22Functional theories of translation

5.1 Text type

In the 1970s, Katharina Reiss developed a new perspective on translation that focused on
achieving equivalence not at the level of individual words or sentences but at the level of
the entire text. She believed that effective communication occurs at the text level, and
therefore, equivalence should be sought at that level.

Reiss's approach was functional in nature, and her goal was to create a systematic way of
assessing translations. She drew inspiration from the work of Karl Bühler, a German
psychologist and linguist, who had categorized the three functions of language as
follows:

1. Informative Function (Darstellungsfunktion): This function is about conveying

information or representing facts.
2. Expressive Function (Ausdrucksfunktion): This function relates to expressing emotions,
attitudes, or the author's style.
3. Appellative Function (Appellfunktion): This function involves language that is used to
make requests, give commands, or persuade the audience.

Reiss connected these three functions to different dimensions of language and to specific
text types or communicative situations in which they are typically used. Essentially, she
created a framework that helps translators consider these functions and dimensions
when working on translations. This approach aimed to ensure that the translated text
effectively conveys the same functions and intentions as the original text.

Katharina Reiss developed a framework for understanding different types of texts and
how they should be translated. She categorized texts into three main types based on
their language functions:

1. Informative Texts: These are texts that primarily convey facts and information. The focus
is on the content and logical structure of the information. In translation, the goal is to
accurately transmit the factual content from the source text to the target text. If needed,
the translator may use a straightforward and explicit style.
2. Expressive Texts: These texts are more about creativity and expression. Authors use the
aesthetic dimension of language to convey their attitudes, emotions, and unique style.
When translating expressive texts, the translator should not only focus on the content but
also capture the artistic and emotional aspects. It's important to adopt the perspective of
the source text author to maintain the expressive quality.
3. Operative Texts: Operative texts aim to induce specific actions or responses from the
audience. This could include persuasive texts like advertisements or political speeches. In
translation, the focus is on the dialogic dimension of language, and the goal is to elicit the
desired response from the target audience. The translation should be adapted to have an
equivalent effect in the target language.
 Additionally, there are audio-medial texts, like films and multimedia advertisements, which
combine various elements such as visuals, spoken language, and music. These texts are
known as multimodal texts and are not covered in the table but represent a fourth type.

In summary, Reiss's framework helps translators determine the appropriate translation

approach based on the type of text they are working with, considering factors like content,
aesthetics, and the desired response from the audience.
(In this context, "dimension" refers to a specific aspect or characteristic of language used
to express a particular language function. Each type of text has its own "dimension" of
language that corresponds to how language is used to achieve a specific linguistic
purpose.

In this specific case, there are three main "dimensions" of language used in translation of
texts, including:

Logical (referential) dimension: This involves using language to convey logical information
and facts. In such texts, the emphasis is on conveying information.

Aesthetic dimension: This dimension is used for expressing emotions and creativity. The
author creates the text based on aesthetic aspects of language.

Dialogic dimension: It is used to influence the reader or elicit a specific response from
them. The main goal is to persuade the reader to take a certain action or decision.

These "dimensions" determine how language is used to achieve different linguistic

purposes in texts and influence how translation is conducted.)

Katharina Reiss's approach to translation emphasizes that the primary function of a source
text (ST) should determine how the target text (TT) is translated. She suggests specific
translation methods based on the type of text being translated. Here are the key points
in simpler terms:

1. Informative Texts: When translating informative texts (like encyclopedia entries), the
focus should be on conveying the factual content accurately. Use plain language and
clarify when necessary, even if it means being less concerned about stylistic elegance.
2. Expressive Texts: For expressive texts (like literature or artistic works), the goal is to
capture not only the content but also the artistic style of the author. Translators should
adopt the perspective of the source text author to maintain the author's unique style.
3. Operative Texts: Operative texts (like advertisements) aim to elicit a specific response
from the reader. Translators should use an "adaptive" approach to create a similar effect on
the target audience, even if it requires using new words or images.
4. Audio-Medial Texts: These texts, like films or multimedia advertisements, may require a
"supplementary" method, combining written words with visual images and music.

