 1
ΓL = Z +Z = Z
L o L
; normalize ZL to Zo by defining zL such that which leads to
Zo + 1
r 2 2 1 2
( Γr − ) + Γi = ( ) Resistance circles
ZL z −1 1+ r 1+ r
zL = Substituting zL with z, we have Γ=
Z0 1 2 1
z +1 ( Γr − 1) 2 + ( Γi − ) = ( ) 2 Reactance circles
1+ x x
1+ Γ
z=
1− Γ
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 29 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 30

Construction of the Smith chart: overlay circles of

constant r and constant x If x>0, the impedance is inductive --> the upper
half of the smith chart
If we plot Γ on the polar plot, and overlay the circles of constant r
and x, this yields the Smith Chart, on which we can convert from Γ If x<0, the impedance is capacitive --> the lower
to z (or the reverse) by inspection half of the smith chart

Resistance
x=1 circles We also have
x=0.5
2 2
1 − Γr − Γi
r= 2
Γ=0 Γ=1

(1 − Γr ) 2 + Γi r=1 r= ∝

x=0 Reactance circles

r=0 r=0.5 r=1 r=2
2Γi
x= 2
(1 − Γr ) 2 + Γi
x=-0.5
Matched load (Γ=0) Open circuit load (Γ=+1)
x=-1
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 31 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 32
 A transmission line terminated with a short.
A transmission line terminated with an open circuit at d=0.
Z Z(d) Z(0) Γ = -1
o
r=0

d d=0
Z Z(d) Z(0)
o
At d=0, V- = - V+.
Γ = -1/0 or Γ = 1/π.
d d=0

At d=0, I- = - I+, and V- = V+. The impedance Z(0) at this point is ∞,

Movement around Smith Chart
d = λ/8
and the reflection coefficient Γ is Moving back along the transmission line
Γ(d)
z-1 away from the short circuit load toward
Γ = Γ = -1 Γ=1
z+1 = 1/0. Γ=1
r= ∝
the generator d=0 d = λ/4

the phase angle of Γ is -2βd Moving away from short

toward generator

when d/λ = 1/8, Γ=1/π/2

when d/λ = 1/4, Γ=1/0
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 33 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 34

Moving back along the transmission line away from the open Example 2.2 (Pozar): Basic Smith chart Operation
circuit toward the generator
Open through arbitrary line length Example 2.3 (Pozar): Smith Chart Operation Using Admittances
Γ rotates from Γ = 1/0
toward Γ = 1/-π
Moving away from open
The Smith Chart has at least three benefits:
Moving back along the transmission toward generator

line away from an arbitrary load Γ = -1 Γ=1

toward the generator d = λ/4 d=0 1. All possible values of Γ, hence all possible values of Z, lie within
Γ(d) the unit circle.
Toward
load
d = λ/ 8 2. For a given termination, the variation of Γ with transmission line
position is simply a rotation on the chart with no change in
Γ
Toward
magnitude |Γ|, and hence, no change in SWR.
generator
3. Lines of constant R and X are uniquely defined circles on the
Only the angle of Γ changes chart, so we can input data in Γ format and read the result in Z
format by inspection.
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 35 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 36
Construction of the Smith chart: overlay circles of Generator and Load Impedance Matching
constant r and constant x

x=1
x=1

x=0.5
x=0.5

SWR=2

x=0
x=0
r=0 r=0.5 r=1 r=2
r=0 r=0.5 r=1 r=2

2
 1  1 2 Z in  1 
P = Re{Vin I in* }= Vin Re   = Vg
1 1 2
Re  
x=-0.5
x=-0.5 2 2  Z in  2 Z in + Z g  Z in 
x=-1
x=-1

ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 37 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 38

Let Zin = Rin + jX in and Z g = Rg + jX g • Cannot tell from Equ. 1 and 2 which case delivers
more power to the load.
we have 1 2 Rin
P= Vg • So what is the optimum input impedance to
2 ( Rin + Rg ) + ( X in + X g ) 2
2
achieve the maximum power transfer to the load
for a given generator?
Load Matched to Line ( Z l = Z 0 )

1 2 Z0 ∂P ∂P
P= Vg Take = 0 and =0
2 ( Z 0 + Rg )2 + X g
2 Equ.1 ∂Rin ∂X in

Generator Matched to Loaded Line ( Z in = Z g )

we have Rin = Rg and X in = − X g
1 2 Rg
P= Vg Equ.2
or Z in = Z g* Conjugate
2 4( Rg + X g2 )
2
Matching
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 39 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 40
 Lossy Transmission Lines Attenuation Constant (α) of the Coaxial Line

The Low-Loss Line 1 C L

γ = α + jβ = ( R + jωL)(G + jωC )
α ≈  R +G 

2 L C
Since ωL>>R and ωC>>G, γ can be approximated as
The Distortion (dispersion) of Lossy Transmission Line
 j R G 
γ ≈ jω LC 1 − ( + ) For a lossy line, propagation constant β is generally a complicated
 2 ωL ωC 
function of frequency, ω. So β is not a linear function of ω. This
1 C L  1 R  indicates that the phase velocity vp=ω/β will not be a constant for
therefore α ≈  R +G  =  + GZ 0 

2 L C 2  Z0  different frequencies.
R + jωL L
β ≈ ω LC Z0 ≈ ≈ --- Various of a wideband signal will travel with different phase
G + jωC C
velocities, and so arrive at the receiver end of the transmission
Approximation: high frequency, low loss. line at slightly different times, leading to distortion (or dispersion)
of the signal.
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 41 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 42

Group velocity vs. phase velocity

V (t , z ) = sin[(ω + dω )t − ( β + dβ ) z ] + Under special condition, the dispersion can be
sin[(ω − dω )t − ( β − dβ ) z ] eliminated. Such a line is called a distortionless
line, and is characterized by
= 2 cos( dω ⋅ t + dβ ⋅ z ) sin(ωt − βz )
R G
“envelop”, or modulation of =
“carrier” L C
the signal
Which leads to
The “envelop” travels at a velocity called the “group velocity”
β = ω LC
dω
vg =
dβ α=R
C
L
The “carrier” travels at a velocity called the “phase velocity”
suitable for
ω same attenuation for all the
vp = frequency components!
wideband signal
β transmission
ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 43 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 44