European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Part-66
 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
uk GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES

CONTENTS
1 FUNDAMENTALS ........................................................................ 1-1
1.1 WORK, POWER & ENERGY ...................................................... 1-1
1.1.1 Work ............................................................................. 1-1
1.1.2 Power............................................................................ 1-1
1.1.3 Energy .......................................................................... 1-2
1.2 FORCE AND MOTION ............................................................... 1-3
1.2.1 Force............................................................................. 1-3
1.2.2 Velocity ......................................................................... 1-3
1.2.3 Acceleration .................................................................. 1-4
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION ......................................... 1-4
1.3.1 Thrust Calculation. ........................................................ 1-4
1.4 GAS TURBINES ......................................................................... 1-6
1.5 THE BRAYTON CYCLE ............................................................. 1-7
1.6 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY . 1-9
1.6.1 Temperature and Pressure ........................................... 1-9
1.6.2 Velocity and Pressure ................................................... 1-10
1.6.3 How The Changes are Obtained. ................................. 1-10
1.7 DUCTS AND NOZZLES ............................................................. 1-10
Continuity equation. .................................................................... 1-10
1.7.2 Incompressible fluid flow. .............................................. 1-11
1.7.3 Bernoulli’s Theorem ...................................................... 1-11
1.7.4 Total energy. ................................................................. 1-12
1.8 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLI’S THEOREM ....... 1-13
1.8.1 Incompressible fluid. ..................................................... 1-13
1.8.2 Gas Laws ...................................................................... 1-15
1.9 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS 1-
16
Divergent Duct ............................................................................ 1-16
1.9.2 Convergent Duct ........................................................... 1-16
SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS 1-17
1.11 THE WORKING CYCLE ON A PRESSURE VOLUME DIAGRAM 1-18
1.12 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS. .................................................... 1-19
1.12.1 Reaction engines .......................................................... 1-19
1.12.2 Power Engines .............................................................. 1-21
2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE ........................................................... 2-1
2.1 METHOD OF CALCULATING THE THRUST FORCES ............. 2-1
2.2 CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE ....................... 2-2
2.2.1 Comparison between thrust and horse-power ............... 2-6
2.3 ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT .................................................... 2-7
2.3.1 Effect of forward speed ................................................. 2-9
2.3.2 Effect of afterburning on engine thrust........................... 2-11
2.3.3 Effect of altitude ............................................................ 2-11
2.3.4 Effect of temperature..................................................... 2-13
2.4 PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY ....................................................... 2-14

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2.5 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP 2-15

2.6 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION ............................................. 2-16
2.6.1 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION – DEFINITION ........ 2-16
2.7 FLAT RATING ............................................................................ 2-16
2.8 PERFORMANCE RATINGS ....................................................... 2-16
3 INLET ............................................................................................ 3-1
3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 3-1
3.2 RAM COMPRESSION ................................................................ 3-1
3.2.1 Importance of Ram Compression .................................. 3-1
3.3 TYPES OF AIR INTAKES ........................................................... 3-2
3.3.1 PITOT INTAKES ........................................................... 3-2
3.3.2 DIVIDED ENTRANCE DUCT ........................................ 3-3
3.4 IDEAL INTAKE CONDITIONS .................................................... 3-4
3.5 INTAKE ANTI-ICING .................................................................. 3-5
3.5.1 Engine Hot Air Anti-icing ............................................... 3-5
3.5.2 Engine Electrical Anti-icing ............................................ 3-7
3.5.3 Oil Anti-ice .................................................................... 3-8
4 COMPRESSORS .......................................................................... 4-1
4.1 COMPRESSORS GENERAL...................................................... 4-1
4.2 CENTRIFUGAL FLOW ............................................................... 4-1
4.2.1 Operation ...................................................................... 4-3
4.3 THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR............................................ 4-5
Operation .................................................................................... 4-6
4.4 COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE ........................................ 4-13
4.4.1 Airflow Control System Principles.................................. 4-13
4.4.2 Compressor Characteristics .......................................... 4-17
4.4.3 Effect of Temperature on the Operating Point of the Airflow Control System 4-
18
4.5 AIR FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM – OPERATION ........................ 4-20
4.6 AEROFOIL THEORY AND THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR (CONTINUED) 4-
25
4.6.1 Speed of Airflow Over Blades ....................................... 4-25
4.6.2 Angle of Attack .............................................................. 4-25
Some Important Points about Angle of Attack ............................. 4-26
4.7 APPLICATION TO THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR ............. 4-27
4.7.1 Compressor RPM.......................................................... 4-27
4.7.2 Common Causes of Compressor Stall .......................... 4-27
4.7.3 Stagger Angle and End Bend ........................................ 4-27
4.7.4 Recent innovations........................................................ 4-27
4.8 AIRFLOW CONTROL ................................................................. 4-29
4.9 AIR BLEED VALVES (SUMMARY) ............................................. 4-29
4.10 VARIABLE INTAKE GUIDE VANES (SUMMARY) ...................... 4-29
4.11 MULTI-SPOOL COMPRESSORS (SUMMARY) ......................... 4-29
4.12 COMPARING THE FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL FLOW
COMPRESSORS ................................................................................... 4-30

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4.12.1 Centrifugal .................................................................... 4-30

4.12.2 Axial Flow ..................................................................... 4-30
5 COMBUSTION SECTION ............................................................. 5-1
5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 5-1
5.2 COMBUSTION PROCESS ......................................................... 5-1
5.3 FUEL SUPPLY ........................................................................... 5-3
5.4 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER ...................................... 5-4
5.4.1 Multiple combustion chamber ........................................ 5-4
5.4.2 Tubo-annular combustion chamber ............................... 5-6
(Also known as Can-annular or Cannular.) ................................. 5-6
5.4.3 Annular combustion chamber ........................................ 5-7
5.4.4 Reverse Flow Combustion Chamber ............................. 5-9
5.5 COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE ............................ 5-10
5.5.1 Combustion intensity ..................................................... 5-10
5.6 COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY ..................................................... 5-11
5.7 COMBUSTION STABILITY ......................................................... 5-11
5.8 POLLUTION CONTROL ............................................................. 5-12
5.8.1 Introduction ................................................................... 5-12
5.8.2 Sources of Pollution ...................................................... 5-12
5.9 EMISSIONS................................................................................ 5-12
5.10 MATERIALS ............................................................................... 5-14
6 TURBINE SECTION ..................................................................... 6-1
6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 6-1
6.2 ENERGY TRANSFER FROM GAS FLOW TO TURBINE ........... 6-5
6.3 CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................... 6-8
6.3.1 Nozzle guide vanes ....................................................... 6-8
6.3.2 Turbine discs................................................................. 6-9
6.3.3 Turbine blades .............................................................. 6-9
6.3.4 Dual alloy discs ............................................................. 6-11
6.4 COMPRESSOR-TURBINE MATCHING ..................................... 6-11
6.5 MATERIALS ............................................................................... 6-11
6.5.1 Nozzle guide vanes ....................................................... 6-11
6.5.2 Turbine discs................................................................. 6-11
6.5.3 Turbine blades .............................................................. 6-12
6.6 DYNAMIC BALANCING PRINCIPLES........................................ 6-16
6.6.1 Introduction ................................................................... 6-16
6.6.2 Centrifugal Force .......................................................... 6-17
6.6.3 Causes of Unbalance .................................................... 6-18
6.6.4 Objective of Balancing .................................................. 6-20
6.6.5 Definition of Unbalance ................................................. 6-20
6.6.6 Fan Balancing ............................................................... 6-23
7 EXHAUST ..................................................................................... 7-1
7.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 7-1
EXHAUST GAS FLOW .......................................................................... 7-3
7.3 CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS ......................................... 7-7

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7.4 NOISE REDUCTION .................................................................. 7-8

7.4.1 Sources of Engine Noise ............................................... 7-8
7.5 THRUST REVERSAL ................................................................. 7-18
7.5.1 Introduction ................................................................... 7-18
7.5.2 Requirement for Thrust Reversal .................................. 7-18
7.5.3 Layout and Operation of Typical Thrust Reversing Systems 7-19
7.5.4 Safety Features............................................................. 7-22
CFM 56 Thrust Reverser for Boeing 737-300 ............................. 7-22
8 BEARINGS, SEALS AND GEARBOXES ..................................... 8-1
8.1 BEARINGS ................................................................................. 8-1
8.1.1 Introduction ................................................................... 8-1
8.1.2 Ball Bearings ................................................................. 8-1
8.1.3 Roller Bearings ............................................................. 8-1
8.1.4 Other types of bearings ................................................. 8-1
8.2 BEARING CHAMBER OR SUMP ............................................... 8-3
8.2.1 Lubrication .................................................................... 8-3
8.2.2 Sealing .......................................................................... 8-3
8.2.3 Thread Seals................................................................. 8-4
8.2.4 Carbon Seal .................................................................. 8-5
8.2.5 Spring Ring Seal ........................................................... 8-5
8.2.6 Hydraulic Seal ............................................................... 8-6
8.3 ACCESSORY DRIVE GEARBOXES .......................................... 8-7
8.3.1 Introduction ................................................................... 8-7
8.3.2 Internal gearbox ............................................................ 8-7
8.3.3 Radial driveshaft ........................................................... 8-10
8.3.4 Direct drive .................................................................... 8-10
8.3.5 Gear train drive ............................................................. 8-10
8.3.6 Intermediate gearbox .................................................... 8-10
8.3.7 External gearbox ........................................................... 8-11
8.3.8 Auxiliary gearbox .......................................................... 8-12
8.3.9 Construction and Materials............................................ 8-14
9 LUBRICANTS AND FUEL ............................................................ 9-1
9.1 GAS TURBINE FUEL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATION ..... 9-1
9.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION .................................................... 9-1
9.3 PROPERTIES ............................................................................ 9-3
9.3.1 Ease of Flow ................................................................. 9-3
9.3.2 Ease of Starting ............................................................ 9-3
9.3.3 Complete Combustion................................................... 9-3
9.3.4 Calorific Value ............................................................... 9-4
9.3.5 Corrosive Properties ..................................................... 9-4
9.3.6 Effects of By-Products of Combustion ........................... 9-5
9.3.7 Fire Hazards ................................................................. 9-5
9.3.8 Vapour Pressure ........................................................... 9-6
9.3.9 Fuel Boiling and Evaporation Losses ............................ 9-6
9.3.10 Methods of Reducing or Eliminating Fuel Losses .......... 9-6
9.3.11 Fuel additives ................................................................ 9-8
9.3.12 Safety precautions ........................................................ 9-8
9.4 GAS TURBINE OIL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATIONS ...... 9-9

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9.4.1 Viscosity........................................................................ 9-9

9.4.2 Hydro-Dynamics or Fluid Film Lubrication ..................... 9-9
9.4.3 Boundary Lubrication .................................................... 9-10
9.5 LUBRICATING OILS .................................................................. 9-10
9.6 TURBINE OILS ........................................................................... 9-11
9.6.1 First Generation Synthetic Oils ...................................... 9-12
9.6.2 Second Generation Synthetic Oils................................. 9-12
9.6.3 Third Generation Synthetic Oils..................................... 9-12
9.6.4 Safety Precautions ........................................................ 9-13
10 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ........................................................... 10-1
10.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 10-1
10.2 BEARINGS ................................................................................. 10-1
10.3 ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ........................................... 10-5
10.3.1 Pressure Relief Valve Re-circulatory System ................ 10-5
10.3.2 Recirculatory Oil System – Full Flow Type .................... 10-8
10.3.3 Advantages of Full Flow Lubrication .............................. 10-8
10.3.4 Expendable System ...................................................... 10-10
10.4 MAIN COMPONENTS ................................................................ 10-11
10.4.1 Oil Tank ........................................................................ 10-11
10.4.2 Oil Pumps ..................................................................... 10-12
10.4.3 oil cooling ...................................................................... 10-14
10.4.4 Pressure Filter............................................................... 10-15
10.4.5 Last Chance Filter ......................................................... 10-17
10.4.6 Scavenge Oil Strainers ................................................. 10-17
10.4.7 Magnetic Chip Detector ................................................. 10-18
10.4.8 De-aerator ..................................................................... 10-18
10.4.9 Centrifugal Breather ...................................................... 10-19
Pressure Relief Valve ................................................................. 10-19
10.4.11 By-Pass Valve ............................................................... 10-20
10.5 INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS ................................................ 10-21
10.5.1 Low Pressure Warning Lamp ........................................ 10-21
10.5.2 Oil Pressure, temperature and quantity indication ......... 10-21
10.6 OIL SEALS ................................................................................. 10-21
10.7 SERVICING ................................................................................ 10-21
11 ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS ......................................... 11-1
11.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 11-1
11.2 PURPOSE OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM ............................ 11-1
11.3 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS ...................... 11-3
11.3.1 Aircraft Mounted Components ....................................... 11-3
11.3.2 The Engine LP fuel system ........................................... 11-3
11.3.3 The Engine HP Fuel System ......................................... 11-3
11.4 FACTORS GOVERNING FUEL REQUIREMENTS .................... 11-5
11.5 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM ................. 11-5
11.6 ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS .................................. 11-5
11.7 FUEL PUMPS ............................................................................. 11-5
11.7.1 Fuel Pump Requirements.............................................. 11-5

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11.7.2 Plunger-type Fuel Pump ............................................... 11-6