Reiss also provides criteria for assessing the quality of a translated text. These criteria
include ensuring semantic and lexical equivalence, maintaining grammatical and stylistic
 features, considering the context, subject matter, time, and cultural aspects, as well as
understanding the emotional and affective aspects of the text.

In summary, Reiss emphasizes that the purpose of the source text should guide the
translation approach, and translators should consider both linguistic and non-linguistic
factors when evaluating the quality of the translation.

Katharina Reiss suggests that the criteria for assessing the quality of a translation can
vary depending on the type of text and its genre. Here's a simplified explanation:

1. Content-Focused Texts: When translating texts that focus on providing information (like
an encyclopedia entry), the top priority is to maintain the same meaning or "semantic
equivalence" as the original text.
2. Popular Science Books: For texts like popular science books, it's essential to not only
convey the content accurately but also capture the author's unique style and make the text
accessible to a broader audience.
3. Scientific Articles: Translating scientific articles for experts should adhere to the
specialized conventions of academic writing and may prioritize accuracy and adherence to
scientific norms.
4. Metaphors in Expressive Texts: In expressive texts (like literature), preserving metaphors
is more critical because they contribute to the text's artistic and emotional value. In
contrast, for informative texts, translating the metaphor's meaning may be sufficient.

Reiss acknowledges that there are situations where the translated text (TT) may have a
different purpose or function than the source text (ST). For instance, a satirical novel like
Jonathan Swift's "Gulliver's Travels," originally aimed at criticizing the government, might
be translated and read as regular fiction today. Similarly, an election speech, initially
operative, might be translated for analysis purposes, becoming both informative and
expressive in the target language.

In essence, the adequacy criteria for evaluating translations depend on the intended
function of the translated text and can change based on the context and purpose of the
translation.

5.1.1 Discussion of the text type model

One important aspect of Reiss's work is the recognition that the function of the translated text (TT) can
differ from that of the source text (ST). This challenged the traditional view of equivalence, which aimed to
achieve an equivalent effect in the translation.

The use of metaphors in translation poses interesting challenges. Some metaphors have direct equivalents
in other languages, while more complex and unique metaphors do no

5.1.2 Mary Snell-Hornby’s ‘integrated approach’

Mary Snell-Hornby proposed an "integrated approach" to translation in her book, aiming to create
a comprehensive framework that includes various linguistic and literary concepts. She categorizes
text types based on their functions and incorporates cultural history, literary studies, and other
disciplines into the translation process. She uses a diagram to illustrate this approach.

Level A: This is the most general level, where Snell-Hornby integrates various forms of
translation, including literary, general language, and special language translation, into a
single continuum. Instead of treating these as separate and distinct categories, she views
them as interconnected parts of the broader translation field.

Level B: At this level, Snell-Hornby identifies prototypical basic text types. For example, in
literary translation, you might find genres like the Bible, stage/film scripts, and lyric poetry.
On the other end of the continuum, there's light fiction, which starts merging into the
newspaper and general information types of general language translation.

Level C: This level involves non-linguistic disciplines that are closely related to translation.
It recognizes that translation is not just about linguistic equivalence but also requires a
deep understanding of cultural, historical, and subject-specific knowledge. For general
language translation, sociocultural knowledge is essential, while specialized translation may
involve subject-specific studies.

Level D: Here, Snell-Hornby addresses the translation process itself. This includes
understanding the function of the source text (ST), determining the focus of the target text
(TT), and considering the communicative function of the TT. It's about how the translator
approaches and carries out the translation task.

Level E: Level E covers linguistic aspects that are relevant to translation. This may include
considerations related to language structure, grammar, semantics, and stylistic choices.
These linguistic elements play a significant role in how a text is translated.

Level F: The lowest-order level, Level F, deals with phonological aspects. This involves the
sound and spoken quality of the translation. For instance, it may concern aspects like
maintaining the rhythm, alliteration, or other phonetic features, particularly in translations
intended for oral delivery, such as dubbing or stage performance.

