HLDC :

HDLC stands for high-level data link control layer developed by the International Standard of
Organization (ISO). The standard for HDLC is ISO/IEC 13239:2002. It provides services both
i.e. connectionless and connection-oriented. It is used for data framing. It is an IBMS
SLDC-based protocol, that exists as a layer 2 protocol for the SNA ( System Network
Architecture ). Its limitations don’t specify the full semantics of the frame field.

The original ISO standards for HDLC are as follows: 1. ISO 3309-1979-> Frame structure 2.
ISO 4335-1979 -> Elements of Procedure 3. ISO 6159-1980 -> Unbalanced Classes of Procedure
The current standard iso/IEC:2002 has dismissed these specifications.

1. Framing:
The framing of HDLC can be transmitted over synchronous and asynchronous serial
communication links. These links has to be identified its beginning and ending which is
determined by unique sequence of bits as a frame delimiter or flag or encoding the data to the
flag sequence is absent in a frame.

Synchronous Framing: To prevent the occurrence of six consecutive 1-bits that make up a flag
sequence, a method called bit stuffing is employed. Whenever five consecutive 1-bits appear
during data transmission, a temporary pause is initiated, and a 0-bit is added to the data stream.
The receiving device is aware of this process and removes the added 0-bit when it detects five
consecutive 1-bits. If the sixth bit is 1, it signifies either a flag (when the seventh bit is 0) or an
error (when the seventh bit is 1), causing the frame receive procedure to halt until a flag
reappears. This bit-stuffing technique also ensures an adequate number of signal transitions,
aiding clock synchronization in synchronous links. Here, 0-bits induce signal changes, while
1-bits maintain the signal. This guarantees at least one transition for every six bit times during
data transmission and one transition per seven bit times during flag transmission.
The HDLC standard permits the last 0-bit in a frame delimiter to overlap with the initial 0-bit of
the subsequent frame delimiter, denoted as "011111101111110". However, certain hardware does
not accommodate this feature.

In scenarios of half-duplex or multi-drop communication, where multiple transmitters share a

line, a receiver on the line will observe a continuous stream of 1-bits during the inter-frame
period when no transmitter is active.

Additionally, HDLC transmits data bytes with the least significant bit first, distinct from
little-endian order which concerns byte sequencing within a multi-byte field.

3. Asynchronous

Asynchronous serial communication, like standard RS-232 serial ports, doesn't use
synchronous-style bit stuffing for several reasons: 1. Start and stop bits already ensure an
adequate number of transitions. 2. The data is NRZ encoded, not NRZI encoded, resulting in a
different waveform. 3. RS-232 sends bits in groups of 8, making single-bit additions
cumbersome. 4. Special coding for flag bytes is sufficient; there's no concern about bit patterns
spanning multiple bytes. Instead, asynchronous framing employs "control-octet transparency" or
"byte stuffing." The frame boundary octet is 01111110 (0x7E in hexadecimal). A "control escape
octet" (0x7D) is used when these octets appear, followed by the original octet with bit 5 inverted.
For instance, 0x7E becomes 0x7D 0x5E ("10111110 01111010"). Other reserved octets, like
XON or XOFF, can be similarly escaped if needed.

4. Structure:
The contents of the structural frame of HDLC is shown as below
Please note that the final flag concluding one frame may or may not serve as the initial (start)
flag for the subsequent frame.

Typically, data is transmitted in multiples of 8 bits, although certain variations may not
necessitate this, allowing for potential data alignment on non-8-bit boundaries.

The frame check sequence (FCS) involves a 16-bit CRC-CCITT or a 32-bit CRC-32 computed
over the Address, Control, and Information fields. Its purpose is to enable the receiver in
detecting errors that might have occurred during frame transmission, such as lost, flipped, or
extraneous bits. However, the FCS computation algorithms imply that as data length increases,
there's a higher probability of certain types of transmission errors going undetected, implicitly
putting a practical limit on the frame's size.

When the receiver's calculated FCS doesn't match the sender's, indicating frame errors, the
receiver can respond by sending a negative acknowledge packet to the sender or staying silent.
Upon receiving a negative acknowledge packet or timing out waiting for a positive acknowledge
packet, the sender can initiate a retransmission of the failed frame.

The FCS was introduced because early communication links experienced a relatively high bit
error rate, and it could be efficiently computed using simple, fast circuitry or software. However,
modern protocols now widely implement more effective forward error correction schemes.

HDLC serves as a protocol primarily intended for point-to-point and multi-point communication
across diverse physical mediums, encompassing serial links, leased lines, and radio links. Its
fundamental features encompass:
1. Frame Structure: HDLC frames comprise three key components: the header containing control
details, the information field carrying the data for transmission, and the trailer holding
error-checking information.
2. Flow Control: HDLC incorporates mechanisms for managing data flow, involving
acknowledgment of received frames and the regulation of transmission rates, ensuring effective
and dependable communication.
3. Error Detection and Correction: The protocol implements error-checking approaches like the
Frame Check Sequence (FCS) to identify and potentially rectify errors in the transmitted data.
4. Multiple Modes: HDLC is versatile, capable of functioning in various modes, such as normal
response mode (NRM), asynchronous balanced mode (ABM), and asynchronous response mode
(ARM), to adapt to different networking contexts.
5. Addressing: HDLC frames can carry addressing data, allowing multiple devices to share a
single communication link.
There are three primary categories of HDLC frames:

1. Information frames, referred to as I-frames, carry user data from the network layer and can
also convey flow and error control information combined with the data.
2. Supervisory frames, known as S-frames, serve for flow and error control in cases where
piggybacking is not feasible or appropriate, like when a station lacks data to transmit. S-frames
do not possess information fields.
3. Unnumbered frames, denoted as U-frames, have diverse functions, including link
management. Certain U-frames may include an information field, depending on their specific
purpose.

