A-HPL-05

The Eye and Vision Organism

BRIEFING
SAFETY TIME
 Perception
P Percieving the status, atributes, and dynamics
of relevant elements in the environment.
(Airspeed, position, altitude, route, weather,
ATC, etc)

Comprehension
C Comprehension of the situation and
understanding the significance of the elements
in light of the pilot´s goals.

Projection
P Projection of future actions of the elements in

BRIEFING the environment. Achieved through knowledge

of the status and dynamics of the elements.

SITUATIONAL
AWARENESS
Decision making
D Cognitive process of selecting a course of
action from among multiple alternatives.
Select, Assess, Check SOPs.

Slide /3
 General Objectives:

Optimize Flight Safety

Improve Situational
awareness

BRIEFING
Improve decision making
skills

Slide /4
 SKILLS:

BRIEFING ATTITUDES:
SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES

Slide /5
 Knowledge Objectives:
Anatomy of the visual system

Accommodation

Organisation of the retina

The visual field and eye movement

Visual acuity

BRIEFING Depth perception

SPECIFIC Adaptation
OBJECTIVES Hazards

Look out and empty field myopia

Visual defects
 MAN AND ENVIRONMENT: THE SENSORY SYSTEM

THE SENSES
Sensory system receive stimuli from internal and external environment.

Types:

Vision: Is the dominant sense for human.

Hearing: Acoustic space is spherical and has no boundaries. Lacks the

precision of visual localitation and orientation and it is more difficult to
control. It is the source of human communication and verbal information:
Both being marked importance in aviation.

Sense of equilibrium: This operates through the proprioceptive senses

controlling the body´s displacement and movement through space. The
work reliably when staying on the ground, but in flight due to the resultant
forces the are completely unreliable when visual contact to the ground is
lost.

Dra. Blanca Marco 7

 THE HUMAN PERCEPTION IS DUE
TO MULTI-SENSORY NATURE

Dra. Blanca Marco 8

 Padpilot Chapter 5: The Eye and Vision
Scope
The Eye
 Anatomy of the Eye
Sclera
Aqueous Humour
Choroid
Cornea
Retina
Pupil

Lens Fovea

Iris
Optic Nerve
Suspensory
Ligament Blind Spot

Ciliary muscle Vitreous Humour

12
Dra. Blanca Marco 13
The Retina

Comprises photosensitive cells: Rods and

Cones.

Rods: Low intensity light, Scotopic vision (Black

and White).

Cones: High intensity light, Photopic vision

(Colour).
Distribution of Rods and Cones

15
Distribution of Rods and Cones

16
TWO TYPES OF PHOTO- RECEPTOR CELLS:

Rods
Rods are sensitive to low light illumination and relative movement at the extremes
of vision. There are around 125 million rods. Vision that employs the rods is known
as scotopic vision.

Cones
Cones are colour sensitive and associated with both vision in good light and fine
detail. There are around 7 million cones. Vision that employs the cones is known as
photopic vision.

Vision that employs both the rods and the cones is known as mesopic vision.

The focal point on the retina is called the fovea. This area contains closely-spaced
cones and no rods. This makes the fovea the area of highest visual acuity. Farther
from the fovea, the number of cones decreases until the retina is made up entirely
of rods. Colour discrimination is limited to small areas around the central fovea.

Dra. Blanca Marco 17

Accommodation

Ciliary muscles adjust tension on the lens so

altering its thickness.

Changes the focal length of the eye to focus on

near or far objects.

Affected by ageing and fatigue

18
The Visual Field

The entire area of space which can be seen

at any one time by a stationary eye.

Visual field = Central + Peripheral vision

 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL VISION, VISUAL FIELD CONCEPT

Visual perception is based on binocular vision at close distances and the rules of
proportion and perspective.

CENTRAL

Static detalis . With bright light the eyes rely on central vision( foveal cones). In
aircracft the crew use this to acquire necessary information for the preparation
and execution of flight.

PERIPHERAL

Important for detecting moving objetcts , moreover is involved with detecting

and understanding the “big picture”- the context and changes in the
environment. Many do not display colours and ,little interest in the details. RODS

Without it, “lost in space”.

Dra. Blanca Marco 20

Control of Eye Movement
Vision and Visual Acuity

Vision: The forming of an image on the

visual cortex.

Visual acuity: measure of special resolution

in visual processing.

