ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS

PART 1

ENGR. PETER BENJAMIN B. OBIANO

OBTAINING DATA
 STATISTICS

STATISTICS

Statistics is the science which deals with the collection,

presentation, analysis and interpretation of a given quantity of
data.
Two Main Parts:
a. Descriptive Statistics – deals with the collection and
presentation of data.
b. Inferential Statistics – deals with the analysis and
interpretation of data; extrapolation and forecasting from
the data.
 STATISTICS

POPULATION VS. SAMPLE

POPULATION
• It refers to the totality of objects under consideration.
• Characteristics of a population are measured and are referred
to as parameters.

SAMPLE
• It is a subset of a population.
• Characteristics of a population are called statistics and these
characteristics are gathered through sampling.
 STATISTICS

DATA

• Data are information, which are usually facts or numbers

collected to answer research problems or research
investigations.
• There are two types of data based on how they are collected:
a) Primary Data
b) Secondary Data
• Data can also be classified as:
a) Qualitative Data
b) Quantitative Data
 STATISTICS

PRIMARY DATA

• Primary Data are data collected directly from the data source.
• Primary data refers also to the first hand data gathered by
the researcher himself.
• Sources of Primary Data:
• Interviews
• Questionnaires
• Experiments
• Observations
• Documents
 STATISTICS

SECONDARY DATA

• Secondary data are data collected by others and used by

others.
• Secondary data refers to the data collected by someone other
than the primary user.
• Sources of Secondary Data:
• Books
• Websites / Internet
• Newspaper
• Radio or TV Reports
 STATISTICS

QUALITATIVE DATA

• These data are non-numerical and give qualitative description.

These data are also known as categorical data.

• Example: gender, hair color, academic achievement, marital

status
 STATISTICS

QUALITATIVE DATA

• Nominal Data – data can only be categorized and cannot be

ranked.
• Example: gender, hair color, location

• Categorial Data – data can also be categorized and ranked.

• Example: year level (freshman, sophomore, junior, senior),
rating (good, better, best)
 STATISTICS

QUANTITATIVE DATA

• These data are numerical in nature.

• Data can be discrete.

• Example: age last birthday, number of operations in a week,
number of children, number of cars

• Data can be continuous.

• Example: weight, temperature, salary, volume, height
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

• A measure of central tendency is a single value

that attempts to describe a set of data by
identifying the central position within that set
of data.
• Examples of measures of central tendency are
the mean, median and mode.
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEAN
• It refers to the value obtained by adding all the numbers in
the data set and then dividing the sum by the number of values
in that set.
• Population mean is denoted by 𝑢𝑥 and sample mean is denoted
by 𝑥.ҧ
n n
1 1
ux = ෍ xi 𝑥ҧ = ෍ xi
n n
i=1 i=1
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEAN
• Find the mean of 4, 8, 12, 0, -2, 10 ,14.
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEDIAN
• Median is the middle number in a data set after
arranging the data set from the lowest number to the
highest number.
• If the number of terms in the data set is an odd
number, then the median is the middle number of the
data set.
• If the number of terms in the data set is an even
number, then the median is the average of the two
middle numbers.
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEDIAN
• Find the median of 4, 8, 12, 0, -2, 10, 7
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEDIAN
• Find the median of 25, 28, 22, 20, 18, 23, 30, 24
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

MODE
• The mode of a data set is a value (are values) with most
occurrence or greatest frequency

Examples:
• The mode of 14, 8, 16, 10, 16, 20, 14, 16 is 16 since it occurs
most of the time (3 times)
• The modes of 9, 9, 27, 26, 26, 37, 47, 58 are 9 and 26 since
they occur the most out of the other entries (each occur
twice).
• The data set 3.3, 1.2, 5.6, 7.8, 9.2, 6.5 has no mode since no
number occurs more than once
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
• These are characteristics of data that show how value in the
data set differ relative to the average.