11.7.3 Gear-Type Fuel Pump................................................... 11-7
11.8 FUEL FLOW CONTROL ............................................................. 11-7
11.8.1 Basic Flow Control System ........................................... 11-8
11.9 HYDRO-MECHANICAL CONTROL UNITS ................................ 11-10
11.9.2 Barometric Controls ...................................................... 11-11
11.9.3 Proportional Flow Control. ............................................. 11-13
11.9.4 Acceleration Control Units ............................................. 11-14
11.10 ENGINE PROTECTION DEVICES ............................................. 11-18
11.10.1 Top Temperature Limiter. .............................................. 11-18
11.10.2 Power Limiter. ............................................................... 11-18
11.10.3 Overspeed Governor..................................................... 11-19
BURNERS ............................................................................................ 11-21
11.11.1 Atomiser Burners .......................................................... 11-21
11.11.2 Vaporising Burners........................................................ 11-26
11.11.3 Combustion and Airflow ................................................ 11-28
11.12 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS .......................... 11-30
11.12.1 Supervisory Electronic Engine Control .......................... 11-30
11.12.2 FUEL CONTROL .......................................................... 11-32
11.12.3 General ......................................................................... 11-32
11.12.4 Full-Authority Digital Electronic Control (FADEC) .......... 11-37
12 AIR SYSTEMS .............................................................................. 12-1
12.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 12-1
12.2 INTERNAL COOLING AIRFLOW ............................................... 12-2
12.2.1 Low Pressure Air ........................................................... 12-2
12.2.2 Intermediate Pressure Air.............................................. 12-2
12.2.3 High Pressure Air .......................................................... 12-2
12.2.4 Differential Pressure Seals ............................................ 12-3
12.3 SEALING .................................................................................... 12-3
12.4 COOLING. .................................................................................. 12-5
12.5 TURBINE CASE COOLING – DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION 12-9
12.5.1 Passive Clearance Control System. Figure 12.7. .......... 12-9
12.5.2 Active Clearance Control System. Figure 12.8. ............. 12-10
12.5.3 Low Pressure Turbine Clearance Control Valve ............ 12-11
12.6 EXTERNAL COOLING ............................................................... 12-13
12.6.1 External skin of aero-engine. ......................................... 12-13
12.6.2 Cooling of Accessories .................................................. 12-14
12.7 HP AIR FOR AIRCRAFT SERVICES.......................................... 12-15
External Air Tappings ................................................................. 12-15
12.8 ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS .............................................................. 12-18
13 STARTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS ........................................ 13-1
13.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS 13-1
13.1.1 Purpose ........................................................................ 13-1
13.1.2 Essential Starting Requirements ................................... 13-1
STARTER MOTORS.............................................................................. 13-2
13.2.1 Electrical Starter Motor .................................................. 13-3

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13.2.2 Electric Starter/Generator.............................................. 13-3

13.2.3 Safety Interlocks ........................................................... 13-4
13.2.4 Air Turbo Starters .......................................................... 13-5
13.3 A300 STARTING SYSTEM ......................................................... 13-8
13.3.1 GE 6-50 Starting Procedure .......................................... 13-8
13.4 IGNITION SYSTEMS .................................................................. 13-12
13.4.1 High Energy Ignition Unit............................................... 13-12
13.4.2 Igniter Plug .................................................................... 13-14
13.4.3 Servicing the Ignition System ........................................ 13-14
14 ENGINE INDICATION SYSTEMS ................................................ 14-1
14.1 INTRODUCTION. ....................................................................... 14-1
14.2 ENGINE SPEED INDICATORS. ................................................. 14-3
14.3 THRUST INDICATION................................................................ 14-7
14.3.1 Engine Pressure Ratio.EPR. ......................................... 14-7
14.3.2 Torque indication .......................................................... 14-9
14.3.3 Phase comparison Torquemeter ................................... 14-12
14.4 EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE .............................................. 14-13
14.4.1 Thermocouples ............................................................. 14-13
14.5 FUEL FLOW METERING ........................................................... 14-17
14.6 OIL ............................................................................................. 14-20
14.6.1 The Oil Pressure Indicator............................................. 14-20
14.6.2 Oil pressure warning light .............................................. 14-21
Oil Temperature. ......................................................................... 14-22
14.6.4 Oil Quantity ................................................................... 14-23
14.7 VIBRATION ................................................................................ 14-24
14.8 WARNING LIGHTS .................................................................... 14-24
15 THRUST AUGMENTATION ......................................................... 15-1
15.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 15-1
15.2 WATER INJECTION ................................................................... 15-1
15.2.1 Effects on Engine Power ............................................... 15-1
15.2.2 Methods of Applying Water/Methanol ............................ 15-1
15.2.3 Compressor Intake Injection (Turbo Prop) ..................... 15-2
15.2.4 Combustion Chamber Injection System ........................ 15-4
15.3 RE-HEAT (AFTER BURNING).................................................... 15-6
15.3.1 Purpose ........................................................................ 15-6
15.3.2 Revision of Thrust ......................................................... 15-6
15.3.3 Re-heat and By-pass Engines ....................................... 15-6
15.3.4 The Advantage of Re-heat ............................................ 15-6
15.3.5 The disadvantages of Re-heat ...................................... 15-7
15.3.6 Propelling Nozzles ........................................................ 15-7
15.3.7 Re-heat Nozzles ........................................................... 15-8
15.3.8 The Re-heat Jet Pipe .................................................... 15-10
16 TURBO-PROP ENGINES ............................................................. 16-1
16.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 16-1
16.2 TYPES OF TURBO-PROP ENGINES ........................................ 16-1
16.2.1 Coupled Power Turbine ................................................ 16-1

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16.2.2 Free Power Turbine ...................................................... 16-2

16.2.3 Compounded Engine .................................................... 16-3
16.3 REDUCTION GEARING ............................................................. 16-3
16.3.1 Simple Spur ‘Epicyclic’ .................................................. 16-4
16.3.2 Compound Spur Epicyclic ............................................. 16-6
16.3.3 Gear Train/Epicyclic ...................................................... 16-7
16.4 TURBO-PROP PERFORMANCE ............................................... 16-7
16.5 TURBO-PROP ENGINE CONTROL ........................................... 16-7
16.5.1 Integrated Control of RPM and Fuel Flow ..................... 16-8
16.5.2 Direct Control of Fuel Flow ............................................ 16-8
16.5.3 Direct Control of Blade Angle (Beta Control) ................. 16-8
16.6 ENGINE AND PROPELLER CONTROLS................................... 16-9
16.7 CONTROL OUTSIDE NORMAL FLIGHT RANGE ...................... 16-9
16.8 PROPELLER CONTROL ............................................................ 16-9
16.8.1 Constant Speed Unit ..................................................... 16-10
16.8.2 Manual and Automatic Feathering Controls .................. 16-10
16.8.3 Fixed and Removable Stops ......................................... 16-15
16.9 OVERSPEED SAFETY DEVICES .............................................. 16-16
17 TURBOSHAFT ENGINES ............................................................ 17-1
17.1 INTRODUCTION. ....................................................................... 17-1
17.2 FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM ........................................................ 17-4
17.3 ARRANGEMENTS ..................................................................... 17-6
17.4 DRIVE SYSTEMS....................................................................... 17-10
17.5 COUPLINGS .............................................................................. 17-13
18 AUXILLIARY POWER UNITS ...................................................... 18-1
18.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 18-1
18.2 GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS AND CONFIGURATION............. 18-3
18.2.1 Inlet Duct Arrangement ................................................. 18-7
18.2.2 Exhaust Duct Arrangement ........................................... 18-9
18.3 THE APU ENGINE ..................................................................... 18-10
18.4 FUEL CONTROL ........................................................................ 18-12
Mechanical Fuel Control ............................................................. 18-12
18.4.2 Speed Control ............................................................... 18-18
18.4.3 Mechanical Fuel Control Unit Operation ........................ 18-19
18.4.4 Electronic APU Fuel Control.......................................... 18-20
18.4.5 Electro/mechanical Fuel Control (FIGURE 18.26) ......... 18-21
18.5 APU OIL SYSTEM ...................................................................... 18-23
18.6 APU BLEED AIR SYSTEMS ....................................................... 18-25
18.6.1 direct from engine compressor ...................................... 18-25
18.6.2 SEPARATE LOAD COMPRESSOR .............................. 18-27
18.7 BAY COOLING ........................................................................... 18-28
18.7.1 Ram Air Cooling ............................................................ 18-28
18.7.2 Fan Air Cooling ............................................................. 18-28
18.8 APU POWERPLANT INSTALLATION. ....................................... 18-32
18.9 APU STARTING SEQUENCE .................................................... 18-34

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19 POWERPLANT INSTALLATION ................................................. 19-1

19.1 NACELLES OR PODS................................................................ 19-1
19.1.1 Cowlings ....................................................................... 19-1
19.1.2 Firewalls ........................................................................ 19-4
19.1.3 Cooling.......................................................................... 19-6
19.1.4 Acoustic Linings ............................................................ 19-8
19.1.5 Abradable Linings ......................................................... 19-11
19.2 ENGINE MOUNTS ..................................................................... 19-12
19.2.1 Wing Pylon Mounted Engine (Turbofan)........................ 19-12
19.2.2 Wing Mounted Engine (Turboprop) ............................... 19-14
19.2.3 Rear Fuselage Engine Turbofan.(Figure 19.14/15.) ...... 19-16
19.3 ENGINE DRAINS. ...................................................................... 19-18
19.3.1 Controlled Drains .......................................................... 19-18
19.3.2 Uncontrolled Drains....................................................... 19-20
19.4 ENGINE CONTROLS ................................................................. 19-22
19.4.1 Throttle Control Mechanical .......................................... 19-22
19.4.2 Turbofan Engine Controls. ............................................ 19-22
19.4.3 Turboprop Engine Controls ........................................... 19-24
19.5 ENGINE BUILD UNIT ................................................................. 19-29
19.5.1 Turbofan Engine ........................................................... 19-29
19.6 FIRE PREVENTION – BAYS OR ZONES................................... 19-38
19.7 INSTALLING AND REMOVING ENGINES. ................................ 19-40
19.7.1 Removal........................................................................ 19-40
19.7.2 Fitting ............................................................................ 19-48
19.7.3 Turbo Prop Engine Removal/Fit. ................................... 19-48
19.7.4 Flight Transit ................................................................. 19-48
20 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS ................................................... 20-1
20.1 FIRE DETECTORS .................................................................... 20-1
20.2 FIRE WIRE SYSTEMS ............................................................... 20-3
20.2.1 Resistance Type ........................................................... 20-3
20.2.2 Capacitance Type ......................................................... 20-3
20.2.3 Gas Operation Fire Wire ............................................... 20-4
20.2.4 Single Loop ................................................................... 20-5
20.2.5 Dual Loop ..................................................................... 20-5
Dual Loop Systems..................................................................... 20-6
20.3 FIRE AND LOOP FAULT INDICATION (E.C.A.M.) ..................... 20-8
20.4 FIRE SUPPRESSION ................................................................. 20-9
20.4.1 Types of Fire Suppression System................................ 20-11
One Shot System........................................................................ 20-11
20.4.2 Two Shot System (shared extinguishers) ...................... 20-12
20.4.3 Two Shot System (Single Head extinguishers).............. 20-14
20.5 EXTINGUISHERS ...................................................................... 20-16
20.5.1 Operating Head............................................................. 20-17
20.5.2 Safety Discharge ........................................................... 20-17
20.5.3 Discharge Tube Configuration ....................................... 20-18
20.5.4 Operating Time ............................................................. 20-19
20.5.5 Extinguishant ................................................................ 20-19

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20.6 INDICATIONS OF FIRE DETECTION ........................................ 20-20

20.6.1 Fire T Handle ................................................................ 20-20
20.6.2 Fire Bell......................................................................... 20-20
20.6.3 Fire Detection Test ........................................................ 20-22
20.7 DISCHARGE INDICATORS ....................................................... 20-23
20.7.1 Mechanical Indicators ................................................... 20-23
20.7.2 Electrical Indicators ....................................................... 20-23
20.8 CARTRIDGES OR SQUIBS ....................................................... 20-24
20.8.1 Life Control of Squibs .................................................... 20-24
INTENTIONALLY BLANK ...................................................................... 20-26
21 ENGINE MONITORING AND GROUND OPERATIONS. ............. 21-1
21.1 PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND GROUND RUNNING..... 21-1
21.2 STARTING ................................................................................. 21-3
21.3 UNSATISFACTORY STARTS .................................................... 21-7
21.4 ENGINE STOPPING. ................................................................. 21-8
21.5 ENGINE FIRES .......................................................................... 21-9
21.6 INTERPRETATION OF ENGINE POWER OUTPUTS AND PARAMETERS. 21-10
21.7 TREND MONITORING. .............................................................. 21-22
21.7.1 On Ground Monitoring ................................................... 21-24
21.7.2 Air Washed Components .............................................. 21-24
21.7.3 Oil Washed Components .............................................. 21-32
21.7.4 Inspections .................................................................... 21-36
22 ENGINE STORAGE AND PRESERVATION. ............................... 22-1
22.1 STORAGE AND TRANSIT ......................................................... 22-1
22.1.1 Fuel System Inhibiting. .................................................. 22-1
22.1.2 Packing. ........................................................................ 22-2
22.1.3 Storage. ........................................................................ 22-3