Is the ability to identify the objects clearly and sharply

Anatomy of the Visual System

2
3
Visual Acuity

Resolving power drops off rapidly as you

move away from the Fovea

At 5⁰ it falls by ½ (20/40)

At 25⁰ it falls to a tenth

Factors Affecting Visual Acuity

Angular distance from the fovea

Physical imperfections within the visual system

Age

Hypoxia

Smoking

Alcohol

Meteorological visibility
Factors Affecting Visual Acuity

Available light

Size and contrast of object

Distance

Relative motion

Drugs
Depth Perception

Human visual field = 180O

Binocular (Stereoscopic) visual field = 140O

Necessary for judging the distance of relatively close objects ( final

stage of landing).

Is achieved when the brain detects minimum differences in the 2

retinal images of an object, by slightly viewing angle of each eye.
The visual fields of each eye overlap considerably

Dra. Blanca Marco 29

Depth Perception

Stereoscopic ( binocular) vision to 60 m (200 ft).

Non-stereoscopic vision depth cues:

Colour

Contrast

Size

Rate of movement

Monocular vision – los in depth perception of close objects

• A person with only one eye cannot is not fit to fly.

Dark Adaptation

Increasing retinal sensitivity and pupil dilation.

Takes about 9 minutes for the cones to become

adapted.

30 minutes for the rods to achieve maximum

sensitivity.

Dark adaptation is lost very quickly by exposure to

bright light.
Light Adaptation

Dazzle reflex: eyelid closes automatically to cut out

99% of all light.

The pupil contracts quickly, and retinal neurones

reduce sensitivity

About 10 seconds to adapt from darkness to bright

light.

Flash blindness is potentially very dangerous. Turn

flight deck lighting up full if lightning is possible.
Hazards of High Intensity Light Perception
UV radiation can damage retina and cause skin cancer.

Sun glasses Must be:

Impact resistant

Good optics (Refractive class 1)

Good luminance transmission (10 - 15%)

Thin rimmed (or no rims)

Photochromic or polarising sunglasses are not

permitted.
 Physiological Limitations
Blind Spot
Empty Field Myopia

The eye default focusses to 1 - 2 m

Unable to detect aircraft.

Detecting Objects in the Dark

Pupils dilate making focussing more difficult.

No image on fovea.

Look away 10⁰ - 15⁰ from fovea.

Night vision is affected in the indifferent zone and

can be as low as 5,000ft.
Detecting Objects in the Dark

Night vision affected by:

Mild hypoxia

Age

Cabin Altitude greater than 5000 ft

Smoking

Alcohol

Minor illness

Lack of vitamin A
Colour Blindness

Total colour blindness a bar to a flying licence.

It does not affect acuity.

Inherited, mote rare in women.

Diagnosed using Ishihara test:

Visual Defects

Hypermetropia (long sighted)

Myopia (short sighted)

Presbyopia

Astigmatism

Cataract

Glaucoma
Long Sightedness - Hypermetropia
Short Sightedness - Myopia
Corrected Vision

Pilots using correcting spectacles or

contact lenses must carry a spare
(easily accessible) pair during flight

Bifocal spectacle lenses are permitted.

Bi-focal contact lenses are prohibited

Astigmatism

Imperfections in the curvature of cornea or lens.

Causes difficulty in resolving fine detail.

More common with age and can be completely

symptomless

Can be corrected by individually tailored lenses

or laser surgery.
Presbyopia

Ciliary muscles weaken and lens becomes less flexible with age.
Long sightedness which makes it difficult to read when fatigued
or in low light conditions.
Cataracts

Clouding of the lens due to

age or UV radiation.

Untreated will lead to

blindness.

Easily treated with a 20

minute surgical procedure.
Glaucoma

Stereoscopic Caused by a pressure rise of the liquid within the

eye.

Can lead to blindness but treated with eye drops.

Symptoms:

Acute eye pain

Blurred vision

Sensitivity to bright light

Visual field deterioration

Discolouration of the eye

Lesson Review

Anatomy of the visual system

Accommodation
Organisation of the retina
The visual field and eye movement
Visual acuity
Depth perception
Adaptation
Hazards
Look out and empty field myopia
Visual defects
DEBRIEFING
SAFETY TIME
 01 The definition of unit Hertz (hz) is:

CONSOLIDATION
QUESTIONS 02 Diffraction is the process by which:

BASIC RADIO
PROPAGATION
THEORY

Slide /49
 03 When a transmitter is moving towards a receiver, the
correct description of Doppler Effect is:

CONSOLIDATION
QUESTIONS 04 SSb modulation is a technique where only one sideband
is transmitted. Ssb is used for:

BASIC RADIO
PROPAGATION
THEORY

Slide /50