These levels are designed to provide a holistic framework for understanding and analyzing
translation, incorporating linguistic, cultural, and functional dimensions. However, as
mentioned earlier, there are challenges and criticisms related to categorizing texts and
genres in this way, as translation tasks can often be more complex and nuanced than these
levels might suggest.

In the context of Mary Snell-Hornby's integrated approach to translation, the term "single continuum"
means that she sees different forms of translation (such as literary, general language, and special language
translation) as part of a unified and interconnected field, rather than treating them as entirely separate and
unrelated areas of study.

5.1.3 Web localization and digital genres

 5.2 Translatorial action

This model views translation as a purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction that involves
intercultural transfer. In other words, it's not just about translating words or texts but about facilitating
effective cross-cultural communication

Within this model, interlingual translation, which is the translation between languages, is seen as a
communicative process involving several roles and participants:

1. The Initiator: This is the individual or company that initiates the need for translation. They
are the ones who require a particular text to be translated to serve a specific purpose. For
example, a company that wants to expand its market into a foreign country may initiate
the translation of its marketing materials.
2. The Commissioner: The commissioner is the intermediary between the initiator and the
translator. They could be an individual or an agency responsible for handling the
translation project. They are the ones who contact and collaborate with the translator to
get the translation done.
3. The Source Text (ST) Producer: This refers to the individuals within the company or
organization who create the source text that needs to be translated. These individuals may
not necessarily be involved in the translation process but are responsible for generating
the original content. For instance, in a publishing company, the authors of books are the ST
producers.
4. The Target Text (TT) Producer: This is the translator or group of translators responsible
for producing the translated text (the target text). They are tasked with the actual
translation work, ensuring that the content is accurately and effectively conveyed in the
target language.
5. The TT User: The TT user is the person or entity who directly utilizes the translated text.
For example, if the translation is of an academic textbook, the TT users would be the
students and teachers who use that translated textbook for learning and teaching.
6. The TT Receiver: This is the final recipient of the translated text. It could be the end
consumer or audience who engages with the translated content. For instance, if a company
translates its product manuals, the TT receivers would be the customers who read those
manuals.

Each of these roles and participants plays a specific role in the translation process, with
distinct responsibilities and interests. Effective communication and collaboration among
these parties are crucial for the successful completion of a translation project.

5.2.1 Discussion of the model of translatorial action

Translatorial action places a strong emphasis on producing a target text (TT) that
effectively serves its communicative function for the intended audience. This means that
the form and style of the TT should be chosen based on what is most functional and
suitable in the culture of the target language, rather than blindly mimicking the profile of
the source text (ST). The translator, as the expert in translatorial action, plays a critical role
in ensuring that the intercultural transfer of meaning is successful.
 In the process of creating the TT, referred to as "translatorial text operations," the ST is
carefully analyzed, focusing on its construction and functional characteristics. This analysis
considers two main aspects:

Content: This refers to the substance or substance of the text. It involves not only the
factual information presented in the text but also the overall strategy or approach used to
convey that information. In other words, it's about understanding both what the text is
saying (the facts) and how it's trying to communicate its message (the strategy or style).

Form: Form encompasses the structural and linguistic aspects of the text. It includes two
main components:

1. Terminology: This relates to the specific words and phrases used in the text, especially any
technical or specialized vocabulary. For example, in a medical text, terminology might
include complex medical terms or jargon.
2. Cohesive elements: These are linguistic features within the text that help maintain its
coherence and flow. Cohesive elements ensure that the text reads smoothly and that the
ideas are logically connected. Examples of cohesive elements include transition words (e.g.,
"however," "therefore") and pronouns (e.g., "it," "they") that link sentences and paragraphs.

In summary, "content" is about what the text is trying to convey and how it conveys it,
while "form" focuses on the specific words and structures used in the text, including any
technical terminology and the linguistic features that make the text flow well. Both content
and form are crucial considerations for a translator when working on a text.

The translator's decisions are primarily guided by the needs and expectations of the TT's
audience. For example, if a technical term is used in a technical ST, the translator might
need to provide clarification or use a more accessible term for a non-technical audience in
the TT. Consistency in translating specific terms is also essential to ensure that the TT
remains coherent and understandable to the reader.