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1 FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 WORK, POWER & ENERGY
Work, power, and energy are all interrelated. Work is the amount of movement a
given force causes; energy is the ability to do work, and power is the rate of doing
work.
1.1.1 WORK
In its technical sense, work is the product of force and distance, and work is done
only when a force causes movement. We can see this by the formula:
Work = Force x Distance
We normally measure distance in feet or inches, and force in pounds or ounces.
This allows us to measure work in foot-pounds or inch-ounces.
Example:
To find the amount of work done when a 500 pound load is lifted for a distance of
6 feet, we can use the formula:
Work = Force x Distance
= 500 X 6
= 3,000 foot-pounds
1.1.2 POWER
The rate of doing work is called power, and it is defined as the work done in unit
time. As a formula, this would be:
power = work done
time taken
Power is expressed in several different units, such as the watt, ergs per second,
and foot-pounds per second. The most common unit of power in general use in
the United States is the horsepower. One horsepower (hp) is equal to 550 ft-lb’s
or 33000 ft-1b/min. In the metric system the unit of power is the watt (W) or the
kilowatt (kW). One hp is equal to 746 watts; and 1 kW = 1.34 hp.
Example:
To compute the power necessary to raise an elevator containing 10 persons a
distance of 100 ft in 5 s (assuming the loaded elevator weighs 2500 lb), proceed
as follows:
Power = work done = 2500 x 100 = 50,000 ft-lb’s/sec
Time taken 5

Since 1hp = 550 ft-lb’s/sec then required hp = 50,000

550
= 90.9 hp (67.81 kw assuming no friction losses)

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1.1.3 ENERGY
The term energy may be defined as the capacity for doing work. There are two
forms of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy.
1.1.3.1 POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is the stored energy possessed by a system, because of the
relative positions of the components of that system. If work done raises an object
to a certain height, energy will be stored in that object in the form of the
gravitational force. This energy, waiting to be released is called potential energy.
The amount of potential energy a system possesses is equal to the work done on
the system previously.
Potential energy can be found in forms other than weights and height. Electrically
charged components contain potential (electrical) energy because of their position
within an electric field. An explosive substance has chemical potential energy that
is released in the form of light, heat and kinetic energy, when detonated.
Example :
A weight of 50 pounds is raised 5 feet. Using the formula:
Potential Energy = Force x Distance
= 50 x 5
= 250 ft-lb’s.
Note: That energy is expressed in the same units as those used for work and in all
cases energy is the product of force x distance.
1.1.3.2 KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object, resulting from the motion of
that object. The magnitude of that energy depends on both the mass and speed
of the object. This is demonstrated by the simple equation:
Energy =½mv2 or w v2
2g
where m = mass, v = velocity (in feet or metres per second), w = weight, g =
gravity (32 ft/sec2 or 9.81m/sec2).
All forms of energy convert into other forms by appropriate processes. In this
process of transformation, either form of energy can be lost or gained but the total
energy must remain the same.
Example:
A weight of 50lbs dropped from a height of 5 ft has kinetic energy of
KE = 50 x 25
2 x 32
= 19.53 ft-lb’s

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1.2 FORCE AND MOTION

1.2.1 FORCE
Force may be defined as a push or a pull upon an object. In the English system
the pound (1b) is used to express the value of a force. For example, we say that a
force of 30 lb is acting upon a hydraulic piston.
A unit of force in the metric system is the newton (N). The newton is the force
required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram (kg) 1 meter per second per second
(m/s2).
The dyne (dyn) is also employed in the metric system as a unit of force. One dyne
is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1g 1 centimetre per second per
second (cm/s2). One newton is equal to 100,000 dynes (0.225 Ib).
1.2.2 VELOCITY
It is common to find people confusing the terms velocity and speed when
describing how fast an object is moving. The difference is that speed is a scalar
quantity, whilst the term velocity refers to both speed and direction of an object.
The full definition of velocity is that it is the rate at which its position changes, over
time, and the direction of the change.
The simple diagram below shows how an aircraft, which flies the irregular path
from 'A' to 'B' in an hour, (a speed of 350 mph), has an actual velocity of 200 mph
in an East-Northeast direction.

Path of Aircraft
B

350 Ml (563 Km)

200 Ml (322 Km)

N

A C

Diagram Showing Difference Between Velocity and Speed

Figure 1.1.

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1.2.3 ACCELERATION
This term describes the rate at which velocity changes. If an object increases in
speed, it has positive acceleration; if it decreases in speed, it has negative
acceleration. A reference to Newton's Second law of Motion will explain the
principles of acceleration. Acceleration can be in a straight line, which is referred
to a linear acceleration and it can apply to rotating objects whose speed of rotation
is increasing, (or decreasing), when it is called angular acceleration.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION

Newton’s Laws of Motion. To understand the basic principles of jet propulsion it is

necessary to understand the practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's Laws of
Motion. There are three laws.
1. The First Law States. A mass will remain stationary until acted upon by a
force. If the mass is already moving at a constant speed in a straight line, it will.
continue to move at that constant speed in a straight line until acted upon by a
force.
2. The Second Law States. When a force acts on a mass the mass will
accelerate in the direction in which the force acts.
3. The Third Law States. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The function of any propeller or gas turbine engine is to produce THRUST, (or a
propulsion force), by accelerating a mass of air or gas rearwards. If we apply
Newton's Laws of Motion to aircraft propulsion it can be said that:-
 a FORCE must be applied in order to accelerate the mass of air or gas: first
law,

the acceleration of the mass is proportional to the force applied: second law,
 there must be an equal and opposite reaction, in our case this is THRUST, a
forward acting force: third law.
1.3.1 THRUST CALCULATION.
The amount of thrust produced depends upon two things:-

the MASS of air which is moved rearwards in a given time,

 the ACCELERATION imparted to the air.
It can be expressed as:- Thrust = Mass x Acceleration
The MASS is defined as “the quantity of matter in a body".
It is expressed as W
g
Where:- W = the weight of the body (in lb’s or newtons) and

g = the gravitational constant (taken as 32 ft/sec/sec or 9.81 m/sec2)

The ACCELERATION imparted to the air is the difference between its inlet and
outlet velocity.

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If we let: -
V2 = the air velocity at exit (in ft/sec/sec or 9.81m/sec2)
and
V1 = the air velocity at inlet (in ft/sec/sec or 9.81m/sec2)
It may be expressed as V2 – V1
Taking these expressions for Mass and Acceleration, the thrust produced by an
engine or propeller can be calculated from the following formula:-

THRUST =
W
V2 - V1
g
Example 1.
The airflow through a propeller is 256 lbs/sec, Inlet velocity 0 ft/sec, outlet velocity
700 ft/sec.
Thrust developed will be:

THRUST =
W
V2 - V1
g
THRUST = 256 x (700 – 0)
32
= 5600 lbs
Example 2.
The mass airflow through a gas turbine engine is 128lbs/sec, inlet velocity is 0
ft/sec, outlet velocity is 1400 ft/sec. Using the formula :
THRUST = 128 x (1400 – 0)
32
= 5600lbs
By comparing both examples, you can see that the gas turbine produced the same
thrust as the propeller by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass. It can
be said that a propeller accelerates a large mass slowly whilst the gas turbine
produces the same thrust by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass.
Note that in both of the examples the inlet velocity was zero ft/sec. The aircraft
was stationary so the thrust produced is referred to as STATIC THRUST.

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1.4 GAS TURBINES

A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using a mass of air as a working
fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this, the mass of air passing through the engine
has to be accelerated, which means that the velocity, (or kinetic energy), of the air
is increased. To obtain this increase, the pressure energy is first of all increased,
followed by the addition of heat energy, before final conversion back to kinetic
energy in the form of a high velocity jet efflux.
The simplest form of gas turbine engine is the turbojet engine, which has three
major parts; the compressor, the combustion section and the turbine. A shaft
connects the compressor and the turbine to form a single, rotating unit. These
engines produce thrust in the manner described in the Brayton Cycle.
The simplest turbojet engine is the unit shown below with a single
centrifugal(Double Entry)compressor and a single stage turbine. This type of
engine can still be found in certain special installations but generally, they have
been superseded by engines with axial compressors and multiple stage turbines.
The advantages and disadvantages of the two types of compressor will be
discussed in depth later in this module

Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine (Derwent)

Figure 1.2.

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1.5 THE BRAYTON CYCLE

The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-stroke
piston engine. There is induction, compression, ignition and exhaust in both
cases, although the process is continuous in a gas turbine. Also, the combustion
in a piston engine occurs at a constant volume, whilst in a gas turbine engine it
occurs at a constant pressure.

The Working Cycle.

Figure 1.3.

The cycle, upon which the gas

turbine engine functions, in its
simplest form, is the Brayton
cycle, which is represented by
the pressure/volume diagram,
shown in figure 1.4.

The Brayton Cycle.

Figure 1.4.

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• The air entering the engine is compressed.

• Heat is added to the air by burning fuel at a constant pressure, thereby
considerably increasing the volume of the resulting gas.
• The gases resulting from combustion expand through the turbine, which
converts some of the energy in the expanding gases into mechanical energy
to drive the compressor.
• The remainder of the expanding gases are propelled through the turbine and
jet pipe back to the atmosphere where they provide the propulsive jet.
There are three main stages in the engine working cycle during which the changes
discussed occur:
• During compression. Work is done on the air. This increases the pressure
and temperature and decreases the volume of air.
• During combustion. Fuel is added to the air and then burnt. This increases
the temperature and volume of the gas, whilst the pressure remains almost
constant (the latter being arranged by design in a gas turbine engine).
• During expansion. Energy is taken from the gas stream to drive the
compressor via the turbine; this decreases the temperature and pressure,
whilst the volume increases. The rapidly expanding gases are propelled
through the turbine and jet pipe to give a final momentum that is much greater
than the initial momentum; it is this change in momentum which produces the
propulsive jet.

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1.6 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY .

1.6.1 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
The changes in temperature and pressure of the gases through a gas turbine
engine are illustrated in Figure 1.5 The efficiency with which these changes are
made will determine to what extent the desired relations between pressure,
temperature and velocity are obtained. The more efficient the compressor, the
higher is the pressure generated for a given work input - i.e. for a given
temperature rise of the gas. Conversely, the more efficiently the turbine uses the
expanding gas, the greater is the output of work for a given temperature drop in
gas.

Gas Flow Through an Engine

Figure 1.5

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1.6.2 VELOCITY AND PRESSURE

During the passage of the air (gas) through the engine, aerodynamic and energy
requirements demand changes in its velocity and pressure. For example, during
compression a rise in the pressure of the air is required with no increase in its
velocity. After the air has been heated and its internal energy increased by
combustion, an increase in the velocity of the gases is necessary to cause the
turbine to rotate. Also at the propelling nozzle, a high velocity is required, for it is
the change in momentum of the air that provides the thrust on the aircraft. Local
decelerations of gas flow are also required - for example, in the combustion
chambers to provide a low velocity zone for the flame.
1.6.3 HOW THE CHANGES ARE OBTAINED.
The various changes in temperature, pressure and velocity are effected by means
of the ducts through which the air (gas) passes on its way through the engine.
When a conversion from kinetic energy to pressure energy is required, the ducts
are divergent in shape. Conversely, when it is required to convert the energy
stored in the combustion gases to velocity, a convergent nozzle is used. The
design of the passages and nozzles is of great importance, for upon their good
design depends the efficiency with which the energy changes are effected. Any
interference with the smooth flow of gases creates a loss in efficiency and could
result in component failure because of vibration caused by eddies or turbulence of
the gas flow.
1.7 DUCTS AND NOZZLES
1.7.1 CONTINUITY EQUATION.
If we consider the machine to be an open-ended duct (Fig 1.6.), we find that the
mass flow per second will depend on the density of the fluid and the volume
flowing per sec:

Open Ended Duct to Illustrate Continuity Equation

Figure 1.6.

Now volume flow = Area of duct x distance travelled (L)

Time (sec)

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But the distance travelled per second = Velocity.

Therefore, Mass flow = density x area x velocity.
This is known as the ‘continuity equation’ and it is true for any steady flow system
regardless of changes in the cross-sectional area of the duct.
1.7.2 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW.
Now consider an incompressible fluid as it flows through the duct system shown in
the fig. 1.7. We know that the mass flow is of a constant value and, naturally, as
the fluid enters the larger cross sectional area it will take up the new shape and
the initial volume will now occupy less length in the duct. Therefore, in a given
time, less distance is travelled and the velocity is reduced.
Thus we conclude that if the mass flow is to remain constant, as it must, an
increase in duct area must be accompanied by a reduction in flow velocity, and a
decrease in duct area must bring about an increase in velocity; we can express
this action as – velocity varies inversely with changes in duct area.

Duct System
Figure 1.7.

1.7.3 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

This theorem can be related to the relationship between pressure and velocity
existing in the air flowing through a duct, such as a jet engine. The theorem states
that the total energy per unit mass is constant for a fluid moving inside a duct and
that total energy consists mainly of pressure energy and kinetic energy:
 Pressure energy.
In gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is more often called ‘static pressure’ and it
can be defined as the pressure that would be felt by a body which was submerged
in the medium (gas or fluid) and moving at the same velocity as the medium.

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 Kinetic energy.
This kind of energy is more often called ‘dynamic pressure’ and this term is used
to define the extra pressure created by the movement of the medium. Dynamic
pressure is proportional to ½ mass x velocity 2 (ie. ½mv2).
When the medium (gas or fluid) is moving, the total energy = static pressure +
dynamic pressure.
Consider a duct which is filled with an incompressible fluid and pressurised from
one end by an external force (Fig 1.8.). The other end of the duct is sealed by a
valve, which can be opened or closed, and a pressure gauge is fitted into the wall
of the duct to indicate the static pressure (PS). With the valve closed, static
pressure and total energy are the same. However, when the valve is opened to
allow a fluid flow, the circumstances changes and, although the total energy must
remain the same, it now consists of static pressure + dynamic pressure. As the
velocity V increases, so dynamic pressure increases and the static pressure is
reduced.

Duct with Flow Control Valve

Figure 1.8.

