Source: Transformers, Second Edition

ISBN: 9780070483156
Authors: BHEL (Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited)

9. Design Procedure
R.C. Agarwal

9.1. Specifications of a Transformer

Transformers have large number of variables and their requirements differ a great deal. Complete specifications as stipulated
in Chapter 15 must be furnished for designing the transformer to suit the specific requirements. In the following paragraphs
design procedure, selection of various parameters and their effect on the various performance criteria have been discussed.

9.2. Selection of Core Diameter

Core diameter of a transformer depends upon a number of factors like rating, percentage impedance between windings, basic
insulation level, transport height, overfluxing requirements, type of core and quality of core steel. Hence, it is fairly complicated
to derive a universal and exact formula for determining diameter. In practice, the core diameter is selected by the designer
keeping into view the limiting conditions as mentioned above. Based on this, guaranteed parameters, viz percentage impedance
and losses are worked out. Core diameter is adjusted to meet the guaranteed parameters.

9.2.1. Influence of Varying Core Diameter

Increasing core diameter increases area of cross-section, thereby increasing voltage per turn, which reduce the number of turns
in various windings. The percentage reactance between windings is directly proportional to number of turns and diameters of
various coils and is also inversely proportional to volts per turn and coil depth. In order to have specified reactance, increased
core diameter necessitates reduction in coil depth and increase in coil dimensions in lateral direction, which leads to reduction
in core height and increase in core leg centres. Inspite of reduction in core height due to increase in core diameter, overall
weight of core steel increases, which also increases no-load loss of transformer. Also, reduced number of turns in windings
even with larger length of mean turn results in reduced copper weight, which in turn also reduces the load loss of transformer.
Similarly, reduced core diameter results in reduced core steel weight and no-load loss and increased copper weight and load
loss.

9.2.2. Core Area

Stepped core construction is used to obtain an optimum core area within circumscribing circle of a core. Core area depends
upon number of steps, grade of core steel, insulation on the laminations, i.e. varnished or unvarnished, and method of core
clamping. As the number of steps increases, core area also increases, however it needs extra labour to cut the various sizes of
laminations. Optimum number of steps are used to give overall economy. Large rating transformers are usually provided with
high tensile steel clamp plates for clamping the core laminations, which provide increased core area for a particular core
diameter. Depending upon the flux density in the core, adequate number of ducts are provided to keep its hot-spot temperature
within permissible limits. (For more details on hot-spot temperature and cooling ducts in core, refer to Chapter 4).

9.3. Selection of Flux Density

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9.3. Selection of Flux Density
Value of flux density is chosen to suit the guaranteed performance. Normally flux density is chosen near knee point of
magnetization curve, however, adequate margin should be kept to take care for system conditions like overfluxing, frequency
and voltage variations. In certain cases value of flux density is reduced to limit the noise level of transformers.

9.3.1. Influence of Varying Flux Density

Keeping the other parameters same, increase in the value of flux density in the core results in higher volts per turn. Hence
number of turns in various windings are reduced. Effect of increase of flux density on reactance is similar to that of increase in
core diameter. In order to meet the requirement of specified reactance, coil depth is reduced and lateral dimensions of coils are
increased. Inspite of small increase in core leg centres, reduced core height results in lower core-steel weight. Increased flux
density, with corresponding reduced core-steel weight results in higher no-load loss of transformer. Also reduced number of
turns in windings results in lower copper weight and load losses. Similarly, reduction in the value of flux density causes
increased core-steel weight, lower no-load loss and increased copper weight and load loss.

9.4. Selection of Type of Core

The cores are made of CRGO steel, which is available in various grades having different properties. Suitable grade of steel is
chosen to suit the performance requirement and overall economy. Different types of cores are used as described in Chapter 4.
Selection of type of core depends upon the rating of transformer and transport limitations. For large three-phase transformers,
five-limb construction is adopted to overcome the problem associated with the transport height. For single-phase transformers,
one centre-wound limb with two return limbs is a common configuration, though sometimes both limb wound cores are also
adopted. For very large ratings, core construction having two wound limbs with two return limbs may also be adopted.