In essence, the translator's role is not simply to replicate the ST in another language but to
adapt it in a way that effectively conveys the intended message and meets the functional
requirements of the target culture and audience.
5.3 Skopos theory

Skopos is a Greek word that means the "aim" or "purpose" of something. In the context of
translation theory, it was introduced by Hans J. Vermeer in the 1970s to describe the
purpose or goal of a translation and the act of translating itself. The main work on skopos
theory is the book "Towards a General Theory of Translational Action," written by Reiss and
Vermeer in 1984 (translated to English in 2013).

Skopos theory suggests that a translation's purpose is crucial, and the translation process
should be tailored to fulfill that purpose effectively. A translation should be "functionally
adequate," meaning it should serve its intended function or purpose.
 To put it simply, when translating a text, it's essential for the translator to understand
why they are translating it and what the translated text is supposed to achieve. The
translator's actions should align with the intended purpose of the translation. The
rules of skopos theory can be summarized as follows:

1. The purpose or aim of a translation (skopos) determines how it should be done.

2. Translation is a way to provide information in the target culture and language about
information in the source culture and language.
3. The translated text should not reverse the flow of information in a confusing manner.
4. The translated text should be internally coherent and make sense.
5. The translated text should be coherent with the original source text.
6. These rules are hierarchical, with the skopos rule being the most important, guiding how
the other rules are applied.

In essence, skopos theory emphasizes that a translation's success depends on its ability to
fulfill its intended purpose while also maintaining coherence and clarity.
\

Certainly, let's simplify and explain the key concepts:

1. Rule 1 - Skopos is Key: This is the most important rule. It means that the purpose or goal
of a translation (skopos) determines how the translation should be done. Everything else in
translation revolves around this main purpose.
2. Rule 2 - Bridging Cultures: This rule is important because it connects the source text (ST)
and the target text (TT) to their functions in their respective language and culture. The
translator plays a crucial role in facilitating this bridge, ensuring that the translation is
effective in its new cultural context.
3. Rule 3 - Irreversibility: This rule suggests that a TT might serve a different purpose in the
target culture compared to the original ST. For example, a document about university
degree structures might be translated in a way that suits explaining program transfers in a
different education system.
4. Rule 4 - Coherence: This rule is about ensuring that the TT makes sense to the target
audience. The translation should be clear and meaningful based on the target audience's
knowledge and needs. If it doesn't meet these needs, it's not fulfilling its purpose.
5. Rule 5 - Fidelity: This rule emphasizes consistency between the ST and TT. It should make
sure that what the translator gets from the ST, how they interpret it, and how it's presented
to the TT audience are in harmony. However, it doesn't specify exactly how this harmony
should be achieved.
6. Hierarchy of Rules: These rules have a hierarchy. First and foremost is fulfilling the TT's
purpose (Rule 1). Then comes ensuring coherence within the TT (Rule 4), and finally,
making sure the TT is consistent with the ST (Rule 5). Importantly, the type of connection
between ST and TT is not explicitly defined.

Now, let's explain the idea of "dethroning" the ST and Christiane Nord's perspective:
 Dethroning the Source Text: Both skopos and translatorial action theory downplay the
importance of the original source text (ST). Some argue this approach could be seen as
allowing anything in translation as long as it serves the TT's purpose.
 Nord's Perspective: Christiane Nord emphasizes that while functionality (serving the
purpose) is crucial, it doesn't mean translators have unrestricted freedom. There still needs
to be a connection or loyalty to the source text. This connection's nature depends on the
intended purpose of the translation.
 Functionality Plus Loyalty: Nord's model combines functionality and loyalty. It means
that while the translation should effectively serve its purpose, it should also maintain some
connection or faithfulness to the original text. How much faithfulness is needed depends
on the translation's intended purpose.

In simpler terms, the debate revolves around whether a translator should prioritize serving
the TT's purpose above all else, potentially allowing more freedom in the translation, or if
there should always be some connection or loyalty to the original text. Nord's view is that
there should be a balance between these two factors, with the level of loyalty determined
by the translation's intended purpose.