1.7.4 TOTAL ENERGY.

Total energy can be measured as a ram pressure and is usually called the ‘total
head’ or pitot pressure (PT). It is measured by placing a ram tube in the fluid flow.
The ram tube must be parallel to the flow with its open end facing the flow. A
gauge connected into such a tube always records the total head (pitot) pressure
regardless of the rate of flow, refer to Fig 1.9.

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In a situation where there is a no fluid flow, the static pressure (PS) gauge, and the
total head pressure (PT) gauge will show the same value, but when there is a fluid
flow, the total pressure reading remains the same although the static pressure
drops.

Illustration of Pitot and Static Pressures

Figure 1.9.

1.8 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

1.8.1 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID.
The combined effect of the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s theorem produces
the effects shown, when a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct
of varying cross sectional area (Fig 1.10.).

Duct of Varying Cross Sectional Area

Figure 1.10.
The effects of a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct of varying
cross sectional area shows:

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 Mass flow remains constant as cross-sectional area of duct (and velocity)

change.
 Total pressure remains constant, but static pressure (PS) changes as area
(and velocity) change.

1.8.1.1 Compressibility Fluid (Atmosphere).

Compressible fluid flow refers to the air flow through a gas turbine engine and,
because the air is compressible, flow at subsonic speeds causes a change in the
density of the air as it progresses through the engine.
The air entering the duct at section A (Fig 1.11), consists of air at pressure (P1)
and velocity (V1); then as the air enters the increased area of the duct at B it will
spread out to fill the increased area and this will cause the air flow to slow down
(continuity equation) and give a change in velocity to V2. The static pressure of
the air will increase (Bernoulli’s theorem) to become P2 in the wider section of the
duct and, because air is compressible, the air density will increase as it is
compresses by the rise in pressure in section B of the duct.

Airflow Through a Duct Section

Figure 1.11.

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1.8.1.2 Diffuser action.

The flare, which increases the area of the duct, is known as a diffuser (Fig
1.12.)and its shape determines the rate of compression and the amount by which
the air is compressed. For best results, the airflow must remain smooth and,
because of this, a most important design feature is the angle of divergence. When
air is compressed by this process it is called subsonic diffusion and it is a principle
that is used extensively in jet engine design.

Diffuser Section
Figure 1.12.

1.8.2 GAS LAWS

In addition to the preceding information, the following gas laws are closely related
to the function of a gas turbine engine:
 Boyle’s Law. This law is related to temperature and pressure of a gas. It
states that if the temperature T remains constant, the volume V of a given mass
varies inversely as the pressure P exerted upon it (ie. PV = Constant).
 Charles’ Law. This law states that the volume V of a given mass of gas
increases by 1/273 of its volume at 0°C for a rise of 1°C when the pressure P of
the gas is kept constant. These laws are now combined in what is called the
ideal gas law. It gives the relationship:
PV = RT where: P = pressure
V = volume
R = a constant
T = absolute temperature in K

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1.9 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT

DUCTS
1.9.1 DIVERGENT DUCT

A divergent duct widens out as the airflow progresses through it. At subsonic
speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to decrease the velocity and increase the
pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.

Divergent Duct.
Figure 1.13.

1.9.2 CONVERGENT DUCT

A convergent duct is such that the space inside reduces as the airflow progresses
through it. At subsonic speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to increase the
velocity and decreases the pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.

Convergent Duct.
Figure 1.14.

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1.10 SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS

When a flow of fluid (i.e. gas) flows at sonic speed through a convergent duct a
shock wave forms at the exit area of the duct - The exit area is said to be choked.
The shock wave forms a restriction to the fluid and pressure will increase,
temperature will increase and velocity will decrease.

A Con-Di Nozzle
Figure 1.14.
When a gas flow reaches sonic velocity in a convergent duct the nozzle will choke
and the pressure will increase. To prevent a pressure rise that would eventually
prevent a 'fluid' flow and completely choke the duct a divergent section is added
making the duct convergent/divergent (Con/DI). The pressure of gas released into
the divergent section of the nozzle causes the velocity of the 'fluid' to increase,
pressure to decrease, and therefore temperature to decrease. Gas pressure acts
on the walls of the divergent section, this pressure gives additional thrust that is
known as pressure thrust.

Airflow Through a Con-Di Nozzle or Venturi.

Figure 1.15.

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1.11 THE WORKING CYCLE ON A PRESSURE VOLUME DIAGRAM

Air is drawn from the atmosphere (Ambient Air) into the compressor. The
compressor raises the pressure of the air (A to B) on diagram. If the pressure of
the air is increased the volume is decreased. The air passes to the combustion
system and heat is added by burning fuel with a proportion of the air. From the
diagram (B to C) it is seen that combustion takes place at constant pressure so the
gas turbine working cycle is known as the constant pressure cycle. In the
combustion system the air expands rearwards and the volume of the gas
increases and the gas kinetic energy increases. The gas flow passes to the
turbine section to drive the turbine (s), energy is extracted and the pressure
decreases. The gas passes via an exhaust unit to the propelling nozzle which
forms a convergent duct. The velocity of the gas increases. The reaction to the
high velocity jet produces thrust (C to D on diagram).

Changes in Temperature, Pressure and Velocity and the Brayton Cycle

Figure 1.16.

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1.12 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS.

There are two main types of gas turbine engines:
 Reaction engines, which derive their thrust by jet reaction
 Power engines, which provide a mechanical output to drive another device.

1.12.1 REACTION ENGINES

These can be divided into several categories.
a. Turbojet engines. The turbojet was the first type of jet engine developed. In this
engine all the air passes through the core engine (i.e. the compressor,
combustor and turbine). The engine may be single shaft as in the Avon engine,
or twin shafted as in the Olympus 593 fitted to Concorde.
These engines are noisy and are not the most fuel efficient for normal use,
however for high altitude high speed flight they are in a class of their own.

Turbo jet Engines.

Figure 1.17.

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b. Low and Medium By-pass or turbofan engines. These engines will have two or
three shafts. The Low Pressure (LP) shaft drives a larger diameter compressor.
Some of the air produced by-passes the core engine (hence the name) and is
used to provide thrust. The core airflow provides power for the compressors
and thrust. These engine are quieter than turbojets and more fuel efficient. The
Spey and Tay engines fall into this category.
The by-pass ratio is determined by the ratio of the air in flowing through the by-
pass to the air passing through the core of the engine. Low by-pass less than
2:1, medium by-pass 2:1 to 4:1, high by pass greater than 5:1.

Low By-pass Twin Spool Engine (Spey)

Figure 1.17.
c. High by-pass turbofan engines. These engines have very large fans driven by
a relatively small core engine. Often the fan is geared to run at a lower speed
than the LP turbine, which gives the turbine mechanical advantage and also
allows it to run at higher speed where it is more efficient. The ALF 502, RB211
and the Trent engines are all high by-pass
High by-pass engines
are very fuel efficient,
powerful and quiet.
These engines have a
very large diameter
which does give drag
problems, and are not
suitable for high
speed flight as the
blade tips will suffer
compressibility
problems as they
A Three Spool High By-pass Engine (RB211)
Figure 1.18. approach the speed
of sound.

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1.12.2 POWER ENGINES

Power producing engines come in two main forms Turboprop and turboshaft.
a. Turboprop Engines. Turboprop engines extract most of the energy from the
gas stream and convert it into rotational energy to drive a propeller. The
engines are either single or twin shaft and may be direct drive where the LP or
main shaft drive the propeller through a gearbox, or they may have a separate
power turbine to drive the propeller. Turboprop engines differ from high by-
pass turbofans in that the propeller does not have an intake to slow and
prepare the air before passing through it. The propeller therefore has to meet
the demands of airspeed etc. Examples of turboprops are the Dart, PW125
and Tyne engines.

Turboprop Engines
Figure 1.19.

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b. Turboshaft Engines. These engines are used in helicopters. They share

many of the attributes of turboprop engines, but are usually smaller. They do not
have propeller control systems built into the engine and usually do not have many
accessories attached such as generators etc. as these are driven by the main
rotor gearbox. Modern turboshaft and turbo prop engines run at constant speed
which tends to prolong the life of the engine and also means that they are more
efficient as the engine can run at its optimum speed all the time.

Turboshaft Engine with Free power Turbine. (Gem)

Figure 1.20.

There are other types of engine such as ram jets, pulse jets, turbo-ram jet and
turbo - rockets, but none of these are used commercially if at all.

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2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE
2.1 METHOD OF CALCULATING THE THRUST FORCES
The thrust forces or gas loads can be calculated for the engine, or for any flow
section of the engine, provided that the areas, pressures, velocities and mass flow
are known for both the inlet and outlet of the particular flow section.
The distribution of thrust forces shown in Fig 2.1. can be calculated by considering
each component in turn and applying some simple calculations. The thrust
produced by the engine is mainly the product of the mass of air passing through
the engine and the velocity increase imparted to it (ie. Newtons Second Law of
Motion), however the pressure difference between the inlet to and the outlet from
the particular flow section will have an effect on the overall thrust of the engine and
must be included in the calculation.
FORWARD GAS LOAD 57836 lbs REARWARD GAS LOAD 46678 lbs
TOTAL THRUST 11158 lbs

Thrust Distribution of a Typical Single Spool Axial Flow Engine.

Figure 2.1.
To calculate the resultant thrust for a particular flow section it is necessary to
calculate the total thrust at both inlet and outlet, the resultant thrust being the
difference between the two values obtained.

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Calculation of the thrust is achieved using the following formula:

Wv J
Thrust = ( A  P ) 
g
Where A = Area of flow section in sq. in.
P = Pressure in lb. per sq. in.
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
VJ = Velocity of flow in feet per sec.
g = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
2.2 CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE
When applying the above method to calculate the individual thrust loads on the
various components it is assumed that the engine is static. The effect of aircraft
forward speed on the engine thrust will be dealt with later. In the following
calculations ‘g’ is taken to be 32 for convenience.
Compressor casing
To obtain the thrust on the compressor casing, it is necessary to calculate the
conditions at the inlet to the compressor and the conditions at the outlet from the
compressor. Since the pressure and the velocity at the inlet to the compressor are
zero, it is only necessary to consider the force at the outlet from the compressor.
Therefore, given that the compressor –
OUTLET Area (A) = 182 sq. in.
Pressure (P) = 94 lb. per sq. in. (gauge)
Velocity (vj) = 406 ft. per sec.
Mass flow (W) = 153 lb. per sec.
The thrust
Wv j
= ( A  P)  0
g

153  406
= (182  94)  0
32
= 19,049lb. of thrust in a forward direction.

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Total Thrust of the Compressor.

Figure 2.2.

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International Standard Atmosphere

Figure 2.3.

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Choked Nozzle
Considering the formula for thrust under “choked” nozzle conditions:
Wv J
Thrust = ( P  P0 )A +
g
Where: P = Pressure
P = Ambient Pressure
A = Area
W = Mass Flow
V = Velocity
It can be seen that the thrust can be further affected by a change in the mass flow
rate of air through the engine and by a change in jet velocity. An increase in mass
airflow may be obtained by using water injection to cool the air and increases in jet
velocity by using after-burning.
Changes in ambient pressure and temperature considerably influence the thrust
of the engine. This is because of the way they affect the air density and hence the
mass of air entering the engine for a given engine rotational speed.
Thrust Correction - Turbojet
To enable the performance of similar engines to be compared when operating
under different climatic conditions, or at different altitudes, correction factors must
be applied to the calculations to return the observed values to those which would
be found under I.S.A. conditions. For example, the thrust correction for a turbo-jet
engine is:
30
Thrust (lb) (corrected) = thrust (lb) (observed) x
PO
 Where P0 = atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (in Hg)
(observed)
30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
Shaft Horsepower Correction - Turboprop
The observed performance of the turbo-propeller engine is also corrected to I.S.A.
conditions, but due to the rating being in s.h.p. and not in pounds of thrust the
factors are different. For example, the correction for s.h.p. is:
30 273  15
S.h.p. (corrected) = s.h.p. (observed)  
PO 273  TO
Where P0 = atmospheric pressure (in Hg) (observed)
T0 = atmospheric temperature in deg. C (observed)
30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
273 + 15 = I.S.A. standard sea level temperature in deg. K
273 + T0 = Atmospheric temperature in deg. K

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Equivalent Shaft Horsepower (EHP)

In practice there is always a certain amount of jet thrust in the total output of the
turbo-propeller engine and this must be added to the s.h.p. The correction for jet
thrust is the same as that specified earlier.
To distinguish between these two aspects of the power output, it is usual to refer
to them as s.h.p. and thrust horse-power (t.h.p.). The total equivalent horse-power
is denoted by t.e.h.p. (sometimes e.h.p.) and is the s.h.p. plus the s.h.p. equivalent
to the net jet thrust. For estimation purposes it is taken that, under sea-level static
conditions, one s.h.p. is equivalent to approximately 2.6 lb. of jet thrust. Therefore:
jet thrust lb.
t.e.h.p. = s.h.p. 
2.6
The ratio of jet thrust to shaft power is influenced by many factors. For instance,
the higher the aircraft operating speed the larger may be the required proportion of
total output in the form of jet thrust. Alternatively, an extra turbine stage may be
required if more than a certain proportion of the total power is to be provided at the
shaft. In general, turbo-propeller aircraft provide one pound of thrust for every 3.5
h.p. to 5 h.p.
2.2.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN THRUST AND HORSE-POWER
Because the turbo-jet engine is rated in thrust and the turbo-propeller engine in
s.h.p., no direct comparison between the two can be made without a power
conversion factor. However, since the turbo-propeller engine receives its thrust
mainly from the propeller, a comparison can be made by converting the horse-
power developed by the engine to thrust or the thrust developed by the turbo-jet
engine to t.h.p.; that is, by converting work to force or force to work. For this
purpose, it is necessary to take into account the speed of the aircraft.
FV
t.h.p. is expressed as
550 ft. per sec
Where F = lb of thrust
V = aircraft speed (ft. per sec)