• RANGE
• AVERAGE DEVIATION
• VARIANCE
• STANDARD DEVIATION
• SKEWNESS
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

RANGE: R = HV – LV
Where:
HV – highest number in the data
LV – highest number in the data

Example:
Find the range of the given data set:
37, 19, 31, 29, 21, 26, 33, 36
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

AVERAGE DEVIATION

σ𝐧𝐢=𝟏 𝐱 𝐢 − 𝐱ത
𝐀𝐃 =
𝐧
Where:
𝐱 𝐢 – ith entry of the data set
𝐱ത - mean of the data set
n – number of data
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

AVERAGE DEVIATION
• Find the average deviation of 23, 30, 31, 15 and 46.
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

VARIANCE
A measurement of how far each number in a data set is from the
mean and thus from every other number in the set.
σ 𝐧
𝐢=𝟏 𝐱 𝐢 − ത
𝐱 𝟐 Where:
𝛔𝟐 = 𝛔 𝟐
– population variance
𝐧
𝐧
𝐬 𝟐
– sample variance
σ ത 𝟐
𝟐
𝐱
𝐢=𝟏 𝐢 − 𝐱 𝐱 𝐢 - ith data
𝐬 =
𝐧−𝟏 𝐱ത - mean of the data set
n – number of data
STANDARD DEVIATION
It is the square root of variance.
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

• Find the variance and standard deviation of 4, 34, 11, 12, 2 and
26.
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

SKEWNESS
It is a measure of asymmetry or distortion of symmetric
distribution. Particularly, this measures the deviation of a
distribution from the normal distribution.

Pearson′ s coefficient of skewness

𝟑 𝐱ത − 𝐌𝐞
𝐬𝐤 =
𝐬
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

SKEWNESS
• If the skewness is equal to 0, then the distribution is symmetric.
This means that the data is evenly distributed on both sides of
the mean. In addition, the mean, median and mode are all equal.
• If the skewness is greater than 0, then the distribution is right-
skewed or positively-skewed. In this distribution, the mean is on
the right side of the median and the mode is on the left of the
median.
• If the skewness is lesser than 0, then the distribution is left-
skewed or negatively-skewed. In this distribution, the mean is
on the left side of the median and the mode is on the right of
the median.
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

SKEWNESS
A data set has the following samples: 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 25, 1, 3, 4, 1.
Compute for its skewness.
 MEASURES OF LOCATION

MEASURES OF LOCATION
• These are measures that aid in subdividing a population or
sample into equal subgroups

• QUARTILE
• DECILE
• PERCENTILE
 MEASURES OF LOCATION

QUARTILE
• These are any of the three values that divide the items of a
frequency distribution into four classes with each containing
one fourth or 25% of the total population.

𝐣 𝐧+𝟏
𝐪𝐣 =
𝟒
Where:
𝐪𝐣 = location of the jth quartile in the data set
j = quartile number
n = number of values in the data set
 MEASURES OF LOCATION

QUARTILE
• Find the third quartile of the data 20, 30, 25, 23, 22, 32, 36
 MEASURES OF LOCATION

DECILE
• These are any of the nine values that divide the items of a
frequency distribution into 10 classes with each containing one
tenth or 10% of the total population.

𝐣 𝐧+𝟏
𝐝𝐣 =
𝟏𝟎
Where:
𝐝𝐣 = location of the jth decile in the data set
j = decile number
n = number of values in the data set
 MEASURES OF LOCATION

DECILE
• Following are the number of defective items produced in a month by a machine for the
last 24 months. 45, 30, 36, 26, 16, 21, 33, 40, 32, 14, 10, 29, 23, 39, 17, 11, 18, 34, 19,
24, 21, 35, 42, 37. Find the 5th decile.
 MEASURES OF LOCATION

PERCENTILE
• These are any of the 99 values that divide the items of a
frequency distribution into 100 classes with each containing 1%
of the total population.

𝐣 𝐧+𝟏
𝐩𝐣 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Where:
𝐩𝐣 = location of the jth percentile in the data set
j = percentile number
n = number of values in the data set
 MEASURES OF LOCATION

PERCENTILE
• Following are the number of defective items produced in a month by a machine for the
last 24 months. 45, 30, 36, 26, 16, 21, 33, 40, 32, 14, 10, 29, 23, 39, 17, 11, 18, 34, 19,
24, 21, 35, 42, 37. Find the 50th percentile.
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

ADDITION PRINCIPLE
“If a first event can be performed in “n1” different ways and a second
event can be performed in “n2” different ways…