9.5. Selection of Leg Length

Maximum leg length available for designing the windings, is dependent upon maximum transport height, type of wagon to be
used for transportation and type of core selected. By proper shaping of the transformer tank for well wagon, the leg length can
be increased. Generally for larger rating transformers maximum value of leg length gives the overall economy. Whereas, lower
rating transformer may have reduced leg length to give economical design. By reducing leg length, reactance of transformer
increases, and vice versa.

Influence of core diameter, flux density and leg length over various parameters while maintaining the % reactance as constant is
tabulated below:

Parameter Increased core diameter Increased flux density Increased leg length

Copper weight Decrease Decrease Increase

Load loss Decrease Decrease Increase

Core steel weight Increase Decrease Decrease

No-load loss Increase Increase Decrease

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9.6. Selection of Type of Windings
The windings along with its insulations form the electric circuit of the transformer. Due care must be taken while designing the
windings to ensure its healthiness during normal as well as fault conditions. The windings must be electrically and
mechanically strong to withstand both over-voltage under incidence of surges and mechanical stresses during short-circuit
conditions. The temperature of windings at rated, over-load and short-circuit conditions should be within the limits, ensuring the
proper life of transformer.

The power transformers are manufactured for a very wide range of outputs and voltages and realization of these requirements
is possible only by using different kinds of windings. The following types of windings are used in power transformers.

a. Spiral winding

b. Helical winding

c. Reversed section winding

d. Parallel layer winding

e. Tapered layer winding

f. Interleaved disc winding

Spiral winding is a medium-current and low-voltage winding. Tertiary winding, of star/star/delta connected power transformer
used for stabilizing purposes and sometimes feeding small loads, could be generally spiral winding.

Helical winding is a high-current and low-voltage winding. Normally, it is used for LV coils of large generator transformers.

When number of turns preclude the use of helical winding, the reversed section winding is used. It is generally used for high-
voltage and low-to medium current rating. Reversed section (disc) winding is usually used up to 132 kV class windings.

Higher voltage windings above 132 kV class are mostly multilayer or interleaved disc winding. Number of layers of layer-type
windings are generally five to nine. Ordinary reversed section disc winding is not suitable for voltage above 132 kV because of
impulse distribution characteristics of winding. However, by doing the interleaving of conductors/turns, impulse distribution
characteristics improves and therefore, interleaved disc windings are used for HV coil above 132 kV class.

Constructional details of various types of windings have been dealt withinChapter 5.

9.7. Selection of Tapchanger

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9.7. Selection of Tapchanger
To cater for the voltage regulation in the transformer and system voltage variation, off-circuit/on-load tapchanger is provided.
Off-circuit tap switch is provided when tapchanging is required only occasionally. Generally generator transformers are
provided with off-circuit tap switch. When tapchanging is required under loaded conditions, on-load tapchangers are provided.
Generally, unit auxiliary transformers, station transformers, and system transformers are provided with on-load tapchangers.
The choice of tapchangers is governed by the following factors:

a. Tapping range

b. Number of steps

c. Step voltage

d. Current rating

e. Location of tapping

f. Design of tapping winding, i.e. linear, reversing, coarse and fine

g. Insulation level

h. Type of voltage variation, i.e. constant flux, variable flux and mixed type

i. Power flow requirement, i.e. unidirectional or bi-directional

Constructional details and various types of tapchangers have been described inChapter 6.

9.8. Calculation of Number of Turns

emf equation of transformer can be written as under:

Volts per turn,

(9.1)

where Bm = Maximum flux density in tesla

A = net cross-sectional area of core in m2

f = frequency in Hz

Therefore, after fixing the core area and flux density, volts per turn is calculated by Eq. (9.1). Then LV (lowest voltage winding)
turns are calculated. LV turns are rounded off to nearest integer and volts per turn is adjusted and new value of flux density is
worked out by back calculation. The number of turns in other windings are determined by the new value of volts per turn.