Since one horse-power is equal to 550ft.lb. per sec. and 550 ft. per sec. is
equivalent to 375 miles per hour, it can be seen from the above formula that one
lb. of thrust equals one t.h.p. at 375 m.p.h. It is also common to quote the speed
in knots (nautical miles per hour); one knot is equal to 1.1515 m.p.h. or one pound
of thrust is equal to one t.h.p. at 325 knots.
Thus if a turbo-jet engine produces 5,000 lb. of net thrust at an aircraft speed of
5,000  600
600 m.p.h. the t.h.p. would be  8,000
375

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However, if the same thrust was being produced by a turbo-propeller engine with a
propeller efficiency of 55 percent at the same flight speed of 600 m.p.h., then the
100
t.h.p. would be: 8,000   14,545
55
Thus at 600 m.p.h. one lb. of thrust is the equivalent of about 3 t.h.p.
2.3 ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT
Since reference will be made to gross thrust, momentum drag and net thrust, it will
be helpful to define these terms:
Gross or total thrust is the product of the mass of air passing through the engine
and the jet velocity at the propelling nozzle, expressed as:
Wv J
( P  P0 )A +
g
The momentum drag is the drag due to the momentum of the air passing into the
WV
engine relative to the aircraft velocity, expressed as where:
g
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
V = Velocity of aircraft in feet per sec.
G = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
 WVJ
 Momentum Thrust 
WV wv  g
Momentum Drag   Gross Thrust  ( P  Po ) A  J 
g g   Pr essure Thrust  ( P  PO ) A

The net thrust or resultant force acting on the aircraft in flight is the difference
between the gross thrust and the momentum drag. From the definitions and
formulae stated earlier under flight conditions, the net thrust of the engine,
W Vj  V 
simplifying, can be expressed as: P  Po  A 
g
All pressures are total pressures except P which is static pressure at the propelling
nozzle
W = Mass of air passing through engine (lb. Per sec.)
VJ = Jet velocity at propelling nozzle (ft. per sec)
P = Static pressure across propelling nozzle (lb. Per sq. in)
PO = Atmospheric pressure (lb. Per sq. in)
A = Propelling nozzle area (sq. in)
V = Aircraft speed (ft. per sec.)
G = Gravitational constant 32.2

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The Balance of Forces and Expression for Thrust and Momentum Drag.
Figure 2.4.

Graph of Thrust Against Forward Speed.

Figure 2.5.

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2.3.1 EFFECT OF FORWARD SPEED

Since reference will be made to ‘ram ratio’ and Mach number, these terms are
defined as follows:
Ram ratio is the ratio of the total air pressure at the engine compressor entry to
the static air pressure at the air intake entry.
Mach number is an additional means of measuring speed and is defined as the
ratio of the speed of a body to the local speed of sound. Mach 1.0 therefore
represents a speed equal to the local speed of sound.
From the thrust equation, it is apparent that if the jet velocity remains constant,
independent of aircraft speed, then as the aircraft speed increases the thrust
would decrease in direct proportion. However, due to the ‘ram ratio’ effect from
the aircraft forward speed, extra air is taken into the engine so that the mass
airflow and also the jet velocity increase with aircraft speed. The effect of this
tends to offset the extra intake momentum drag due to the forward speed so that
the resultant loss of net thrust is partially recovered as the aircraft speed
increases. A typical curve illustrating this point is shown in the figure 2.5.
Obviously, the ‘ram ratio’ effect, or the return obtained in terms of pressure rise at
entry to the compressor in exchange for the unavoidable intake drag, is of
considerable importance to the turbo-jet engine, especially at high speeds. Above
speeds of Mach 1.0, as a result of the formation of shock waves at the air intake,
this rate of pressure rise will rapidly decrease unless a suitably designed air intake
is provided; an efficient air intake is necessary to obtain maximum benefit from the
ram ratio effect.
As aircraft speeds increase into the supersonic region, the ram air temperature
rises rapidly consistent with the basic gas laws. This temperature rise affects the
compressor delivery air temperature proportionally and, in consequence, to
maintain the required thrust, the engine must be subjected to higher turbine entry
temperatures. Since the maximum permissible turbine entry temperature is
determined by the temperature limitations of the turbine assembly, the choice of
turbine materials and the design of blades and stators to permit cooling are very
important.
With an increase in forward speed, the increased mass airflow due to the ‘ram
ratio’ effect must be matched by the fuel flow and the result is an increase in fuel
consumption. Because the net thrust tends to decrease with forward speed, the
end result is an increase in specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.), as shown by the
curves for a typical turbo-jet engine in the figure 2.6.
At high forward speeds at low altitudes, the ‘ram ratio’ effect causes very high
stresses on the engine and, to prevent over-stressing, the fuel flow is automatically
reduced to limit the engine speed and airflow.

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Effects of speed on Thrust and Fuel Consumption.

Figure 2.6.

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2.3.2 EFFECT OF AFTERBURNING ON ENGINE THRUST

At take-off conditions, the momentum drag of the airflow through the engine is
negligible, so that the gross thrust can be considered to be equal to the net thrust.
If after-burning is selected, an increase in take-off thrust in the order of 30 percent
is possible with the pure jet engine and considerably more with the by-pass
engine. This augmentation of basic thrust, is of greater advantage for certain
specific operating requirements.
Under flight conditions, however, this advantage is even greater, since the
momentum drag is the same with or without after-burning and, due to the ram
effect, better utilisation is made of every pound of air flowing through the engine.
2.3.3 EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
With increasing altitude the ambient air pressure and temperature are reduced.
This affects the engine in two inter-related ways:-
The fall of pressure reduces the air density and hence the mass airflow into the
engine for a given engine speed. This causes the thrust or s.h.p. to fall. The fuel
control system adjusts the fuel pump output to match the reduced mass airflow, so
maintaining a constant engine speed.
The fall in air temperature increases the density of the air, so that the mass of air
entering the compressor for a given engine speed is greater. This causes the
mass airflow to reduce at a lower rate and so compensates to some extent for the
loss of thrust due to the fall in atmospheric pressure. At altitudes above 36,089
feet and up to 65,617 feet, however, the temperature remains constant, and the
thrust or s.h.p. is affected by pressure only.
Graphs showing the typical effect of altitude on thrust and fuel consumption are
illustrated in Figure 2.7.

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Effects of Altitude on Thrust and Fuel Consumption.

Figure 2.7.

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2.3.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

On a cold day the density of the air increases so that the mass of air entering the
compressor for a given engine speed is greater, hence the thrust or s.h.p. is
higher. The denser air does, however, increase the power required to drive the
compressor or compressors; thus the engine will require more fuel to maintain the
same engine speed or will run at a reduced engine speed if no increase in fuel is
available.
On a hot day the density of the air decreases, thus reducing the mass of air
entering the compressor and, consequently, the thrust of the engine for a given
r.p.m. Because less power will be required to drive the compressor, the fuel
control system reduces the fuel flow to maintain a constant engine rotational
speed or turbine entry temperature, as appropriate; however, because of the
decrease in air density, the thrust will be lower. At a temperature of 45C,
depending on the type of engine, a thrust loss of up to 20 percent may be
experienced. This means that some sort of thrust augmentation, such as water
injection, may be required.
The fuel control system, controls the fuel flow so that the maximum fuel supply is
held practically constant at low air temperature conditions, whereupon the engine
speed falls but, because of the increased mass airflow as a result of the increase
in air density, the thrust remains the same. For example, the combined
acceleration and speed control (CASC) fuel system schedules fuel flow to maintain
a constant engine r.p.m., hence thrust increases as air temperature decreases
until, at a predetermined compressor delivery pressure, the fuel flow is
automatically controlled to maintain a constant compressor delivery pressure and,
therefore, thrust, Figure 2.8. illustrates this for a twin-spool engine where the
controlled engine r.p.m. is high pressure compressor speed and the compressor
delivery pressure is expressed as P3. It will also be apparent from this graph that
the low pressure compressor speed is always less than its limiting maximum and
that the difference in the two speeds is reduced by a decrease in ambient air
temperature. To prevent the L.P. compressor overspeeding, fuel flow is also
controlled by an L.P. governor which, in this case, takes a passive role.

The Effect of Air

Temperature on
a Typical Twin
Spool Engine
Figure 2.8.

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2.4 PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY

Performance of the jet engine is not only concerned with the thrust produced, but
also with the efficient conversion of the heat energy of the fuel into kinetic energy,
as represented by the jet velocity, and the best use of this velocity to propel the
aircraft forward, ie. the efficiency of the propulsive system.
The efficiency of conversion of fuel energy to kinetic energy is termed thermal or
internal efficiency and, like all heat engines, is controlled by the cycle pressure
ratio and combustion temperature. Unfortunately this temperature is limited by the
thermal and mechanical stresses that can be tolerated by the turbine. The
development of new materials and techniques to minimise these limitations is
continually being pursued.
The efficiency of conversion of kinetic energy to propulsive work is termed the
propulsive or external efficiency and this is affected by the amount of kinetic
energy wasted by the propelling mechanism. Waste energy dissipated in the jet
wake, which represents a loss, can be expressed as
W (v j  V ) 2
where (vJ - V) is the waste velocity.
2g
It is therefore apparent that at the aircraft lower speed range the pure jet stream
wastes considerably more energy than a propeller system and consequently is
less efficient over this range. However, this factor changes as aircraft speed
increases, because although the jet stream continues to issue at a high velocity
from the engine, its velocity relative to the surrounding atmosphere is reduced
and, in consequence, the waste energy loss is reduced.

Efficiency Plots of Differing Types of Engine to Airspeed

Figure 2.9.

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2.5 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP

Primary engine design considerations, particularly for commercial transport duty,
are those of low specific fuel consumption and weight. Considerable improvement
has been achieved by use of the by-pass principle and by advanced mechanical
and aerodynamic features and the use of improved materials. With the trend
towards higher by-pass ratios, in the range of 15:1, the triple-spool and contra-
rotating rear fan engines allow the pressure and by-pass ratios to be achieved with
short rotors, using fewer compressor stages, resulting in a lighter and more
compact engine.
S.f.c. is directly related to the thermal and propulsive efficiencies; that is, the
overall efficiency of the engine. Theoretically, high thermal efficiency requires high
pressures which in practice also means high turbine entry temperatures. In a pure
turbo-jet engine this high temperature would result in a high jet velocity and
consequently lower the propulsive efficiency. However, by using the by-pass
principle, high thermal and propulsive efficiencies can be effectively combined by
by-passing a proportion of the L.P. compressor or fan delivery air to lower the
mean jet temperature and velocity. With advanced technology engines of high by-
pass and overall pressure ratios, a further pronounced improvement in s.f.c. is
obtained.
The turbines of pure jet engines are heavy because they deal with the total airflow,
whereas the turbines of by-pass engines deal only with part of the flow; thus the
H.P. compressor, combustion chambers and turbines, can be scaled down. The
increased power per lb. of air at the turbines, to take advantage of their full
capacity, is obtained by the increase in pressure ratio and turbine entry
temperature. It is clear that the by-pass engine is lighter, because not only has the
diameter of the high pressure rotating assemblies been reduced, but the engine is
shorter for a given power output. With a low by-pass ratio engine, the weight
reduction compared with a pure jet engine is in the order of 20 per cent for the
same air mass flow.
With a high by-pass ratio engine of the triple-spool configuration, a further
significant improvement in specific weight is obtained. This is derived mainly from
advanced mechanical and aerodynamic design, which in addition to permitting a
significant reduction in the total number of parts, enables rotating assemblies to be
more effectively matched and to work closer to optimum conditions, thus
minimising the number of compressor and turbine stages for a given duty. The
use of higher strength lightweight materials is also a contributory factor.
For a given mass flow, less thrust is produced by the by-pass engine due to the
lower exit velocity. Thus, to obtain the same thrust, the by-pass engine must be
scaled to pass a larger total mass airflow than the pure turbo-jet engine. The
weight of the engine, however, is still less because of the reduced size of the H.P.
section of the engine. Therefore, in addition to the reduced specific fuel
consumption, an improvement in the power-to-weight ratio is obtained.

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2.6 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

When comparing engine performance, one of the most important considerations is
how efficiently the power is produced. The amount of fuel consumed to produce a
given horsepower lbs. thrust is known as “specific fuel consumption” or SFC. A
typical aircraft fuel system measures the volume of fuel consumed. This is
displayed in pounds per hour or PPH. To calculate fuel flow, specific fuel
consumption found on the customer data sheet, is multiplied by the horsepower
lbs. thrust produced.
2.6.1 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION – DEFINITION
SFC = SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION is defined as the lbs of fuel used per
HP/lbs of thrust per hour
2.7 FLAT RATING
“Flat rating” is used by aircraft manufacturers when they select an engine that has
a capability greater than the requirements of the aircraft. They then limit the power
output of the engine. There are three distinct benefits derived from flat rating.
One is the engine will have the ability to make take-off power at lower turbine
temperatures over a wide range of outside air temperatures and pressure
altitudes. Performance at altitude will be greatly enhanced. These two benefits
result in the third benefit, longer engine life. A fourth benefit available on some
engines is, a reserve of power which can be used to boost performance in an
emergency ie. Loss of an engine during take - off.
2.8 PERFORMANCE RATINGS
In the chart, performance ratings are compared on –1 through –12 engines.
Notice the modifiers on the –1, -5, -6, -8 and –10 engines. These temperatures
represent the effects of flat rating engines. Each engine will make take-off power
below their turbine temperature limits to the ambient temperatures indicated.
Engines that are not flat rated, such as the –3 or –11, would be unable to make
take-off power below their turbine temperature limits when operating in conditions
above 59F outside air temperatures.