“If two or more events can occur at the same time”

n1 + n2 + n3 … ways
 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

• EXAMPLE 1:
Suppose there are 3
beef dishes and 4 fish
dishes. How many
selections does a
customer have if only 1
dish will be bought?
 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE: FUNDAMENTAL

PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING
“If a first event can be performed in “n1” different ways and a second
event can be performed in “n2” different ways…

“If events occur one after the other”

n1 ∙ n2 ∙ n3 … ways
 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

• EXAMPLE 2:
• A manufacturer is studying
the effects of cooking
temperature, cooking time
and type of cooking oil
making potato chips. There
are 3 different
temperatures, 4 different
cooking times, and 3
different oils are to be
used. How many
combinations will be used?
 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

• EXAMPLE 3:
How many 4-letter
words can be formed
from the letters A, B, C,
D, E and F if each letter
is to be used only once
in each word?
 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

PERMUTATION
An arrangement of a set of n objects in a SPECIFIED
ORDER.
Permutation of n objects taken r at a time is
n n!
P n, r = P =
r n−r !

To use the calculator’s permutation function: qO

 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

COMBINATION
An arrangement of a set of n objects where ORDER DOES
NOT COUNT.
Combination of n objects taken r at a time is
n n!
C n, r = C =
r n − r ! r!

• To use the calculator’s permutation function: qP

 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

PERMUTATION VS COMBINATION
Choose 2 balls from 3 balls colored red, green and blue. In
how many ways are we going to arrange them?
PERMUTATION (order counts): COMBINATION (order does not
nPr = 3P2 = 6 count):
nCr = 3C2 = 3
1. red, green 2. green, red 1. red, green OR green, red
3. blue, red 4. red, blue 2. blue, red OR red, blue
5. blue, green 6. green, blue 3. blue, green OR green, blue
 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

• EXAMPLE 4:
There are 3 boys and 4
girls. In how many ways
can you sit them in a row
such that:
(a) no particular order is
observed
(b) the girls are seated
together
(c) the boys are not
seated together
 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

• EXAMPLE 5:
How many permutations
can be made out of the
word ENGINEERING?
 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

• EXAMPLE 6:
From a group of 6 women
and 8 men, a committee of
5 is to be formed. In how
many ways can this be
done, if each committee
(a) is to be consisted of
exactly 3 men?
(b) is to be consisted of at
least 3 men?
(c) is to be consisted of at
most 2 men?
 PROBABILITY

SAMPLE SPACE
The set of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment.
Each outcome in a sample space is called an ELEMENT or a MEMBER
OF THE SAMPLE SPACE or simply a SAMPLE POINT.
 PROBABILITY

PROBABILITY
If an experiment can result in any one of N different equally likely
outcomes, and if exactly n of these correspond to event A, then the
probability of event A is
n
P A =
N

number of ways that Event A can occur

P A =
total number of possible events
 PROBABILITY

PROBABILITY
What is the probability of getting a Heart from a standard deck of
cards.
 PROBABILITY

PROBABILITY
What is the probability of getting a red ball from a jar containing 2
red balls, 4 green balls and 5 blue balls.
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
1. For every event A, 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐴) ≤ 1. This means that the probability
of an event to happen can only be greater than or equal to 0 and less
than or equal to 1.
2. The probability of an event that will surely happen (called a
CERTAIN EVENT) has a probability of 1.
3. The probability of an event that surely NOT happen has a
probability of 0.
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
4. If A and B are any two events, then
P A ∪ B = P A + P B − P A ∩ B OR
P A OR B = P A + P B − P A AND B
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
Find the probability of getting a heart card or a face card in a
standard deck of card.
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
5. If A and B are any two mutually exclusive (disjoint) events, then
P A ∪ B = P A + P B OR
P A OR B = P A + P B
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
Find the probability of getting a spade or a clover in a standard deck
of card.
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
6. If P(AC) is the probability that A will not happen (AC is a
complement of A), then P(AC) = 1 – P(A).
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
If the probabilities that an automobile mechanic will service 3,4,5,6,7
or 8, or more cars on any given workday are, respectively, 0.12, 0.19,
0.28, 0.24, 0.1 and 0.07. What is the probability that he will service at
least 5 cars on his next day at work?
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
The probability that John and Bill passes the exam is 2/5 and 2/3
respectively.What is the probability that both of them fails?
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
7. Let A1, A2,…, An be mutually exclusive events of a subspace. The
following are true:
a. P A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 = P A1 + P A2 + P A3
b. P A1 + P A2 + P A3 + ⋯ + P An = 1
 PROBABILITY