9.9. Selection of Conductor and Current Density

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9.9. Selection of Conductor and Current Density
Phase values of currents for different windings are calculated. Selection of current density in any winding depends upon type of
winding, loss level and temperature rises permitted. Current density in any winding should be such that winding gradient and
hot-spot temperature are within limits. Sometimes, current density in a winding is restricted due to short-circuit-force withstand
point of view. Generally current density in various windings is chosen so as to meet the load-loss requirement and also such
that their gradients are close to each other, thus resulting in an economical cooling equipment.

After deciding the values of current densities, copper area required for each winding is determined. Now suitable number of
parallel conductors or pretransposed cables in both radial and axial direction and their width and thickness are selected, such
as to meet the desired performance values. For large current ratings, pretransposed cables offer the advantage. Conductors of
chosen dimensions must be strong enough to withstand short-circuit forces; also they should not have excessive eddy
currents.

9.9.1. Influence of Varying Current Density

Increased current density reduces copper weight but leads to higher load loss, gradient and forces in the winding. Reduced
copper weight results in lower core dimensions causing reduction in core-steel weight and no-load losses.

9.10. Insulation Design

Transformer windings have insulation within the winding, between windings and windings to earth. Insulation within the winding
is generally paper insulation, however helical and disc type of winding have duct between turns or discs. Paper thickness of
conductor should be such that it should be able to withstand various voltage stresses appearing during normal and transient
conditions. Sometimes paper thickness is increased on pre-transposed cables of large cross-sectional area, to increase the
mechanical strength of paper insulation. Electrical clearances between windings of various voltage class and windings to earth
depend upon their BIL and insulation arrangement adopted. Various clearances and disposition of solid insulation should be
such that adequate cooling ducts are available to have effective cooling of windings. Also voltage stresses are controlled
within limits.

Details of insulation design, method of improvement of voltage stress, etc., have been discussed at length inChapter 5.

9.11. Calculation of Lateral and Axial Dimensions of Coils

Based upon number of parallel conductors in radial direction and covered thickness of conductor, lateral dimensions of various
coils can be calculated. If there are a number of layers in a coil, the lateral dimension of layer can be worked out and by taking
into account the gap between layers, total lateral dimensions of coil can be worked out. Axial dimension of a coil depends upon
covered axial dimensions of conductors and total number of conductors per turn in axial dimension. If cooling ducts are
provided between conductors, these are also to be accounted for. Extra space is provided for dummies and transpositions if
required.

9.12. Ampere-turn Balancing

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9.12. Ampere-turn Balancing
HV and LV winding are disposed axially in such a way that perfect ampere-turn balancing throughout the length of coil is
achieved. Location and type of tapping coil disturb the ampere-turn balancing at different tap positions. Inter-wound type of
tapping coil, in which each step occupies the whole axial length of winding, is ideal from ampere-turn balance point of view.
Ampere-turn balancing between windings is essential from short-circuit force point of view. Unbalanced ampere-turn may give
excessively high forces. Also, if ampere-turn balancing is not proper, it may give considerable increase in stray losses due to
radial component of leakage flux.

9.13. Reactance Calculation

The estimation of reactance is primarily the estimation of the distribution of the leakage flux and the resulting flux linkages with
primary or secondary coils. The distribution of the leakage flux depends on the geometrical configuration of the coils and of the
neighbouring iron masses and also on the permeability of the latter. The diagrams in Fig. 9.1 show typical leakage flux
distribution. In case of cylindrical-core type coils of equal length [Fig. 9.1 (a)], the leakage field is packed in the space between
HV and LV windings and it runs parallel to the core for nearly the full length of coils. Where there is an inequality in the coil
lengths, the field is considerably altered, as shown in Fig. 9.1(b).

Figure 9.1 Leakage flux.