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3 INLET
3.1 INTRODUCTION
An air intake should deliver air to the engine compressor with a minimum loss of
energy and at a uniform pressure under all engine operating conditions. The inlet
duct is built in the shape of a subsonic divergent diffuser, so that the kinetic energy
of the rapidly moving air can be converted into a ram pressure rise within the duct.
This condition is referred to as “Ram Recovery”.
3.2 RAM COMPRESSION
The degree of Ram Compression depends upon the following:-
i. Frictional losses at those surfaces ahead of the intake entry which are
“wetted” by the intake airflow.
ii. Frictional losses at the intake duct walls.
iii. Turbulence losses due to accessories or structural members located in the
intake.
iv. Aircraft speed.
v. In a turbo-prop, drag and turbulence losses due to the prop blades and
spinner.
Ram compression causes a re-distribution in the forms of energy existing in the
air-stream. As the air in the intake is slowed up in endeavouring to pass into and
through the compressor element against the air of increasing pressure and density
which exists therein so the kinetic energy of the air in the intake decreases. This
is accompanied by a corresponding increase in its pressure and internal energies
and consequently compression of the air-stream is achieved within the intake, thus
converting the unfavourable intake lip conditions into the compressor inlet
requirements.
Although ram compression improves the performance of the engine, it must be
realised that during the process there is a drag force on the engine and hence the
aircraft. This drag must be accepted since it is a penalty inherent in a ram
compression process. (The added thrust more than makes up for this drag).
3.2.1 IMPORTANCE OF RAM COMPRESSION
At subsonic flight speeds, the ram pressure ratio is apparently quite small, say
1.33: 1 at 0.8M. Nevertheless, since the pressure rise due to ram compression is
multiplied by the pressure ratio of the compressor, the ram pressure rise becomes
significant even at subsonic speeds.
Furthermore, the greater the forward speed of the aircraft becomes, the more
significant is the ram compression; e.g. at 1.5M the ram pressure ratio may be
about 3.5 : 1, and at 2.5M about 8 : 1.

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3.3 TYPES OF AIR INTAKES

3.3.1 PITOT INTAKES
This intake is suitable for subsonic or low supersonic speeds. Examples, 707,
747, A300B, Tristar, etc. The intake is usually short and is very efficient because
the duct inlet is located directly ahead of the engine compressor. As the duct
length increases, the risk of small airflow disturbances and pressure drop is
increased. This inlet makes maximum use of ram effect until sonic speed is
approached when efficiency falls due to shock wave formation at the intake lip.
Pitot inlets can however suffer from inlet turbulences at high angles of attack
and/or at low speeds.

Pitot Type Intakes.

Figure 3.1.

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The pitot type intake can be used for engines that are mounted in pods or in the
wings although the latter sometimes requires a departure from the circular cross
section due to the wing thickness.

Wing Leading Edge Intakes

Figure 3.2
3.3.2 DIVIDED ENTRANCE DUCT

On a single engine aircraft with fuselage mounted engines, either a wing root inlet
or a side scoop inlet may be used. The wing root inlet presents a problem to
designers in the forming of the curvature necessary to deliver the air to the engine
compressor. The side scoop inlet is placed as far forward of the compressor as
possible to approach the straight line effect of the single inlet. Both types suffer
faults, in a yaw or turn, a loss of ram pressure occurs on one side of the intake and
separated, turbulent boundary layer air is fed to the engine compressor.

Divided Intakes.
Figure 3.3.

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3.3.3 SUPERSONIC INTAKES

At supersonic speeds, the pitot type of air intake is unsuitable due to the severity
of shock waves which form and progressively reduce the intake efficiency as
speed increases. To overcome this problem the compression intake was
designed.

Supersonic Intakes.
Figure 3.4.
This type of intake produces a series of mild shock waves without reducing the
intake efficiency, as the aircraft speed increases, so also does the intake
compression ratio. At high mach numbers it becomes necessary to have an air
intake which has a variable thrust area and spill doors to control the column of air.
3.4 IDEAL INTAKE CONDITIONS
For air to flow smoothly through a compressor, its velocity should be about 0.5
mach at the compressor inlet; this includes aircraft flying faster than the speed of
sound. Hence intakes are designed to decelerate the free stream airflow to this
condition over the range of aircraft speeds. Intakes should also convert the kinetic
energy into pressure energy without undue shock or energy loss. This means
that the ideal compressor inlet pressure should be the same as the total head
pressure at the intake lip.
(Total head pressure = stagnation pressure, ie. static and dynamic pressure).

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Intake Efficiency
The magnitude of the losses occurring in an intake during ram compression are
measured by means of the intake efficiency. Typical optimum efficiencies of some
common types of intake, at subsonic speeds assuming straight-through flow, are:
a Turbo-jet engine Pitot 99 to 96%
Wing root 95 to 87%
Side 89 to 80%
b Turbo-prop engine Annular 82 to 74% (DART)
In cases where the direction of flow of the air is reversed within the intake, these
values are reduced by about 10%.
3.5 INTAKE ANTI-ICING
Operations of present day aircraft necessitates flying in all weather conditions plus
the fact that high velocity air induced into the intakes means a provision must be
made for ice protection. There are three systems of thermal anti-icing; hot air, hot
oil or electrical There is, however, one disadvantage and that is the loss of
engine power. This loss must be corrected for on ground runs and power checks.
3.5.1 ENGINE HOT AIR ANTI-ICING
The hot air system provides surface heating of the engine and/or power plant
where ice is likely to form. The affected parts are the engine intake, the intake
guide vanes, the nose cone, the leading edge of the nose cowl and, sometimes,
the front stage of the compressor stator blades. The protection of rotor blades is
rarely necessary, because any ice accretions are dispersed by centrifugal action.
The hot air for the anti-icing system is usually taken from the latter stages of the
HP compressor and externally ducted, through pressure regulation valves, to the
parts requiring protection. When the nose cowl requires protection, hot air
exhausting from the air intake manifold may be collected and ducted to the nose
cowl. Exhaust outlets are provided to allow the air to pass into the compressor
intake or vent to atmosphere, thus maintaining a flow of air through the system.

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Hot Air Anti-Icing.

Figure 3.5.

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3.5.2 ENGINE ELECTRICAL ANTI-ICING

There are two methods of electrical anti-icing:
1. Spray mat
2. Heater mats.
3.5.2.1 Spray Mat
The spray mat is so called because the conductor element is sprayed onto the
base insulator to protect the spray mat from damage. An outer coating is sprayed
on, sometimes called “Stone Guard” or “Erocoat”.

Spraymat Construction.
Figure 3.6.

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3.5.2.2 Heater Mats

Heater Mat Construction.

Figure 3.7.

Heater mats differ in design and construction according to their purpose and
environment. The latest mats have elements which are made from a range of
alloys woven in continuous filament glass yarn. Other elements are made from
nickel chrome foil. The insulating material is usually polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) and the electrical control may be continuous or intermittent.

3.5.3 OIL ANTI-ICE

Oil anti-ice supplements the other two systems (hot air/electrical) and will also
assist in cooling the oil system.

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Hot Oil Anti-Ice

Figure 3.8.

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Intentionally Blank

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4 COMPRESSORS
4.1 COMPRESSORS GENERAL
Compressors impart energy to the air stream raising its pressure and temperature.
They are designed to operate efficiently over as wide a range of operating
conditions as possible. The two basic types of compressor are:
a Centrifugal flow
b Axial flow
4.2 CENTRIFUGAL FLOW
The figure below illustrates different types of centrifugal compressors.

Types of Centrifugal Impeller.

Figure 4.1.

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A Double Entry Centrifugal Compressor

Figure 4.2.

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4.2.1 OPERATION
The centrifugal impeller is rotated at high speed by the turbine and centrifugal
action causes the air between the impeller vanes to accelerate radially outwards
until it is thrown off at the tip into the diffuser. The radial movement of the air
across the impeller, from eye to tip, causes a drop in air pressure at the eye and
the faster the impeller is turning, the lower the pressure at the eye becomes. The
low pressure existing at the eye of the revolving impeller induces a continuous flow
of air through the engine intake and into the eye of the impeller. The air, in turn, is
accelerated across the impeller and passed into the diffuser. The kinetic energy in
the air is then converted to pressure energy ready to enter the combustion
chamber. The action of the diffuser is illustrated in figure 4.3.

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VANELESS
SPACE

Centrifugal Compressor Function.

Figure 4.3.

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The final volume and mass airflow delivered by the centrifugal compressor is
dependent on:
a Pressure ratio
b Operating RPM
c Diameter of the impeller
NOTE: This is assuming a constant air density at the inlet of the compressor.
4.2.1.1 Pressure Ratio
The ratio of the inlet pressure to outlet pressure of the compressor is called
pressure ratio. The higher the pressure of the air the more efficiently the thrust will
be produced with a corresponding improvement to the fuel economy of the engine.
The maximum pressure ratio normally obtainable from a single stage centrifugal
compressor is approximately 5:1 and from a two stage, approximately 8:1.Design
of the more modern centrifugal compressors sees them approaching pressure
ratios of 15:1.
4.2.1.2 Diameter of Impeller
A large impeller will deliver a greater mass of air than a small impeller, however a
large diameter compressor leads to an increase in the frontal area of the engine
causing excess drag forces on the aircraft.
4.3 THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
The axial flow compressor is by far the most popular type of compressor and,
although it is more difficult to manufacture, it is a more efficient compressor.
Handling a larger mass of air for any given diameter, it produces more power; and
because the compression ratio is high – at least 9:1 and, it can be very much
higher – it is a more economical engine. The airflow through the engine is parallel
with the axis, hence the name ‘axial flow compressor’.
The compressor consists of a single or multi-rotor assembly that carries blades of
aerofoil section; it is mounted in a casing, which also houses the stator blades.
The axial flow compressor increases the pressure of the air gradually (by
approximately 1.2:1 per stage) over a number of ‘stages’, each stage comprising
of a row of ‘rotor blades’, followed by a row of ‘stator blades’. Both the rotor and
stator blades are of aerofoil section and form divergent passageways between
adjacent blades of the same row. Figure 4.4 refers.

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Axial Flow Compressor Function.

Figure 4.4.

4.3.1 OPERATION
The compressor rotor spool is driven by the turbine. The rotor blades accelerate
the air rearwards, inducing a continuous flow of air into the inlet of the combustion
chamber. The airflow emerges from the rotor stage with an increase in velocity,
due to the rotating action of the blades, and with a rise in pressure and
temperature caused by flowing through the divergent passage formed by the rotor.

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The airflow then passes through the divergent passages formed by the stator
blades which convert some of the kinetic energy into pressure energy and directs
the airflow onto the next set of rotors at the correct angle. The airflow emerges
from each stage at approximately the same velocity as it entered, but with an
increase (approximately 1.2:1) in pressure and, an increase in temperature. See
graph below.

Combined Graph of Airflow Through an Axial Compressor.

Figure 4.5.

To present the airflow onto the first stage rotor blades at a suitable angle, some
engines have inlet guide vanes in the air intake casing. The last row of stator
blades is normally of wider chord than the preceding ones and serve to straighten
the airflow before it enters the combustion system.
In order to maintain the overall axial velocity more or less constant, the
passageway between the stator casing and the compressor rotor forms a
convergent duct in the direction of airflow, with long blades at the low pressure end
and progressively shorter ones towards the high pressure end. (Figure 4.6 refers)

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Axial Compressor Layouts.

Figure 4.6.

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The stator vanes are secured into the compressor casing or into stator vane
retaining rings, which are themselves secured to the casing.

Axial Compressor Configuration Details.

Figure 4.7.
The stator vanes are positively locked in such a manner that they will not rotate
around the casing. NOTE: Some stator vanes are variable to give variable airflow
control, but these will be looked at when airflow control is studied.

Compressor Blade Attachment Methods

Figure 4.8

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Compressor Blade Attachment

Figure 4.9

The engine rotor assembly forms a hollow “drum” and is supported in ball and
roller bearings and coupled to a turbine shaft. The rotor discs make up the drum
and the rotor blades are attached as shown in the figure. On some smaller
engines it becomes difficult to design a practical fixing, this is overcome by
designing and producing blades integral with the disc and is called a “BLISK”.

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1 Extension Shaft Drive Stub 2 1st Stage Disk

3 Balance Weight 4 1st Stage Rotor Blades
5 Shroud Rings 6 7th Stage Rotor Blades
7 Air Inlet to Rotor Drum 8 1st Stage Blade Locking Strips
9 Front Main Bearing Housing

Axial Compressor Rotor Details.

Figure 4.10.