PROPERTIES OF PROBABILITY
There are 2 red balls, 4 blue balls and 5 green balls in an urn. If we are
going to randomly choose a ball, find:
(a) The probability of getting a red ball.
(b) The probability of getting a blue ball.
(c) The probability of getting a green ball.
 PROBABILITY

• EXAMPLE 7:
Roll a pair of dice one
time. What is the
probability of getting a
sum of 5 or 9?
 PROBABILITY

• EXAMPLE 8:
A bag contains 3 white
balls and 5 black balls.
If two balls are drawn
in succession without
replacement, what is
the probability that
both balls are white?
 PROBABILITY

• EXAMPLE 9:
Three light bulbs are
chosen at random
from 15 bulbs of which
5 are defective. Find
the probability that
exactly one is
defective.
 PROBABILITY

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
Formula:
P A∩B
P AB =
P B

Where:
P A B = probability that A occurs given that B occurs
P A ∩ B = probability that both A and B occurs
P B = probability that B occurs
 PROBABILITY

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
Formula:
P A∩B
P AB =
P B

Use Conditional Probability if:

▪ Two events (event A and event B) needs to be satisfied
▪ We are looking for the probability that A occurs given that B occurs
▪ We are looking for the probability that if B occurs, A occurs
▪ There are multiple ways that B will occur, one of them being A. What is the
probability that among the multiple ways of B occurring, A happened.
 PROBABILITY

• EXAMPLE 10:
• A random sample of 200 people is classified by gender and their
highest level of education attained.The following data were obtained:

If a person is picked at random from this group, find the probability

that the person is a male, given that he finished up to high school only.
 PROBABILITY

• EXAMPLE 11:
Given the following:
P A = 2/5,
P A ∩ B = 2/15. Find
P B|A
 PROBABILITY

INDEPENDENT EVENTS
Two events A and B are independent if and only if P A B = P(A)
and P B A = P B . So that, P A ∩ B = P A ∙ P B
 PROBABILITY

• EXAMPLE 12:
• Let A and B be
events. What is the
probability P(B|A) if A
and B are
independent events?
 RANDOM VARIABLES

SAMPLE SPACE
The set of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment.
Each outcome in a sample space is called an ELEMENT or a MEMBER
OF THE SAMPLE SPACE or simply a SAMPLE POINT.
 RANDOM VARIABLES

• Random variable is a function that assigns a real number to each

outcome in the sample space of random experiment.
 RANDOM VARIABLES

TYPES OF RANDOM VARIABLES:

• DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLE
• These are variables that have a countable number of possible values.

Example:
number of heads in a series of toss coins
number of cars passing through the skyway
numbers of successful trials
 RANDOM VARIABLES

TYPES OF RANDOM VARIABLES:

• CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLE
• These are variables whose values can take any value in an interval of
numbers.
• These variables have an uncountable list of outcomes
• They are usually associated with measurements

Example:
height of the student
waiting time
 RANDOM VARIABLES

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION OF DISCRETE

RANDOM VARIABLES
• If X is a discrete random variable, then the probability mass
function, f(x) is a positive-valued function that satisfies the
following properties:
1. f x ≥ 0, for every x in the sample space
2. σx f(x) = 1, for every in the sample space
 RANDOM VARIABLES

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION OF DISCRETE

RANDOM VARIABLES
 RANDOM VARIABLES

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION OF CONTINUOUS

RANDOM VARIABLES
• If X is a continuous random variable, then the probability
density function, f(x), is a function that satisfies the following
properties:
1. f x ≥ 0, for all real numbers x
∞
2. ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1,
 RANDOM VARIABLES

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION OF CONTINUOUS

RANDOM VARIABLES
• For continuous random variable X, the following are true:
b
1. P X ≤ b = ‫׬‬−∞ f x dx
∞
2. P X ≥ b = ‫׬‬b f x dx
b
3. P a < X < b = ‫׬‬a f x dx
 RANDOM VARIABLES