9.13.1. Cylindrical Concentric Coils (Equal Length)

For this case the actual leakage field, e.g. Fig. 9.1(a) is assumed to consist of a longitudinal flux of uniform and constant value
in the inter-space between primary and secondary, and a field crossing the conductors, reducing linearly to zero at the outer and
inner surfaces. Further, the permeance of the leakage path external to the coil length is assumed to be so large as to require the
expenditure of a negligible mmf, i.e. all the mmf is expended on the coil length. The effect of the magnetizing current in
unbalancing the primary and secondary ampere-turn equality is neglected. Considering the Fig. 9.2(a), percentage reactance (X)
between HV and LV winding can be calculated by the following equation:

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(9.2)

where

f = Frequency (Hz)

μ0 = Magnetic space constant = 4π × 10–7

Lmt = Mean length of turn of primary and secondary together (metre)

AT = Ampere-turns per limb of either coil

Lc = Coil length (metre)

Et = Volts per turn

a = Gap between HV and LV windings (metre)

b1 = Lateral dimension of HV winding (metre)

b2 = Lateral dimension of LV winding (metre)

Figure 9.2 Ampere-turn diagram for cylindrical coils.

When HV winding is split as in Fig. 9.2(b), percentage reactance can be calculated by the equation

(9.3)

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where b′1 and b″1 stand for lateral dimension of layers of HV windings and a′ is gap between two layers.

9.13.2. Cylindrical Concentric Coils (Unequal Length)

The leakage field depends on the proportional difference in length, and on where the difference occurs (e.g. at one or both ends
or in the middle, etc.). The case is very common, and it may be produced by end-turn reinforcement, tappings or by the normal
small difference of coil length. The effect of divergences on the reactance requires to be investigated for each individual case.
Figure 9.3 shows one method of treating the problem. The coils, each of ampere-turns (AT) are shown in the section. The
actual arrangement (a) can be considered as equal to the sum of (b), a symmetrical system of longitudinal ampere-turns
amenable to the treatment leading to Eq. (9.2), and (c) an asymmetrical transverse system of ampere-turns producing a cross
flux. Having determined the flux distribution, due to each of the systems (b) and (c), the reactance is determined from the emf's
induced in actual windings due to each flux distribution.

Figure 9.3 Analysis of asymmetrical cylindrical coils.

9.13.3. Sandwich Coils

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9.13.3. Sandwich Coils
Figure 9.4 shows the simplified case where the end coils have one-half the turns of the remainder. There will ben HV coils, (n –
1) LV coils of equal ampere-turns and two LV half-coils. Percentage reactance between HV and LV can be calculated by the
equation

(9.4)

Figure 9.4 Leakage of flux in sandwich coils.

The percentage reactance can be calculated, for any coil arrangement, with the help of ampere-turn diagram, as discussed
above. Desired value of reactance can be achieved by suitably altering the various parameters.

The percentage impedance and reactance are practically the same for large transformers, as they have very low winding
resistance. The regulation in the system fixes the highest acceptable impedance and the requirements of transformer
protection, which fixes the lowest acceptable impedance value. It is of interest to note that variation in impedance affects the
cost of transformer. It is difficult to give a specific picture of how transformer economics are affected by variation in
impedance, because this depends upon the relative price of copper and core material, as also the rates at which core-loss and
copper-loss are capitalized. In general, for a given material content, a high impedance value would result in higher copper-loss
and lower iron-loss. In any case, very high impedances are undesirable, as they may give substantially high stray losses,
resulting in hot spots. Low impedance values are desirable where regulation is regarded as most important and on the other
hand, they pose considerable problems for designing the transformer suitable for large mechanical forces developed under
short-circuit conditions. Also, low impedance transformers would require large core diameter, resulting in higher iron-loss, lower
copper-loss and higher transport weight of the largest packet.