Certainly, let's simplify and explain the key points:

1. Compatibility with Author's Intentions: Christiane Nord believes that the purpose of the
target text (TT) should be in harmony with what the original author intended in the source
text (ST). However, it's not always easy to determine the author's intentions. Loyalty to the
original text is crucial because it helps limit the acceptable range of functions for the TT
and requires translators to discuss their translation tasks with their clients.
2. Different Translations for Different Purposes: One significant advantage of skopos
theory is that it acknowledges that the same text can be translated differently based on the
intended purpose of the TT and the instructions given to the translator. In other words,
how a text is translated depends on why it's being translated.
3. Example of Ambiguity: For instance, if a legal document written in French has ambiguity,
a translation for a foreign lawyer dealing with the case might keep that ambiguity and add
a footnote for clarification. But if the same text appears in a novel, the translator might
create a different kind of ambiguity in the target language that doesn't need a formal
explanation. This allows the TT to achieve its purpose by using a different approach.
4. Explicit or Implicit Skopos: To make sure the translation fits the specific case, the purpose
or skopos needs to be clearly or implicitly stated in the translation request or "brief." This
brief includes the goal of the translation and the conditions under which it should be
completed, like the deadline and payment. These details are typically negotiated between
the client and the translator.
5. Adequacy Over Equivalence: Skopos theory prioritizes adequacy (meeting the intended
purpose) over equivalence (exact matching between ST and TT) in evaluating a translation.
The nature of the TT is primarily determined by its purpose or commission. If the TT fulfills
the intended purpose set by the client's brief, it is considered functionally and
 communicatively adequate. Equivalence is only crucial when both the ST and TT have the
same function, which is relatively rare.

In simpler terms, skopos theory allows for flexibility in translation. The purpose of the
translation should align with the author's intentions, but the approach can vary depending
on the intended use of the translated text. The translator and client need to communicate
and agree on the translation's goal and conditions. The success of the translation is judged
based on how well it fulfills its intended purpose, rather than strict equivalence with the
source text. Equivalence is important only when both texts have the same function, which
doesn't happen very often.
5.3.1 Discussion of skopos theory

1. Limited Applicability to Literary Texts: Critics argue that skopos theory, which aims to be
a "general" theory of translation, is not suitable for literary texts. They believe that literary
texts may not have a specific purpose or may be too stylistically complex. Vermeer, in
response, points out that the goals, purposes, functions, and intentions are attributed to
translation actions. For example, a poet or their translator may have the goal of publishing
the translated poem and earning money from it, or they may aim to create something for
the sake of art itself.
2. Conflict Between Reiss's Text Type Approach and Vermeer's Skopos Theory: Critics
argue that Reiss's text type approach and Vermeer's skopos theory address different
aspects of translation and cannot be combined easily. The issue is whether the type of
source text determines the translation method and how closely the source text type is
linked to the translation's purpose.
3. Use of Jargon: Some critics dislike the use of specialized terminology like "Translatum" in
skopos theory when existing terms like "target text" already exist and are more practical.
However, Nord, in her English translation of the theory, emphasizes the theory as
"translational action" to make it more accessible.
4. Neglect of Linguistic Aspects: Critics argue that skopos theory doesn't pay enough
attention to the linguistic characteristics of the source text and the faithful reproduction of
language features in the target text. Even if the translation fulfills its intended purpose
(skopos), it might not accurately replicate the style or meaning of individual parts of the
text. Christiane Nord addresses this criticism with her model of translation-oriented text
analysis, which focuses on the linguistic aspects of translation and how they affect the
translation's quality.

In simple terms, the criticisms of skopos theory include its perceived limitations in dealing
with literary texts, the potential conflict with other translation theories, the use of complex
terminology, and its alleged disregard for the detailed linguistic aspects of translation.
These criticisms have led to alternative approaches, like Nord's, which emphasize a more
comprehensive analysis of the language and style in translation.