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Axial Compressor Stator Details

Figure 4.11

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The mass and final volume of the airflow delivered by the compressor is
dependent on:
a. Pressure Ratio. Dependent on the number of stages employed. Axial flow
compressors can achieve a much higher value than centrifugal.
b. Diameter. For a similar mass flow capability, the axial flow compressor can be
made smaller in diameter than the centrifugal type.
c. Operating RPM. As with the centrifugal type, the RPM and hence the mass
flow, is controlled by varying the amount of fuel delivered to the combustion
system, but because of the way that the pressure rise takes place, the
maximum pressure ratio in an axial flow compressor is achieved at a lower
RPM, than in a centrifugal compressor.
4.4 COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE
‘Surge’ can occur in both centrifugal and axial flow compressors and is the
reversal of the airflow in the compressor. It is a very undesirable condition, which
can rapidly cause serious damage to the engine.
In an axial flow compressor, ‘surge’ is nearly always preceded by stalling of some
of the compressor blades. An aerofoil is said to be in a stalled condition when the
airflow over its surface has broken down and no lift is being produced. If a row of
compressor blades stall, then they will not be able to pass the airflow rearwards to
the next stage and the airflow to the combustion chamber will ultimately stop.
The lack of rearward airflow will allow the air in the combustion chamber to flow
forward into the compressor until it reaches the row of stalled blades. Then a
violent backwards and forwards oscillation of the airflow is likely to occur, which
can rapidly cause extensive damage to the compressor blades and also over-
heating of the combustion and turbine assemblies.
Stalling of the compressor blades can occur for various reasons and to appreciate
how the condition comes about, a review of aerofoil theory and its application to
the compressor is required.
4.4.1 AIRFLOW CONTROL SYSTEM PRINCIPLES
4.4.1.1 Compressor Stall and Surge
For any given engine there is only one set of conditions, mass flow, pressure ratio
and rpm, at which all the compressor components are operating at their optimum
effect. Compressors are designed to be most efficient in the higher rpm range of
operation. The point at which the compressor reaches its maximum efficiency is
known as the DESIGN POINT. Under design conditions the compressor produces
Volume 2
a given compression ratio (ie. ) and the axial velocity (average velocity)
Volume 1
of the gas remains approximately constant from the front to the rear of the
compressor.

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The Angle of Attack of the airflow to the compressor aerofoil blades will be at its
optimum. This is the design condition and the compressor is operating at its
optimum performance. Although compression ratio varies with rpm it is not
proportional to rpm. This fact emerges due to the fixed blade angles, which can
only be correct at the design point. To illustrate this fact, refer to the diagram
showing rpm and compression ratio. Consider a compressor running at 8,000 rpm
and its compression ratio is 10:1. Let us say that the volume of air entering the
compressor is 100cm3. The volume of the air passing through the fixed outlet
annulus of the compressor will be 10cm3.

10:1
COMPRESSION RATIO

4:1

4000 8000

RPM
Graph of Compression Ratio to RPM.
Figure 4.12.
Compressor R.P.M = 8,000 Compressor R.P.M. = 4,000
Compression Ratio = 10:1 Compression Ration = 4:1
Volume of gas (V1) = 100cm3 Volume of gas (V1) = 50cm3
Volume of gas (V2) = 10cm3 Volume of gas (V2) = 12.5cm3

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Now consider the same compressor operating at 4,000 rpm, the volume of air
entering the compressor will be halved, eg. 50cm 3 there will also be a reduction in
compression ratio to 4:1. Therefore the volume of air passing through the
compressor fixed outlet annulus will be 12.5cm3. The following conditions will
occur:
a. Axial velocity will increase as it moves towards the rear stages relative to the
front Low pressure stages.
b…Since all stages are rotating at the same speed, there will be a NEGATIVE
angle of attack at the rear high pressure stages and a POSITIVE angle of attack at
the front low pressure stages.

Front Rear

Effect of Velocity on Blade Angle.

Figure 4.13.

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Due to the increased velocity at the rear of the compressor, the outlet of the
compressor will choke as the airflow reaches sonic velocity. At this point there will
be a dramatic reduction in axial velocity resulting in the front compressor blades
stalling. The end result will be compressor surge. To overcome the problem, a
bleed valve is normally fitted in an intermediate stage of the compressor to bleed
off the excess volume of air. This relieves the rear stages of the excess air
causing choking while inducing an increased axial airflow through the early stages
of the compressor, thus establishing conditions which are not conducive of stall
and surge. Unfortunately this bleed valve does not completely cure the problem of
stall as far as the first rotor stages are concerned and stall is still likely to occur.
The blades stall when the angle of attack increases to too large a value. To
overcome this problem, inlet guide vanes are used to pre-swirl the air onto the
rotor blades. The effect of pre-swirling the air alters the angle of attack from a
large value to the correct angle of attack. See figure 4.14.

Effect of Variable Guide Vane on Compressor Stage

Figure 4.14

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4.4.2 COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS

When a compressor is designed it is essential to establish the points at which it is
likely to surge. Tests are carried out to determine the relationship between
pressure ratio and mass flow at speeds covering the whole working range of the
compressor. The results are recorded on a series of curves known as surge lines.
To obtain the curves, the compressor is run at a constant speed, the mass airflow
is gradually decreased and during this test the pressure ratio is carefully
monitored. As the mass airflow reduces, there is an increase in pressure ratio.
Eventually the compressor airflow becomes turbulent and the compressor surges.
When this occurs, there is a rapid drop in pressure. The tests are carried out at
various speeds until the whole working range of the compressor has been
covered. During the test the points at which turbulence occurred at the various
speeds are plotted. The points are then connected by drawing a line, this line is
the surge line of the particular compressor being tested. During normal operation
the engine is never allowed to operate beyond the surge line. A safety margin is
established and the fuel and airflow control systems are adjusted so the engine
will run within the safe limits. Figure 4.15 refers.

UNSTABLE SAFETY
AREA MARGIN
PRESSURE RATIO - Increasing

SURGE LINE

WORKING LINE
100
%
90%
80% CONSTANT
60% 70% RPM LINES

AIRFLOW - Increasing

Engine working line and surge margin.

Figure 4.15.

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4.4.3 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE OPERATING POINT OF THE AIRFLOW

CONTROL SYSTEM
A change in temperature will affect mass airflow, compressor pressure ratio fuel
flow and engine performance. The effect of a reduced temperature on the
compressor at a fixed rpm being that the performance is comparable with that at a
higher rpm at STANDARD TEMPERATURE.
Consider an engine running at 10,000 rpm, the temperature of the day is 2ºC. If
this is corrected for standard conditions (ISA 15ºC) the corrected rpm will be
10,235 see below.
Observed rpm = 10,000 rpm
N
Corrected rpm =

ISAinK
T ambient in K 273  2
Where  = =
ISA in K 273  15
10,000
 corrected rpm =
275
288
10,000
=
0.977
Corrected rpm = 10,235
From the above it is clear that temperature has an effect on the compressors mass
flow rate. This is compounded further by the effect that temperature has a direct
effect on the speed of sound and hence when the compressor chokes.
It must be understood that if the engine is running at a fixed rpm and the
temperature of the air is altered, the actual rpm of the compressor will be
unaffected. However, the temperature change will affect the mach number of
mass airflow and it is the speed of the compressor relative to the speed of the
airflow (ie. Mach. Number) which is the critical factor. A decrease in temperature
will raise the mach. Number. The mach. Number is the:
SPEED OF THE OBJECT
LOCAL SPEED OF SOUND

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The speed of the object is the compressor blade, if as previously stated, the mach.
Number is raised with a decrease in temperature, the ‘fixed’ blade speed relative
to the speed of the air, will be increased. To cater for this situation the operating
point at which the variable inlet guide vanes move will have to be altered for
varying air temperatures. To achieve this the actuator or ram of an airflow control
system is temperature compensated. On a ‘cold’ day, the variable inlet guide
vanes will operate earlier than on a ‘warm’ day.

Variation of Mach Number with Temperature.

Figure 4.16.

At a temperature of +60F Local speed of sound is Mach 0.9 , no need for the
VIGV’s as the compressor out let is not choked.
At a temperature of –40°F Local speed of sound is Mach 1.0, the compressor
outlet is choked, the first stages may stall, VIGV’s
must start to open.

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4.5 AIR FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM – OPERATION

The stages of the compressor are matched to give the highest efficiency in the
speed range maximum rev/min. To extend the range of smooth operation over
lower engine speeds, variable-incidence intake guide vanes and/or an air bleed
valve are fitted. In the lower speed range the bleed valve opens to allow some of
the air to escape from the rear stages of the compressor, thus restricting the mass
air flow through the later stages and preventing an unstable flow pattern.
When the bleed valve is open, the guide vanes if fitted are partially closed; at
higher engine speeds, when the bleed valve is closed, the guide vanes if fitted
move progressively towards the open position. The vanes are operated by a
hydraulic ram which incorporates its own control mechanism and which receives a
signal of engine speed in terms of hydraulic pressure from the engine speed
governor in the fuel pump.

Combined Bleed Valve and Variable Guide Vane Operating System.

Figure 4.17.

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Intake Guide Vane Ram Setting Curve.

Figure 4.18.

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Air Bleed Valve

Figure 4.19.

Intake Guide
Variable Vane
Guide Ram
Vane Setting Curve.
Hydraulic
Figure 4.18.
Actuator Figure 4.20.

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To further improve airflow control, some engines will adopt a system of Variable
Stator Vanes (VSV’s) as well as Variable Inlet Guide Vanes (VIGV’s) figure 4.21.

Variable IGV and Stator Vanes.

Figure 4.21.

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Inlet Guide Vane and Variable stator Blade Linkwork.

Figure 4.22.

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4.6 AEROFOIL THEORY AND THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

(CONTINUED)
The blades of the axial flow compressor are aerofoils and as such behave in a
similar way to aircraft mainplanes and propeller blades. The airflow across their
surfaces produces lift and the amount of lift produced by an aerofoil depends on:
a Its shape, area and smoothness of its surface.
b the speed of airflow over the aerofoil.
c the angle at which the aerofoil meets the air.
Once manufactured, their area and shape will remain the same unless they are
damaged in any way. Assuming the blades are in good condition, the variables
will be the speed of the airflow and the angle at which the blades meet the air
(angle of attack).
4.6.1 SPEED OF AIRFLOW OVER BLADES
This will vary with the rpm of the compressor rotor. The faster the rotor turns, then
the faster the air flows over the blades. This will result in an increase in the axial
velocity of the airflow through the compressor.
4.6.2 ANGLE OF ATTACK
This will vary with the combination of the rotational velocity of the blades and the
axial velocity of the airflow. In the normal course of events, the angle of attack
(VA) becomes progressively smaller as the compressor moves from a low rpm to a
high rpm.(VT)

VT VT
VT
VA VA VT
VA

VA
Low R.P.M R.P.M Increasing High R.P.M

High angle Angle of attack Low angle

of attack decreasing of attack

Change of Angle of Attack Due to Increase in RPM.

Figure 4.23.

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4.6.3 SOME IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT ANGLE OF ATTACK

Airflow Over an Aerofoil

Figure 4.24.
An aerofoil can only produce lift between certain limits of angle of attack. 0 -
approx. 15.

At very large angles of attack the airflow breaks down and the aerofoil stalls.

At High Angles of Attack the Blade Will Stall.

Figure 4.25
The greater the angle of attack (up to the stalling angle), the greater the lift and,
also, the greater the drag. This means that a greater effort will be required to
move the aerofoil through the air.

Lift/drag Vectors for Different Angles of Attack.

Figure 4.26.

All aerofoils have an ‘optimum’ angle of attack at which they produce most lift for
the least drag. (‘Lift/drag ratio’) [2-4°].

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4.7 APPLICATION TO THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

In order for the compressor to deliver a high mass airflow for a minimum effort
required to drive it, it is important that all the compressor blades are operating
close to their optimum angle of attack at the designed optimum rpm of the engine.
This is achieved by setting the blades onto the rotor assembly at a large enough
angle so as to make allowance for the automatic reduction in angle of attack that
will occur with increase in rpm.
4.7.1 COMPRESSOR RPM
An axial flow compressor is designed to operate at maximum speeds in the region
of 8000-10,000 rpm, depending on size. At this rpm the engine will be producing a
large amount of thrust and in order to vary the thrust it is necessary to vary the
compressor rpm.
When the compressor is operating at speeds below its designed rpm range, the
axial velocity of the airflow through the compressor will decrease which will cause
an increase in the angle of attack of the compressor blades. At low rpm, such as
idling, the reduced axial velocity of the airflow may cause the angle of attack of
some of the blades to increase beyond their stalling angle.
A slight amount of LP blade stalling during ‘off design’ conditions is to be expected
and only becomes a problem if a complete row of blades stall.
4.7.2 COMMON CAUSES OF COMPRESSOR STALL
Compressor stall normally occurs at low rpm and can be induced by:
a disturbance of smooth airflow due to damaged or dirty blades.
b disturbance of smooth airflow caused by damaged aircraft air intake.
c high combustion chamber pressure caused by over-fuelling during engine
acceleration.
4.7.3 STAGGER ANGLE AND END BEND
The rotor blades are of airfoil section and usually designed to give a pressure
gradient along their length to ensure that the air maintains a reasonably uniform
axial velocity. The higher pressure towards the tip balances out the centrifugal
action of the rotor on the airstream. To obtain these conditions, it is necessary to
'twist' the blade from root to tip to give the correct angle of incidence at each point.
Air flowing through a compressor creates two boundary layers of slow to stagnant
air on the inner and outer walls. In order to compensate for the slow air in the
boundary layer a localised increase in blade camber both at the blade tip and root
has been introduced. The blade extremities appear as if formed by bending over
each corner, hence the term 'end-bend' Figure 4.27.
4.7.4 RECENT INNOVATIONS
The latest engines incorporate blades that have been designed and profiled using
3-D design techniques. This produces blades, which are curved in 3 dimensions,
which are more aerodynamically efficient. Figure 4.28.

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Stagger Angle and End Bend

Figure 4.27.

3-D Blades
Figure 4. 28.