9.14. Iron Weight and Losses

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9.14. Iron Weight and Losses
Transformer no-load loss occurs because of flow of main flux in the core. It depends upon grade of steel, frequency, flux
density, type and weight of core and manufacturing techniques (i.e. mitred or interleaved joints, bolted or boltless, core
construction, etc.). Modern core-steel used has got different magnetic properties in the direction of grain orientation and cross-
grain direction. Cores are designed such that flux travels mostly in the direction of grain orientation to give maximum
advantage. However, at joints, flux travels in cross-grain direction, giving increase in losses. For accurate estimation of no-load
loss, core weight for cross-grain and along-grain portion are calculated separately. Steel characteristics furnished by their
suppliers give the iron-loss in watt/kg for both direction of flux travel (i.e. along the grain orientation and across the grain
orientation) No-load loss is computed with these parameters.

9.15. Copper Weight and Losses

Winding conductor weight depends upon the specific gravity of conductor material, number of turns in the winding and cross-
sectional area of conductor and this can be calculated by the following equation:

(9.5)

where G = weight of conductor material (kg)

D = density (kg/m3 ) = 8900 kg/m3 for copper

A = area of cross-section (m2 )

L = mean length of winding turn (M)

N = number of turns.

By putting the corresponding values for different windings in Eq. (9.5), their conductor material weights can be worked out.

The alternating current flow, in the windings, is associated with load-loss comprising I2 R-loss and eddy current loss in the
windings and stray losses in tank, clamping gear, etc. The resistive loss in the windings, i.e. I2 R-loss depends on resistivity of
conductor material, number of turns, and cross-sectional area and length of mean turn of conductor.

The resistance (R) of winding is calculated by the following equation:

(9.6)

where ρ is specific resistivity of conductor material in Ω-metre.

By knowing the resistance of each winding, I2 R-loss in various windings can be worked out. Eddy current loss in conductors
depends upon their configuration and stray loss in tank and clamping structure, etc., depends upon leakage flux, and can be
suitably estimated with reasonable accuracy. The load-loss of transformer is a function of temperature and generally
expressed at a reference temperature of 75°C.

9.16. Stray Losses in Transformer

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The load losses in the transformer consist of losses due to the ohmic resistance of winding and stray losses. These stray
losses take place in the loaded and unloaded windings, clamping framework and transformer tank and depend upon leakage
flux and magnetic field surrounding the leads. The total stray loss in the transformer is generally made up of the following
components.

a. Stray loss in the transformer tank due to leakage flux from the windings.

b. Stray loss in the tank due to leads.

c. Stray loss in the clamping framework due to leakage flux from the windings.

d. Stray loss in the clamping framework due to leads.

e. Stray loss in the loaded windings.

f. Stray loss in the unloaded windings.

9.16.1. Leakage Flux

Some amount of leakage flux will always exist in all types of transformers. The total leakage flux increases approximately as
the square root of MVA rating of transformer. Therefore, increased capacity of transformer results in larger values of leakage
flux and this gets further amplified with increased value of reactance of large transformers, causing increased stray losses.
This leakage flux can sometimes lead to local overheating. By controlling the leakage flux path, stray losses can be reduced
considerably, and thus resulting in reduced local heating.

9.16.2. Calculation of Leakage Flux

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9.16.2. Calculation of Leakage Flux
Leakage flux is generated by the winding while carrying current and is the resultant of the field surrounding the windings. This
leakage flux is carried in the gap between HV and LV windings. The leakage field in the gap is fairly constant along the length of
windings but at ends of winding, fringing of flux takes place. Various paths followed by leakage flux are shown in Fig. 9.5

Figure 9.5 Principal leakage flux path.

The component of flux parallel to the axis of coil is termed as axial flux and that perpendicular to the axis of coil is termed as
radial flux. The axial and radial flux densities at various regions can be calculated by various methods such as image method,
Roth method, Rabins method, etc.

