Ohm’s Law

BASIC BUILDING CONCEPTS

Circuit: A closed conducting loop in which electric current flows continuously is called an electric circuit or
simple circuit.

Circuit diagram: The schematic representation which shows the arrangement of different devices or
components by using their electrical symbols is called a circuit diagram.
The following figure represents an electric circuit having a cell, a resistance, a voltmeter, an ammeter and
a closed key.

Electric current: Amount of charge flowing through a particular area in a unit time is called electric
current, i.e., the rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current.
circuit.

If net charge ‘q’ flows across any cross-sectional area in a time ‘t’, then the current flows through the
conductor is

I=q/t

The SI unit of current is ampere(A). Flow of one coulomb of charge per second is called one ampere, i.e.

1 A = 1 coulomb per second

Small units of current are

1 mA =10-3 A (mA = milliampere)
1 μA =10-6 A (pA = microampere)

Direction of current: The charge carriers in metallic conductor are free electrons. The motion of these
free electrons in a particular direction constitutes an electric current. Conventionally, the direction of
electric current is taken as opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons.
In an electric circuit, the direction of conventional current is always taken from the positive terminal of the
cell/battery through the various components and then to the negative terminal.
Potential: The work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a point in an electric field is
called potential at that point.

Potential difference: The potential difference between two points in an electric field or across the ends
of a conductor is equal to the work done in bringing a charge from one point to another.
If W is the work done in bringing a charge q from one point to another, then the potential difference
between these two points is given by

V=Work Done (W)/Charge(q)

The unit of work done is joule and that of charge is coulomb. Therefore, the unit of potential difference is
volt (V).

1 volt=1 joule(J)/1 coulomb(C) or 1V = 1 JC-1

Resistance: It is the characteristic property of a conducting wire which resists the flow of electric current
through it.
From Ohm’s law,
V = IR or R = V/I
Thus, the ratio of potential difference to the current flowing through the conductor is equal to the
resistance of the conductor.
The flow of electrons is retarded by the resistance of the conductor. It is expressed in volt/ampere or
ohm(Ω).
One ohm is equal to the resistance of a conductor through which a current of one ampere flows when
one volt potential difference is applied across its ends. The resistance of a conductor depends on its

1. length,
2. cross-sectional area and
3. material of the conductor.

1 Ω = 1 VA-1

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS USED

Ammeter: It is a very low resistance device which is used to measure the strength of the current in a
circuit. It is always connected in series in a circuit. It reads the current directly in ampere or fractions of an
ampere,
i. e., in milliampere or micro ampere. One sided deflection in the ammeter is to make it necessary to mark
the positive and negative sign of the terminal of the ammeter. Accordingly, positive terminal of the
ammeter is always connected to the positive terminal of the cell/ battery eliminator (both are red) and
negative terminal to the negative terminal of the cell/battery eliminator in the circuit.

A part of circuit having ammeter and cell is shown here:

Voltmeter: It is a very high resistance device which is used to measure the potential difference between
two points in the circuit. It is always placed in parallel across the two points between which the potential
difference is to be measured. It is connected in such a way that the positive marked terminal is connected
to the high potential end of the conductor while the negative marked terminal to the low potential end of
the conductor as shown.

Sliding Rheostat: It is a device which is used as a current controller in the circuit by changing its
resistances. It is always placed in series with the circuit as shown here.

AIM
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (/) passing through it
and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Nichrome or manganin wire, ammeter, voltmeter, battery eliminator, rheostat, one-way plug key and
connecting wires.
THEORY
Ohm’s Law: If the physical conditions such as temperature, pressure, mechanical strain, etc., remain the
same, the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V)
across the conductor. Mathematically,
I ∝V or V∝ I or V=IR or R=V/I
The proportionality constant R is called the resistance offered by the conductor to the flow of electric
current. If a graph is plotted between the current (I) flows through the conductor and the applied
potential difference (V) between its ends, it will be a straight line as shown.

The graph shows that the current through conductor increases linearly as the potential difference across it
increases.
Circuit Diagram
Assembly Diagram

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit arrangement as shown in circuit diagram or apparatus arrangement.

2. Note the least count of the ammeter and voltmeter.
3. Find, if any, zero error of the ammeter and voltmeter and record it in table ‘A’.
4. Plug the key/switch on the battery eliminator and adjust the rheostat by sliding its variable
terminal till the ammeter and the voltmeter show a reading.
5. Note the readings of ammeter and voltmeter in table ‘B\ Take out the plug or switch off the
battery eliminator for a moment.
6. Repeat the step 4 and 5 for the different values of current by varying the sliding terminal of
rheostat.
7. Tabulate all the observations in the observation table ‘B’ and find the ratio of V/I for each set of
observations. Find the mean value of R.
8. Plot a graph by taking / along y-axis and V along v-axis or V along .r-axis and I along y-axis.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Table (A) for ammeter and voltmeter
Table (B) for reding ammeter and voltmeter