EXPECTATION AND VARIANCE OF RANDOM

VARIABLE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
• Let f(x) be the probability distribution function of the
random variable X. The expectation or mean of X can be
determined by:
∞
σ𝑥=−∞ 𝑥𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
𝐸 𝑥 = ൝ ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
 RANDOM VARIABLES

EXPECTATION AND VARIANCE OF RANDOM

VARIABLE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
• Let f(x) be the probability distribution function of the
random variable X.The variance of X can be determined by:

2 2 2
Var x = σ = E x − Ex
 RANDOM VARIABLES

• EXAMPLE 13:
The discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution
below. Compute for the mean, the variance and the standard deviation.
 RANDOM VARIABLES

• EXAMPLE 14:
What is the expected value of the continuous random variable X given its
probability distribution
1/x 4 x≥1
f x =ቊ
0 otherwise
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Uniform Distribution:
• A random variable X follows a uniform distribution on the integers
1, 2, 3, . . . , n, denoted X ∼ U[1...n], if the pmf of X is defined by
1
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑃 𝑋=𝑥 =
𝑛
If 𝑋~𝑈 1 … 𝑛 , then
2
𝑛+1 2
𝑛 −1
𝜇= , 𝜎 =
2 12
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Bernoulli Distribution:
• Consider an experiment with two mutually exclusive outcomes, say
a success and a failure.
• A random variable X follows a Bernoulli distribution, denoted by X
∼ Be(p), if the pmf of X is given by
f x = px q1−x
If X~Be p , then
E X = p, Var X = pq
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 15:
In a toss of a biased
coin that is twice as
likely to come up
heads as tails, what is
the probability of
getting a head?
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Binomial Distribution:
• Consider an experiment where a sequence of n independent Bernoulli
trials are performed. The probability of success, p, remains constant from
trial to trial. The resulting experiment gives rise to counting the number
of successes (with probability p) out of the n trials.
• A random variable X follows a Binomial distribution, denoted by X ∼
Bi(n, p), if the pmf of X is given by
n
f x = p x qn−x
x
If X~Bi n, p , then
E X = np, Var X = npq
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 16:
It is reported that in the
Republican group, 60%
are in favor of the
Reproductive Health
(RH) Bill. If a group of 8
republicans is chosen at
random, find the
probability that at least 6
are in favor of the RH
Bill.
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 17:
Find the probability
that in five tosses of a
fair die a 3 appears at
most once?
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Hypergeometric Distribution:
• Consider a random experiment of selecting n objects without replacement, from a set
of M objects, where K is of one kind, and M − K is of another. The random variable X is
defined as the number of successes in a random sample of n ≤ M elements.
• A random variable X follows a Hypergeometric distribution, denoted by X ∼ HG(n, M,
K), if the pmf is given by
K M−K
f x = x n−x
M
n
If X~HG n, M, K , then
nK nK M − K M − n
E X = , Var X =
M M M M−1
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 18:
A bin of 10 lightbulbs
contains 6 that are
nondefective. If 3 bulbs
are chosen without
replacement from the
bin, what is the
probability that exactly 2
of the bulbs in the
sample are nondefective?
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Poisson Distribution:
• Consider an experiment where the number of times a certain event
occurs during a given unit of time (measurement). Any random
phenomenon for which a count of some sort of interest is a candidate
for what is called an exponential distribution.
• A random variable X follows a Poisson distribution, denoted by X ∼
Po(λ), λ > 0 if the pmf of X is given by
𝜆𝑋 𝑒 −𝜆
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑋!
If 𝑋~𝑃𝑜(𝜆), then
𝐸 𝑋 = 𝜆, 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 = 𝜆
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 19:
The average number of
homes sold by the
KUBO Company is 2
homes per day. What is
the probability that
exactly 3 homes will be
sold tomorrow?
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Geometric Distribution:
• Consider an experiment where Bernoulli trials are performed. A random
variable X counting the number of trials before the first success out of
the independent trials is called a geometric random variable.
• A random variable X follows a Geometric distribution, denoted by X ∼
Ge(p), if the pmf is given by
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥𝑝
If 𝑋~𝐺𝑒(𝑝), then
𝑞 𝑞
𝐸 𝑋 = , 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 = 2
𝑝 𝑝
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 20:
An oil company has
determined that the
probability of striking oil
on any particular drilling
is 0.2. Accordingly, what
is the probability that 4
dry wells are drilled
before striking oil on the
5th drilling?
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Negative Binomial Distribution:

• Now consider an experiment of Bernoulli trials until exactly r successes
occur. The random variable X represents the number of failures before
the rth success.
• A random variable X follows a Negative Binomial distribution, denoted
by X ∼ NB(r, p), with pmf given by
𝑟+𝑥−1 𝑥 𝑟
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑝
𝑥
If 𝑋~𝑁𝐵(𝑟, 𝑝), then
𝑟𝑞 𝑟𝑞
𝐸 𝑋 = , 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 = 2
𝑝 𝑝
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 21:
Robert is a football
player. His success rate
of goal hitting is 70%.
What is the probability
that Robert hits his
third goal on his fifth
attempt?
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Exponential Distribution:
• The waiting times between successive occurrences are continuous
positive random variables. In particular, the waiting time for the first
occurrence can be represented by an exponential random variable.
• A random variable X follows an exponential distribution, denoted by X
∼ Exp(λ), λ > 0, if its pdf is given by
f x = λe−λx
If X~Exp(λ), then
1 1
E X = , Var[X] = 2
λ λ
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 22:
On the average, a
certain computer has a
life time of 10 years. If
the life of the computer
is exponentially
distributed. What is the
probability that a
computer has a life of
less than 7 years?
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 23:
A postal clerk spends
with his or her
customer at an average
of 4 minutes each. Find
the probability that a
clerk spends four to
five minutes with a
randomly selected
customer.
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 24:
The number of miles that
particular car can run
before its battery wears
out is exponentially
distributed with an average
of 10,000 miles. The owner
of the car needs to take a
5000 – mile trip. What is
the probability that he will
be able to complete the
trip without having to
replicate the car battery?
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXPONENTIAL: • POISSON:
(continuous) (discrete)
A postal clerk spends with A postal clerk serves 4 customers
his or her customer at an per minute. Find the probability
average of 4 minutes each. that he or she will serve at least
Find the probability that he three customers in the next
or she will spend at least an minute.
additional three minute with
the postal clerk.
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Normal Distribution:
• A random variable X follows a normal distribution of parameters μ, σ ∈
R, σ > 0, denoted X ∼ N (μ, σ^2), if the pdf is given by
1 1 𝑥−𝜇 2
−2 𝜎
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒
𝜎 2𝜋
Z-Score:
• This entails a transformation in the values of the normal distribution into
a standard score z:
𝑥−𝜇
𝑍=
𝜎
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Standard Normal Distribution:

• The standard normal pdf of Z ∼ N (0, 1) is given by
1 −𝑧 2
𝜙(𝑍) = 𝑒 2
2𝜋
• If 𝑋~𝑁 𝜇, 𝜎 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑋−𝜇 𝑎−𝜇 𝑎−𝜇
1. 𝑃 𝑋 < 𝑎 = 𝑃 𝜎
≤ 𝜎 =𝜙 𝜎
𝑏−𝜇 𝑎−𝜇
2. 𝑃 𝑎 < 𝑋 < 𝑏 = 𝜙 𝜎
= 𝜙 𝜎
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Symmetry Property of Standard Normal

Distributions
• A basic geometric property of the standard normal pdf is that
𝜙 −𝑧 = 1 − 𝜙(𝑧)
for all real z.This follows from the fact that the standard normal
density is symmetric about z = 0.
CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 25:
It was found that the
mean length of 100 parts
produced by a lathe was
20.05 mm with a standard
deviation of 0.02 mm. Find
the probability that a part
selected at random would
have a length less than
20.01 mm.
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 26:
It was found that the
mean length of 100 parts
produced by a lathe was
20.05 mm with a
standard deviation of
0.02 mm. Find the
probability that a part
selected at random
would have a length
greater than 20.09 mm.
 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

• EXAMPLE 27:
It was found that the
mean length of 100 parts
produced by a lathe was
20.05 mm with a
standard deviation of
0.02 mm. Find the
probability that a part
selected at random
would have a length
between 20.03 mm and
20.08 mm.
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
PART 1

ENGR. PETER BENJAMIN B. OBIANO