5.4 Translation-oriented text analysis

Christiane Nord's "Text Analysis in Translation" (1988/2005) offers a detailed

 functional model for translation that focuses on analyzing text organization at or
above the sentence level. She distinguishes between two fundamental types of
translation: documentary translation and instrumental translation.

1. Documentary Translation: This type of translation serves as a document of the

source culture's communication between the author and the source text (ST)
recipient. It's evident that the text is a translation. Examples include literal
translations, word-for-word translations, and translations that aim to preserve
the cultural flavor of the source text by retaining culture-specific words or
phrases.
2. Instrumental Translation: In instrumental translation, the translated text
functions as an independent means of communication in the target culture. The
goal is for the recipient to read or hear the translated text as if it were originally
written in their language. The function of the translation may be the same as the
source text, such as in technical manuals or software translations, which need to
instruct the reader just like the original text. Nord calls these "function-
preserving translations." However, there are cases where preserving the same
function isn't possible, such as when translating a complex work like Swift's
"Gulliver's Travels" for children or turning an epic like Homer's work into a
contemporary novel.

Nord's aim is to provide translation students with a model for analyzing source
texts that applies to all text types and translation situations. Her model is based
on understanding the function of features in the source text and selecting
appropriate translation strategies based on the intended purpose of the
translation. While she shares some principles with Reiss and Vermeer's work and
Holz-Mänttäri's consideration of translation action, Nord pays more attention to
features of the source text.

In her later book "Translating as a Purposeful Activity" (1997), Nord offers a more
flexible version of her model. She emphasizes three key aspects for translator
training:

1. The importance of the translation commission or brief, which outlines the

translation task.
2. The role of analyzing the source text.
3. The functional hierarchy of translation problems, which helps prioritize and
address translation challenges effectively.

In simpler terms, Nord's approach to translation analysis looks at how different

types of translations serve their purposes. She considers whether a translation
should be clearly recognizable as a translation (documentary) or read as if it
 were originally written in the target language (instrumental). Her model helps
translators understand their task and choose appropriate strategies.

1. The Importance of the Translation Commission: Before diving into translating a text, it's
crucial for the translator to understand the translation task outlined in the commission or
brief. The commission should provide information about:
 The intended functions of both the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).
 The intended audience (sender and recipient).
 When and where the text will be received.
 The medium (written, spoken, digital, etc.).
 The motive behind the original ST and why it's being translated.
This information helps the translator prioritize what to include in the TT. For example, if the
ST is a brochure celebrating a university's anniversary, the translator should prioritize
information related to the anniversary events.
2. The Role of ST Analysis: Once the information from the commission is considered, the ST
can be analyzed to determine:
 Feasibility of translation.
 Relevant ST elements that need to be considered for an effective translation.
 The translation strategy required to fulfill the translation brief.
Nord's model considers various factors within the ST, including subject matter, content,
presuppositions, text composition, non-verbal elements, vocabulary, sentence structure,
and suprasegmental features like stress and intonation.
3. Functional Hierarchy of Translation Problems: Nord establishes a hierarchy when
approaching a translation, starting with a pragmatic perspective and giving priority to the
intended function of the TT. The hierarchy includes:
 Comparing the intended functions of the ST and TT to determine the type of
translation needed (documentary or instrumental).
 Analyzing the translation commission to decide which functional elements can be
reproduced and which need adaptation for the TT audience.
 Using the translation type to determine the translation style (source-culture
oriented for documentary, target-culture oriented for instrumental).
 Addressing specific text-related issues at a linguistic level based on the features
analyzed in the ST.
This approach combines elements from various functional and action theories, taking into
account the roles of different players in the translation process, the concept of skopos
(intended purpose), and the communicative function and genre features of the ST.

In simpler terms, before translating a text, the translator needs to understand the purpose
of the translation (commission) and analyze the source text thoroughly. This analysis
considers various aspects of the source text, such as its content, style, and cultural
elements. The translation process then follows a hierarchy, prioritizing the intended
function of the translation, and adjusting the translation strategy accordingly. This
approach combines the strengths of different translation theories to create a
comprehensive model for effective translation.