9.16.3. Losses in Metallic Parts due to Leakage Field

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9.16.3. Losses in Metallic Parts due to Leakage Field
As shown in Fig. 9.5, leakage flux cuts the various metallic parts namely tank walls, core clamping plates, etc., resulting in eddy
current losses in them. These eddy current losses and the losses in the region of high intensity field can lead to local
overheating. The regions of these losses and overheating are, the tank walls near the winding ends, core clamping plates at
winding ends, clamp plates on core limbs, etc.

Leakage flux going back to core, does not give significant losses and temperature rise. However, the flux impinging upon flat
surface of core, where the flux cuts perpendicular to the lamination, additional losses will take place and can lead to high local
temperatures.

The losses due to leakage field emerging from winding depend upon the amount and intensity of flux, permeability and
resistivity of metallic materials. Low resistivity materials will give rise to higher eddy currents and higher losses. The losses also
depend upon the distance of metallic parts from the source of leakage flux, as with the increased distance the amount and the
intensity of flux is reduced.

9.16.4. Stray Losses in the Winding

Major portion of stray losses takes place in the winding. This consists of eddy current loss and circulating current loss. Eddy
current loss is proportional to the square of the flux field in which winding conductor is lying and to the power of four of the
thickness of the conductor perpendicular to the direction of flux, and also to the square of total number of radial conductors in
the winding.

In large transformers, a turn in winding consists of large number of conductors. In such an arrangement, unequal voltages are
induced in different conductors due to varying leakage field in radial direction and variation in length of each conductor. The
unequal voltages in parallel strands (conductors) give rise to circulating currents. The losses due to circulating current within a
few stands of turn may not reflect much in overall losses, but still can cause over-heating of strands.

Eddy current and circulating current losses can also take place in idle windings, not connected in load circuit but lying in
leakage field.

9.16.5. Stray Losses due to Current Carrying Leads

Leads carrying current, induce magnetic field around the leads. If field is strong and in close vicinity to metallic parts, it
produces eddy currents and losses. Intense field can lead to local hot-spots. The resultant losses are not much important, but
the hot spots can lead to gasification of oil or decomposition of insulation. The effect of current in the leads depends upon the
magnitude of the current, distance of leads from metallic parts and resistivity of material.

9.17. Stray Loss Control

A minimum stray loss design can be achieved by analyzing systematically, the source of leakage flux and its path. Main leakage
field in the transformer will always exist and losses arising out of this can be reduced by various methods given below:

9.17.1. Magnetic Yoke Shields

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9.17.1. Magnetic Yoke Shields
Magnetic shields, made up of core laminations are used under yokes as shown in Fig. 9.6. A large proportion of the axial
leakage flux is fed back into the yokes. The yoke clamp assembly is shielded and reduction of radial flux to tank side is also
achieved. Magnetic shunts can be conveniently used for three-phase, five limbed and single-phase three, limbed transformers.
For three-phase, three limbed transformers, the flux collection from outer limbs and feeding to yokes is difficult and needs
special transfer technique.

Figure 9.6 Magnetic yoke shields.

The reduction in stray loss is considerable in the case of large transformers.

9.17.2. Magnetic Shunts

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9.17.2. Magnetic Shunts
The magnetic shunts consisting of packets of core laminations, are fixed inside the tank to absorb stray flux. The thickness of
lamination packets is decided by the flux density used. The typical arrangement of magnetic shunts is shown in Fig. 9.7. The
reduction in stray loss in tank is considerable in large transformers.

Figure 9.7 Fixing of magnetic shunts on three-phase transformer.

9.17.3. Electromagnetic Screens

High conductivity materials like aluminium or copper are used as screens on tank walls. The stray flux induces eddy currents in
these screens, which suppresses the original field and relieves the tank walls from stray flux. The screens are effective beyond
a critical distance and placement of screens within critical distance may result in increased losses.