PPP
Introduction
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is a network protocol that facilitates the establishment of a direct
communication link between two nodes. It is widely used in connecting remote networks and for
Internet Service Provider (ISP) connections.

Point - to - Point Protocol is a layered protocol having three components −

​ Encapsulation Component − It encapsulates the datagram so that it can be transmitted

over the specified physical layer.
​ Link Control Protocol (LCP) − It is responsible for establishing, configuring, testing,
maintaining and terminating links for transmission. It also imparts negotiation for set up
of options and use of features by the two endpoints of the links.
 ​ Authentication Protocols (AP) − These protocols authenticate endpoints for use of
services. The two authentication protocols of PPP are −
​ Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
​ Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)
​ Network Control Protocols (NCPs) − These protocols are used for negotiating the
parameters and facilities for the network layer. For every higher-layer protocol supported
by PPP, one NCP is there. Some of the NCPs of PPP are −
​ Internet Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP)
​ OSI Network Layer Control Protocol (OSINLCP)
​ Internetwork Packet Exchange Control Protocol (IPXCP)
​ DECnet Phase IV Control Protocol (DNCP)
​ NetBIOS Frames Control Protocol (NBFCP)
​ IPv6 Control Protocol (IPV6CP)

2. Framing

PPP operates on the basis of framing, where data packets are encapsulated within frames for
transmission. This framing ensures reliable and efficient data transfer.PPP offers advantages like
simplicity, support for multiple network layer protocols, and error detection. However, it may
have limitations such as lack of encryption and susceptibility to certain security threats.The
adoption of PPP networks is influenced by factors such as network reliability requirements, cost
considerations, and the need for standardized communication protocols.
Byte Stuffing in PPP Frame − Byte stuffing is used is PPP payload field whenever the flag
sequence appears in the message, so that the receiver does not consider it as the end of the frame.
The escape byte, 01111101, is stuffed before every byte that contains the same byte as the flag
byte or the escape byte. The receiver on receiving the message removes the escape byte before
passing it onto the network layer

3. Structure

A PPP network comprises essential components such as modems, routers, access servers, and
the PPP protocol itself. These elements work together to establish and maintain network
connections. The architecture involves the arrangement of these components to form a seamless
network. It includes how the various components interact and the flow of data within the
network.PPP utilizes various protocols such as LCP (Link Control Protocol) and NCP (Network
Control Protocol) to manage and control the PPP connection and negotiate configuration options.

4. Types of Stations

In a PPP network, the term "stations" pertains to the pivotal endpoints or devices responsible for
establishing point-to-point connections, playing a vital role in enabling communication among
network nodes. These stations fall into two key categories: client stations and server stations. The
client stations take the initiative to commence a connection, being preconfigured with
authentication details to initiate the PPP connection. On the other hand, server stations have the
role of validating incoming connections, utilizing configured policies to authorize access to
network resources. Their function involves the crucial step of authenticating the connections and
subsequently permitting or denying access based on the established network policies, essentially
serving as gatekeepers within the PPP network architecture.

Understanding the applications and use cases of High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and the
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is essential to grasp their significance in contemporary networking.
These protocols are deployed in a range of scenarios and applications, each leveraging their
unique strengths.

HDLC Applications

Wide Area Networks (WANs): HDLC excels in wide area networks, prioritizing reliability and
compatibility. Its versatility across different modes makes it apt for various WAN topologies,
ensuring secure data transmission over extensive distances.

Legacy Systems: HDLC remains a prevalent choice for legacy systems and environments where
adherence to established standards is critical. Its longstanding presence in the networking
landscape deems it a dependable option for older systems that have yet to transition to newer
protocols.

PPP Applications

Internet Connections: PPP is extensively utilized for connecting to the internet through Internet
Service Providers (ISPs). Its uncomplicated and efficient nature makes it ideal for establishing
internet connections, particularly in cases where a direct link is present between the user's device
and the ISP.

Dial-up Connections: The simplicity of PPP renders it suitable for dial-up connections,
prevalent in the early stages of the internet. Despite broadband largely supplanting dial-up, PPP
maintains relevance in remote or backup connectivity scenarios.

Future Trends and Developments:

As technology continually advances, data link layer protocols such as HDLC and PPP are
expected to undergo significant transformations to align with the demands of contemporary
networking environments.
 Integration with 5G and IoT: The amalgamation of data link layer protocols with the
expanding realms of 5G networks and the Internet of Things (IoT) is gaining significance.
Protocols like HDLC and PPP may need adaptations to ensure seamless connectivity in this
context.

Elevated Security Measures: Given the escalating complexity of cybersecurity threats, data
link layer protocols are poised for security enhancements. Future developments may focus on
incorporating elements like encryption, authentication, and intrusion detection within these
protocols.

IoT Energy Efficiency: In the context of IoT, energy efficiency is crucial, especially for devices
relying on battery power. Protocols like PPP may undergo optimization to minimize energy
consumption while preserving reliable communication.

Conclusion

In summary, recognizing HDLC and PPP as vital data link layer protocols, each with unique
characteristics and purposes, is crucial. HDLC, established by ISO, provides the foundation for
numerous data link protocols, adapting to various communication scenarios. On the other hand,
PPP, developed in the early 1990s, is primarily used for establishing point-to-point connections,
especially in internet connectivity. Proficiency in these protocols is vital for network
professionals and administrators, enabling them to configure and maintain efficient and secure
data link connections.

References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocol
2. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/point-to-point-protocol-ppp
3.https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=569092672&rlz=1C1BNSD_enPK944PK944&sxsrf
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4. https://www.simplilearn.com/tutorials/cyber-security-tutorial/what-is-hdlc