CALCULATION
1. Find the ratio of V and I for each corrected set of observation.
Mean value of R = ………….Ω
2. Plot the graph between the potential difference ‘V along x-axis and the current T along y-axis for I-V
graph as shown or ‘V’ on y-axis and T on x-axis. _
3. Find the slope of line.
(i) For I-V graph,
Slope of line AB =BC/AC=I2-I1/V2-V1 (Conductance)
.’. Resistance of nichrome (or manganin) wire = 1/slope of line AB =………………….Ω
(ii) For V-I graph,
Slope of line AB =BC/AC=I2-I1/V2-V1=Resistance of nichrome (or manganin) wire =………………Ω

RESULT
 1. Straight line nature of the I-V graph or V-I graph shows that potential difference across the
conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, i.e., V x /. This proves the
Ohm’s law graphically.
2. The resistance of nichrome (or manganin) wire obtained from the graph is equal (or
approximately equal) to the mean calculated value of R. It also verifies the Ohm’s law.
3. The resistance of the given wire =………..Ω

PRECAUTIONS

1. The ends of connecting wire should be neat and clean.

2. All connections should be kept tight.
3. Positive terminal of ammeter or voltmeter should be connected to positive terminal of the
battery or battery eliminator.
4. The ends of resistance wire must be connected across the terminals of voltmeter.
5. Never allow the current to flow in the resistance wire for a longer time to avoid heating effect of
current as R∝ T.
6. Range of voltmeter should be greater than the applied voltage.
7. A low resistance ranged rheostat must be used.
8. The area of cross-section of the connecting wire should be more because it offers negligible
resistance.

SOURCE OF ERROR

1. Reading error may be possible while observing the pointer of ammeter and voltmeter.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available at the time of performing the experiment.
3. Area of cross-section of resistance wire may not be uniform across the length of wire.
4. There may be the use of. a high resistance rheostat.
5. Current may be allowed for a longer period of time.
6. The terminal screw of the instrument may not be tightened properly.

Binary Fission in Amoeba and Budding in Yeast

BASIC BUILDING CONCEPTS
Reproduction is the ability of an individual to produce new generation of individuals of same species.
It involves the transmission of genetic material from the parental generation to the next generation,
thereby ensuring that characteristics, not only of the species but also the parental organisms, are
perpetuated.

Types of Reproduction
Reproduction is of two types – Asexual and Sexual.

1. Asexual reproduction – Production of offspring by a single parent without the involvement of

gamete formation is called asexual reproduction. The off springs produced by asexual
reproduction are identical to parents. Such identical off springs from a single parent are referred
to as clone.
 Asexual reproduction is of various types which are listed in the following flow chart.

2. Sexual reproduction – Sexual reproduction involves two parents. Male parent produces male
gametes and female parent produces female gametes. Male and female gametes fuse together to
form a zygote. Zygote is the first cell of next generation.

AIM
To study

 binary fission in Amoeba, and

 budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Compound microscope, permanent slides of binary fission in Amoeba and budding in yeast.

THEORY
Binary Fission – This is a type of asexual reproduction which takes place in Amoeba. In this type of
reproduction, parent cell divides into two small, nearly equal sized identical daughter cells. The two
daughter cells then grow into adult organism. In binary fission parental identity is lost.
Budding – This is also a type of asexual reproduction which is common in yeast. In this type of
reproduction a small bud-like outgrowth develops at the parent cell. This bud enlarges in size. The
nucleus also enlarges in size and divides to form two nuclei. Out of these two nuclei, one goes into
developing bud. When the bud attains almost the same size as that of parent cell, a separating wall is laid
down between the bud and parent cell. This bud may detach from the parent cell or may produce another
bud over it.

PROCEDURE

1. Select the slide of binary fission in Amoeba and budding in yeast.

2. Set-up a compound microscope. While looking through the eye piece, adjust the mirror and
diaphragm so that microscope is illuminated.
3. Now, place the slide on stage and focus at low power. Observe it.
4. Without removing the slide, now change the focus to high power. Observe it.

OBSERVATIONS
(a) Binary Fission in Amoeba
  This is a type of asexual reproduction in which two daughter cells (or two individuals) are formed
from a single parent.
 Parent cell becomes elongated.
 Nucleus divides first and then the cytoplasm divides.
 At the point of fission, constriction appears and deepens to divide the cell into two daughter cells.

(b) Budding in Yeast

 In this type of asexual reproduction, a small protuberance or outgrowth arises from the parent
body called bud.
 Nucleus divides to form two daughter nuclei, of which one passes into the bud.
 The bud now detaches from the parent body and grows independently as a new individual or may
remain attached to parent body, forming chain of cells.
 Parental identity is not lost.

RESULT
The slides show reproduction by binary fission in Amoeba and budding in yeast.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Always focus the slide, first at low power and then at high power.
2. While focussing at high power, do not use coarse adjustment of microscope. Only use fine
adjustment.