9.17.4. Losses in Clamp Plates and Core Packets

The core limb clamp plates are very near the leakage field area and are subjected to intense radial field at the ends of windings.
This results in eddy losses on clamp plate ends and can lead to local hot-spots. Stray loss and heating is further increased due
to high current inner winding leads. The outside packet of lamination on core limbs are also subjected to similar conditions.
The control in temperature rise and losses can be achieved by using clamp plates of non-magnetic materials like stainless
steel. Substantial reduction in eddy losses and temperature rise can be achieved by providing slots on clamp plate.

The clamp plates made of thin lamination stacks and placed edgewise are ideal for large transformers. Outer packets of core
are also sometimes subdivided to reduce temperature rise on core plates for large rating transformers.

9.17.5. Losses in Winding

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9.17.5. Losses in Winding
Subdivision of conductors radially reduces the eddy current loss due to axial leakage field. Similarly, subdivision of conductors
axially reduces the eddy current loss due to radial component of leakage field. To reduce radial component of leakage flux, it is
essential that ampere-turn of HV and LV windings shall be perfectly balanced, which in turn gives the reduced eddy current loss
due to radial component of leakage flux. It is worth mentioning here that large unbalance in ampere-turns may lead to very high
stray loss. To eliminate the circulating current between parallel strands (conductors) of a turn, transposition is essential. This
leads to positioning of strands of a turn, such that flux linkage is same, thus equalizing the induced emf in each strand.
Methods of various transposition have been discussed in Chapter 5.

The use of transposed cables for high-current windings result in considerable reduction in stray losses. In high-voltage winding
with moderate current, requiring two or three conductors in parallel, bunched conductors can be used to improve winding space
factor, and to provide subdivision of conductors.

9.17.6. Losses due to Leads

Losses due to high-current leads can be reduced by spacing them suitably from metallic structures. The field effect of leads
can be eliminated by positioning together the current carrying leads of opposite direction (go-return arrangements). In three-
phase connection, the leads of all the three phases can be grouped together so that the net vectorial effect of field is minimum.
Losses due to leads can be reduced by shielding the nearby surfaces by non-magnetic material like aluminium. High-current
bushing mounting plate has high eddy current losses. This can be reduced by putting the non-magnetic inserts to break eddy
current path or by using the plate of non-magnetic material like aluminium or stainless steel for mounting the bushings.

9.18. Impulse Calculation

The voltage distribution in power frequency-voltage tests is substantially uniform between turns and coils. Under impulse test,
however, the distribution can be far from uniform and initial voltage distribution is governed solely by capacitance network. It
depends upon value of α, which can be expressed by the following equation:

(9.7)

where

Cg = winding to ground capacitance

Cs = series capacitance of winding

The determination of initial voltage distribution is merely the calculation of the various capacitances of windings. The greater
the value of α the greater is the divergence from uniform voltage distribution from line to ground. It is evident that value of α is
high for a small transformer. For transformers of higher rating and especially for higher line voltage, Cg decreases because it is
determined largely by clearances, while Cs increases because of greater radial depth of the winding. Thus, α is lower and initial
voltage distribution is more close to uniform. Due to stress concentration at the ends of winding, a few end turns are provided
with extra insulation. To reduce stress concentration at the ends, disc coil windings are provided with stress rings that act as
radial shields, although they do not materially improve the axial distribution. Axial improvement can be gained by the addition of
shields or by several other means of controlling the electric field distribution. Also refer to Chapter 5, Clause 5.2 for surge
behaviour of windings.

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9.19. Mechanical Forces in Windings
When transformer is loaded, the flow of currents in its primary and secondary windings gives rise to leakage flux and mutual
forces between windings. The mechanical repulsive force with normal load currents is low compared to the strength of coils.
Under fault conditions, the forces produced may be increased many times. The design of transformer windings, insulating
cylinders, coil clamping rings, clamping plates, etc., should be such that they are able to withstand these forces. The forces
produced are radial as well as axial. Radial component of force tends to burst outer winding and crush inner windings and axial
component gives bending and compressive stresses. Various forces and their effect have been discussed at length in Chapter
7.