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4.8 AIRFLOW CONTROL

The higher the pressure ratio required from a compressor, the greater the number
of compressor stages needed. The more stages there are, the more difficult
becomes the problem of matching all the blades in both size and angle of
attachment to make the compressor operate satisfactorily over a wide range of
rpm.
In order to maintain the airflow stability and reduce the tendency of high pressure
ratio compressors to stall under certain conditions of aircraft flight and engine
handling, methods of airflow control have already been discussed.
4.9 AIR BLEED VALVES (SUMMARY)
The air bleed valve is operated automatically in response to signals of compressor
rpm. It is in the open position below a certain critical rpm and bleeds air away
from the centre stages of the compressor, ducting it overboard to atmosphere.
This has the effect of increasing the axial velocity of the airflow through the early
stages of the compressor, thereby reducing the angle of attack of the blades in
that area. This prevents the early stages of the compressor from passing more air
to the rear stages than can be accommodated in the space available.
Above the critical rpm range the bleed valve is closed and all the air available from
the compressor passes to the combustion system.
4.10 VARIABLE INTAKE GUIDE VANES (SUMMARY)
All intake guide vanes give a certain amount of swirl to the incoming airflow. The
swirl is in the direction of rotation of the compressor and the amount of swirl
determines the angle of attack of the first stage rotor blades. The greater the
degree of swirl imported by the IGV’s then the smaller the resultant angle of attack
of the first stage rotor blades.
Variable IGV’s present the air onto the first stage rotor blades with a maximum
swirl angle during operation in the critical low rpm range and progressively reduce
the degree of swirl in response to signals of compressor rpm. When operating at
high rpm the airflow enters the compressor more or less axially.
4.11 MULTI-SPOOL COMPRESSORS (SUMMARY)
Pressure ratios in excess of approximately 9:1 are best achieved by splitting the
compressor into two independent sections as shown in the figure 4.29.

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Twin Spool Engine

Figure 4.29.

The total number of stages of compression is divided between two spools, each
spool being driven at a different speed by separate turbines. This eases the
problems of compressor blade matching and results in a very powerful, efficient
and flexible engine.
4.12 COMPARING THE FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL FLOW
COMPRESSORS
4.12.1 CENTRIFUGAL
Merits.
 Simplicity, cheaper, lighter, less prone to damage by FOD.
 Not critical to surge and stall.
 Will tolerate icing conditions.
Associated Problems
 Max pressure ratios 4:1 or 5:1. (on early types)
 Capacity limited by tip speed.
 Larger diameter of engine which leads to more drag.
 Severe directional changes of gas flow which leads to friction.
 High specific fuel consumption.
4.12.2 AXIAL FLOW
Merits
 High Pressure Ratio.
 Low specific fuel consumption.
 More capacity for development.
 Greater axial thrust.
Associated Problems
 Complex and expensive to produce.
 Critical to stall/surge.

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5 COMBUSTION SECTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The combustion chamber has the difficult task of burning large quantities of fuel,
supplied through the fuel burners, with extensive volumes of air, supplied by the
compressor, and releasing the heat in such a manner that the air is expanded and
accelerated to give a smooth stream of uniformly heated gas at all conditions
required by the turbine. This task must be accomplished with the minimum loss in
pressure and with the maximum heat release for the limited space available.
The amount of fuel added to the air will depend upon the maximum temperature
rise required and, as this is limited by the materials from which the turbine blades
and nozzles are made, the rise must be in the range of 700 to 1,200 deg.C.
Because the air is already heated by the work done during compression, the
temperature rise required at the combustion chamber may be between 500 and
800 deg.C. Since the gas temperature required at the turbine varies with engine
speed, and in the case of the turbo-prop engine upon the power required, the
combustion chamber must also be capable of maintaining stable and efficient
combustion over a wide range of engine operating conditions.
Efficient combustion has become more and more important because of the rapid
increase in commercial aircraft traffic and the consequent increase in atmospheric
pollution, which is seen by the general public as exhaust smoke.
5.2 COMBUSTION PROCESS
Air from the engine compressor enters the combustion chamber at a velocity up to
500 feet per second, but because at this velocity the air speed is far too high for
combustion, the first thing that the chamber must do is to diffuse it, i.e. decelerate
it and raise its static pressure. Because the speed of burning kerosene at normal
mixture ratios is only a few feet per second, any fuel lit even in the diffused air
stream, which now has a velocity of about 80 feet per second, would be blown
away. A region of low axial velocity has therefore to be created in the chamber, so
that the flame will remain alight throughout the range of engine operating
conditions.

In normal operation, the overall air/fuel ratio of a combustion chamber can vary
between 45:1 and 130:1. Kerosene, however, will only burn efficiently at, or close
to, a ratio of 15:1, so the fuel must be burned with only part of the air entering the
chamber, in what is called a primary combustion zone. This is achieved by means
of a flame tube (combustion liner) that has various devices for metering the airflow
distribution along the chamber.

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Typical Combustion Chamber

Figure 5.1.

Approximately 20 per cent of the air mass flow is taken in by the snout or entry
section. Immediately downstream of the snout are swirl vanes and a perforated
flare, through which air passes into the primary combustion zone. The swirling air
induces a flow upstream of the centre of the flame tube and promotes the desired
recirculation. The air not picked up by the snout flows into the annular space
between the flame tube and the air casing.
Through the wall of the flame tube body, adjacent to the combustion zone, are a
selected number of holes through which a further 20 per cent of the main flow of
air passes into the primary zone. The air from the swirl vanes and that from the
primary air holes interacts and creates a region of low velocity recirculation. This
takes the form of a toroidal vortex similar to a smoke ring, and has the effect of
stabilising and anchoring the flame. The recirculating gases hasten the burning of
freshly injected fuel droplets by rapidly bringing them to ignition temperature.

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It is arranged that the conical fuel spray from the burner intersects the recirculation
vortex at its centre. This action, together with the general turbulence in the
primary zone, greatly assists in breaking up the fuel and mixing it with the
incoming air.
The temperature of the combustion gases released by the combustion zone is
about 1,800 to 2,000 deg.C., which is far too hot for entry to the nozzle guide
vanes of the turbine. The air not used for combustion, which amounts to about 60
per cent of the total airflow, is therefore introduced progressively into the flame
tube. Approximately half of this is used to lower the gas temperature before it
enters the turbine and the other half is used for cooling the walls of the flame tube.
Combustion should be completed before the dilution air enters the flame tube,
otherwise the incoming air will cool the flame and incomplete combustion will
result.
An electric spark from an igniter plug initiates combustion and the flame is then
self-sustaining.
The design of a combustion chamber and the method of adding the fuel may vary
considerably, but the airflow distribution used to effect and maintain combustion is
always very similar to that described.

Apportioning the Airflow

Figure 5.2
5.3 FUEL SUPPLY
So far little has been said of the way in which the fuel is supplied to the air stream.
In general, however, two distinct principles are in use, one based on the injection
of a finely atomised spray into a recirculating air stream, and the other based on
the pre-vaporisation of the fuel before it enters the combustion zone.
Although the injection of fuel by atomiser jets is the most common method, some
engines use the fuel vaporising principle. In this instance, the flame tube is of the
same general shape as for atomisation, but has no swirl vanes or flare. The
primary airflow passes through holes in a baffle plate that supports a fuel feed
tube.

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A Vaporising Combustion Chamber.

Figure 5.3.
The fuel is sprayed from the feed tube into vaporising tubes that are positioned
inside the flame tube. These tubes bend through 180 degrees and, as they are
heated by combustion, the fuel vaporises before passing forwards into the flame
tube. The primary airflow passes down the vaporising tubes with the fuel and also
through large (secondary) nozzles, which provide 'fans' of air to sweep the flame
rearwards. Cooling and dilution air is metered into the flame tube in a manner
similar to the atomiser flame tube. Vaporisers require starter spray nozzles to set
the light up process in motion.
5.4 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER
There are three main types of combustion chamber at present in use for gas
turbine engines. These are the multiple chamber, the tubo-annular chamber and
the annular chamber.
5.4.1 MULTIPLE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
This type of combustion chamber is used on centrifugal compressor engines and
the earlier types of axial flow compressor engines. It is a direct development of
the early type of Whittle combustion chamber. The major difference is that the
Whittle chamber had a reverse flow as this created a considerable pressure loss,
the straight through multiple chamber was developed by Joseph Lucas Limited.
The chambers are disposed around the engine and compressor delivery air is
directed by ducts to pass into the individual chambers. Each chamber has an
inner flame tube around which there is an air casing. The air passes through the
flame tube snout and also between the tube and the outer casing as already
described.
The separate flame tubes are all interconnected. This allows each tube to operate
at the same pressure and also allows combustion to propagate around the flame
tubes during engine starting.

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Multiple Combustion Chambers.

Figure 5.4.

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5.4.2 TUBO-ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER

(ALSO KNOWN AS CAN-ANNULAR OR CANNULAR.)
The tubo-annular combustion chamber is a combination of the multiple and
annular types. A number of flame tubes are fitted inside a common air casing.
The airflow is similar to that already described and this arrangement embodies the
ease of overhaul and testing of the multiple system with the compactness of the
annular system.

Turbo-Annular Combustion System

Figure 5.5.

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5.4.3 ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER

This type of combustion chamber consists of a single flame tube, completely
annular in form, which is contained in an inner and outer casing. The airflow
through the flame tube is similar to that previously described, the chamber being
open at the front to the compressor and at the rear to the turbine nozzles.
The main advantage of the annular chamber is that, for the same power output,
the length of the chamber is only 75 per cent of that of a tubo-annular system for
an engine of the same diameter, resulting in considerable saving of weight and
production cost. Another advantage is that because interconnectors are not
required, the propagation of combustion is improved.
In comparison with a tubo-annular combustion system, the wall area of a
comparable annular chamber is much less; consequently, the amount of cooling
air required to prevent the burning of the flame tube wall is less, by approximately
15 per cent. This reduction in cooling air raises the combustion efficiency, to
virtually eliminate unburnt fuel, and oxidises the carbon monoxide to non-toxic
carbon dioxide, thus reducing air pollution.
The introduction of the air spray type burner to this type of combustion chamber
also greatly improves the preparation of fuel for combustion by aerating the over-
rich pockets of fuel vapour close to the burner; this results in a large reduction in
initial carbon formation.
A high by-pass ratio engine will also reduce air pollution, since for a given thrust
the engine burns less fuel.

An Air Spray Fuel Nozzle.

Figure 5.6.

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A Spray Nozzle.
Figure 5.6.

Annular Combustion Chamber.

Figure 5.7.

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5.4.4 REVERSE FLOW COMBUSTION CHAMBER

Reverse flow combustion chambers are used where the engine length is critical or
where the thrust of the engine is not being produced by the exhaust of the primary
air. They are often found on APU’s, turboprop and turbo-shaft engines or their
derivatives such as the ALF 502 and LF507 engines used in the BAE 146 and RJ
aircraft.
By wrapping the combustion chamber around other components such as turbines
the length of the engine can be significantly reduced. Losses in thrust do occur
due to the changes in airflow and direction of pressure forces. This is not important
in the types of engine where they are used as the majority of the thrust is derived
by other sources.
They are often found on engines with compound compressors, which have a
centrifugal stages as the last stage of compression.

Reverse Flow Combustion Chamber.

Figure 5.8.

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5.5 COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE

A combustion chamber must be capable of allowing fuel to burn efficiently over a
wide range of operating conditions without incurring a large pressure loss. In
addition, if flame extinction occurs, then it must be possible to relight. In
performing these functions, the flame tube and burner atomiser components must
be mechanically reliable.
Because the gas turbine engine operates on a constant pressure cycle, any loss of
pressure during the process of combustion must be kept to a minimum. In
providing adequate turbulence and mixing, a total pressure loss varying from
about 5 to 10 per cent of the air pressure at entry to the chamber is incurred.
5.5.1 COMBUSTION INTENSITY
The heat released by a combustion chamber or any other heat generating unit is
dependent on the volume of the combustion area. Thus, to obtain the required
high power output, a comparatively small and compact gas turbine combustion
chamber must release heat at exceptionally high rates.
For example, a Rolls-Royce Spey engine will consume in its ten flame tubes 7,500
lb. of fuel per hour. The fuel has a calorific value of approximately 18,550 British
Thermal Units per lb., therefore each flame tube releases nearly 232,000 British
Thermal Units per minute. Expressed in another way, this is an expenditure of
potential heat at a rate equivalent to approximately 54,690 horsepower for the
whole engine.

Graph of Combustion Efficiency to Overall Air/Fuel Ratio.

Figure 5.9.

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5.6 COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY

The combustion efficiency of most gas turbine engines at sea-level take-off
conditions is 100 per cent which reduces to 98 per cent at altitude cruise
conditions. The values vary as shown in because of the reducing air pressure,
temperature and fuel/air ratio.
5.7 COMBUSTION STABILITY
Combustion stability means smooth burning and the ability of the flame to remain
alight over a wide operating range.
For any particular type of combustion chamber there is both a rich and a weak limit
to the air/fuel ratio, beyond which the flame is extinguished. An extinction is most
likely to occur in flight during a glide or dive with the engine idling, when there is a
high airflow and only a small fuel flow, i.e. a very weak mixture strength.
The range of air/fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with an
increase of air velocity, and if the air mass flow is increased beyond a certain
value, flame extinction occurs. A typical stability loop is illustrated. The operating
range defined by the stability loop must obviously cover the required air/fuel ratios
and mass flow of the combustion chamber.
The ignition process has weak and rich limits similar to those shown for stability.
The ignition loop, however, lies within the stability loop, since it is more difficult to
establish combustion under ‘cold' conditions than to maintain normal burning.

Combustion Stability Limits

Figure 5.10.

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