9.20. Temperature Gradient and Cooling Calculation

Difference between mean winding temperature and mean oil temperature is termed as winding gradient. It depends upon the
losses in the winding and surface area available for cooling. Winding design, i.e. selection of current density, size of cooling
ducts, etc., should be proper, resulting in low gradients.

Gradient of the windings can be reduced by providing the directed oil flow, in the case of forced oil cooled transformer. The
gradient in various windings of a transformer are adjusted by suitably altering the winding design to result in economical
cooling equipment and thus overall economy. The design of cooling equipment is to be such that it shall be capable of
delivering the rated MVA, under specified conditions, without exceeding the guaranteed values of top oil temperature rise and
mean winding temperature rise. Top oil temperature rise depends upon mean oil temperature rise and half of the difference in
oil temperatures at the inlet and the outlet of the cooling equipment. Mean winding temperature rise depends upon mean oil
temperature rise and winding gradient. Various types of cooling have been discussed in Chapter 8.

9.21. Typical Design Calculations for Two Winding and Auto-

transformers
Example 9.1 Typical design calculations for a 20 MVA, 132/33 kV, star/star, three-phase, 50-Hz, power transformer with on-
load tapping on HV winding for voltage variation of LV from – 5% to + 15% in 16 steps. Percentage impedance 10% on 20 MVA
base.

Substituting the values in Eq. (9.1),

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H.V. winding design

Axial dimension of coil

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Radial dimension of coil

Tapping winding design

Axial dimension of coil

Calculating in the same manner as for HV coil, axial dimension/coil for 32 sections = 252.00

The coils shall be placed concentrically one over the other.

Radial dimension of coil

For 9 turns per section, calculating in the same manner as for HV, radial dimension of coil = 29 mm (inclusive of building
tolerance)

LV winding design

Type of winding: Reversed section winding (single coil conceived)

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Reactance calculation at normal tap (Fig. 9.8)

(9.8)

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 Figure 9.8 Ampere turns diagram at normal tap position.

Core weight and loss calculations

At 1.524 tesla, specific watt/kg of M4 steel

[1] Copper weight calculations

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Resistance calculations

Copper loss calculations at normal tap

Total I2 R loss for 3 phases = 116.1 kW

Eddy current loss and stray losses based on similar past design as 5 kW and 10 kW respectively

Total copper loss = 131.1 kW

Impulse distribution across different sections of coils, temperature gradients of windings and mechanical forces are further
done to ascertain the design adequacy vis-a-vis test requirements.

Example 9.2 Typical design calculations for 20 MVA, 132/66/11 kV, Star/Star/Delta, 3 phase, 50 Hz auto transformer with
onload tappings on HV winding for voltage variation of HV from – 10% to + 10% in 16 steps. Percentage impedance 12.5% on
20 MVA, base.

Substituting the values in Eq. (9.1),

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Current calculations

Series and common windings can be reversed section coils. Tapping winding can be inter-wound spiral coil placed between
common and series windings or elsewhere depending upon the impedance variation required. LV winding can be spiral coil.

Design of these coils can be done in a similar manner. While calculating impedance and other performance, auto factor is to be
used suitably as applicable.

9.22. REFERENCES
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9.22. REFERENCES
1. Say, M.G., "Electrical Engineers Reference Book".

2. "The J & P Transformer Book".

3. Blume, L.F., A. Boyajian, G. Camilli, T.C. Lennox, S. Minneci, and V.M. Montsinger, "Transformer Engineering" a Treatise on
the Theory, Operation and Application of Transformers", Book, Chapman and Hald Ltd., London, 1951.

4. Say, M.G., "Performance and Design of AC Machines", Book, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, 1962.

5. Narke, D.V., and R.K. Talwar "Paper on Stray Losses in Power Transformer" BHEL, Bhopal.

6. Khosla, A.K., Paper on "Recent Trends in the Design of Large Size Transformers" BHEL, Bhopal.

[1] Building factor from experience of similar transformers.

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