❖ Evolution of Computing Devices

• ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first

computing system designed in the early 1940s.
• It consisted of 18,000 buzzing electronic switches called vacuum tubes, 42 panels
each 9'x 2'x1’.
• It was organized in U-Shaped around the perimeter of a room with forced air
cooling.
• ENIAC was the first electronic computer which was used for general purposes like
solving numerical problems.
• The first task done by ENIAC was performing calculations for the manufacturing of
a hydrogen bomb.
• ENIAC can be reprogrammed for the salvation of the computer related problems.
Units of the ENIAC
• Control units: It is of two types- initiating unit and cycling unit.
• Accumulator: An accumulator in the ENIAC works as both an ALU and a register. The accumulator can
be divided into two types- the arithmetic/storage unit and the program control unit.
• Master Programmer: The main job of the Master Programmer is to work as a coordinator between the
operations of 20 accumulators and to simplify looping.
• High-speed multiplier: As we know multiplication is the main operation, so there is a need for hardware
that can take care of this operation.
• So for this high-speed multiplier is used which is used to multiply two signed ten-digit numbers.
• Input/Output devices- The input/output devices of the ENIAC are the IBM card reader and the Constant
Transmitter. The constant transmitter is made up of electrical and mechanical components.
• The IBM card reader reads the values and sends the corresponding information to the constant transmitter.
Advantages of ENIAC Disadvantages of ENIAC
• It is a simple computer. • ENIAC consumes more electricity.
• It stores information. • Its size is very large. Thus, it was not able to carry.
• Tactual sensitivity is preserved. • It is very costly.
• For faster identification of readings, color-coding is • It needs cold weather. So, they required being housed in
done. large air-conditioned rooms.
• It is easily available. • Its maintenance is difficult.
• It is the fastest machine of this time and can calculate • They were not very reliable.
data in milliseconds • They get heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum
tubes.
• ENIAC is non-portable.
• ENIAC is of limited commercial use
➢ Applications of ENIAC

ENIAC’s field of application includes:

• It does weather forecasting.

• ENIAC can also perform atomic-energy calculations.

• ENIAC can do the thermal ignition.

• ENIAC is also helpful for wind-tunnel design.

• ENIAC does cosmic-ray studies.

• ENIAC can also do random-number studies.

• ENIAC is used for other scientific uses.

• Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) design was known as the first digital electronic computer (though not
programmable). It was designed and built by John Vincent Atanasoff and his assistant, Clifford E. Berry in 1937.
• In 1941, Z3 was invented by German inventor Konrad Zuse. It was the first working programmable, fully automatic
computing machine.
• Transistors were invented in 1947 at Bell Laboratories which were a fraction the size of the vacuum tubes and consumed
less power, but still, the complex circuits were not easy to handle.
• Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce invented the Integrated Circuit at the same time. In July 1959 Noyce filed a patent for
this.
• In 1968, Robert Noyce co-founded Intel Electronics company which is still the global market leader in IC
manufacturing, research, and development.
• In 1983, Lisa was launched as the first personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI) that was sold
commercially; it ran on the Motorola 68000, dual floppy disk drives, a 5 MB hard drive and had 1MB of RAM.
• In 1990, Apple released the Macintosh Portable; it was heavy weighing 7.3 kg (16 lb) and extremely expensive. It was
not met with great success and was discontinued only two years later.
• In 1990, Intel introduced the Touchstone Delta supercomputer, which had 512 microprocessors. This technological
advancement was very significant as it was used as a model for some of the fastest multi-processor systems in the world.
 • John von Neumann was a Hungarian-American pure and applied
mathematician, physicist, inventor, and polymath.
• He made major contributions to a number of fields, including
mathematics, physics, economics, computing, and statistics.
• The Von-Neumann Architecture or Von-Neumann model is also
known as “Princeton Architecture”.
• This architecture was published by the Mathematician John Von
Von Neumann in 1945.
• He is considered as father of the modern computer.
Neumann • What Von Neumann introduced for computing?
architecture: 1. Stored program architecture (including following components)
• Memory
• Control Unit
• Arithmetical and Logical Unit
• Input
• Output
• It is a design model for modern computers which has a Central Processing Unit(CPU) and the concept of Memory
which is used for storing both data and instructions.
• This architecture implemented the stored program concept in which the data and instructions are stored in the
same memory.
• This architecture consists of a Control Unit, CPU, Arithmetic and logic unit(ALU), Register, I/O(Input Output Devices),
and Memory unit.
➢ Features Of Von Neumann Architecture:
✓ Central Processing Unit:

o CPU is the abbreviation for central processing unit.

Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but
more commonly called processor.

o CPU is the brain of the computer where all computations

take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the
most important element of the computer system.

o It is a set of electronic circuitry that executes the stored

program instructions.

o Components of CPU are ALU (Airthematic and logic

Unit) and CU (Control Unit).
CU (Control Unit)
It is responsible for all processor control signals.
It governs how data moves throughout the system, directs all input and output flow, and gets code
for instructions.

ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is the portion of the CPU that
handles all of the CPU’s computations, such as addition,
subtraction, and comparisons.
Also, Logical operations, arithmetic operations, and bit shifting
operations are all performed by it
✓ Registers (Main Memory Unit)
• Registers are a sort of computer memory that is used to accept, store, and transport data and instructions that are
used by the CPU right away.
• Processor registers is the term used to define the registers that the CPU uses.
• Registers are highly fast computer memory that are used to efficiently execute programs and operations in
computer architecture.
✓ Accumulator: It stores the results of the calculations that the ALU makes.
✓ Program Counter: The PC keeps track of the location of the memory of the next instructions that are to be dealt
with.
• Then this next address is passed by the PC and passes to the Memory Address Register (MAR).
✓ Memory Address Register: MAR stores the memory locations of those instructions that are either to be fetched
from the memory or to be stored in the memory.
✓ Memory Data Register: MDR stores the instructions that are fetched from the memory or any information that
is to be transferred to and stored in the memory.
✓ Current Instruction Register: CIR stores the recently fetched instructions while it waits for coding and
execution.
✓ Instruction Buffer Register: The instruction that isn’t to be immediately executed is placed in the IBR or
instruction buffer register.
✓I/O Devices ✓Buses
▪ Under the control of CPU input instructions, the ▪ Data is sent from one portion of a computer to another
programme or the data is read into the main memory via buses, which connect all key internal components to
from the secondary storage or the input device. the memory and CPU.
▪ The data from a computer is output using output devices. They are of the following types:
If any results are evaluated by a computer and saved in I. Control Bus: It receives control commands from the
it, you can present them to a user via output devices. CPU, as well as status signals from other devices, and
uses them to control and coordinate all of the
computer’s actions.
II. Address Bus: It communicates between memory and
the processor the data address (not the actual data).
III. Data Bus: It relays information between the memory
unit, I/O devices, and the processor.
➢ Following is the list of registers that plays a crucial role in data
processing.

Registers Description

MAR (Memory Address Register) This register holds the memory location of the data
that needs to be accessed.
MDR (Memory Data Register) This register holds the data that is being transferred
to or from memory.
AC (Accumulator) This register holds the intermediate arithmetic and
logic results.
PC (Program Counter) This register contains the address of the next
instruction to be executed.
CIR (Current Instruction Register) This register contains the current instruction during
processing.
 ❖ Performance measure of Computer Architecture
• How to define computer performance?
• performance refers to the speed and efficiency at which a computer system can execute tasks
and process data.
• A high-performing computer system is one that can perform tasks quickly and efficiently,
while minimizing the amount of time and resources required to complete these tasks.
• Computer A is “better” than computer B.
• What does it mean? Better in what?
• Computer performance is the amount of work accomplished by a computer system.
• The word performance in computer performance means.
• “How well is the computer doing the work it is supposed to do?”.
• It basically depends on response time, throughput and execution time of a computer system.
• Response time is the time from start to completion of a task.
• There are several factors that can impact the performance of a computer system, including:
1. Processor speed: The speed of the processor, measured in GHz (gigahertz), determines how
quickly the computer can execute instructions and process data.
2. Memory: The amount and speed of the memory, including RAM (random access memory)
and cache memory, can impact how quickly data can be accessed and processed by the
computer.
3. Storage: The speed and capacity of the storage devices, including hard drives and solid-state
drives (SSDs), can impact the speed at which data can be stored and retrieved.
4. I/O devices: The speed and efficiency of input/output devices, such as keyboards, mice, and
displays, can impact the overall performance of the system.
5. Software optimization: The efficiency of the software running on the system, including
operating systems and applications, can impact how quickly tasks can be completed.
Basic criteria
• What do we need?
• What do we compare?
Basic metrics
• Execution time (response time)
• Time to complete a particular task
• Important for users
Throughput
• Amount of work completed in unit time
• Important for server or data center operators
• Performance based on execution time
• We desire higher number = higher performance
• Execution time is the opposite → needs fixing

Now we can compare performance

• Relative performance
• Relating performance of two computers
• X is n-times faster than Y (has higher performance)

• If X is n-times faster than Y, then execution time on Y is n-times longer

than on X
• Performance: CPU designer perspective
• Speed for executing instructions
• Clock rate Clock cycle length
Performance: compiler perspective

Average number of cycles per instruction Clock cycles

per instruction (CPI) Specific to a particular program
or its part Allows comparing different
implementations of the same architecture Given a
fixed number of instructions

CPU clock cycles=CPI × Number of

instruction
• Classic processor performance equation

• Relates number of instructions, CPI and clock cycle length 3 different factors
influencing performance Allows comparing different implementations
Allows assessing alternative architectures
Computer performance basically depends on response time, throughput and execution
time of a computer system.
Response time is the time from start to completion of a task. This also includes:

Operating system overhead.

Waiting for I/O and other processes

Accessing disk and memory

Time spent executing on the CPU or execution time.

▪ Throughput is the total amount of work done in a given time.
▪ CPU execution time is the total time a CPU spends computing on a given task.
▪ It also excludes time for I/O or running other programs.
▪ This is also referred to as simply CPU time.
▪ Performance is determined by execution time as performance is inversely proportional to
execution time.
▪ Performance = (1 / Execution time)
And,
(Performance of A / Performance of B) = (Execution Time of B / Execution Time of A)

▪ That means machine A is 1.25 times faster than Machine B.

▪ And the time to execute a given program can be computed as:
▪ Execution time = CPU clock cycles x clock cycle time
If given that Processor A is faster than processor B, that means execution time
of A is less than that of execution time of B.

Therefore, performance of A is greater than that of performance of

B.

Example – Machine A runs a program in 100 seconds, Machine B

runs the same program in 125 seconds

(Performance of A / Performance of B) = (Execution Time of B / Execution Time of A) = 125 / 100 =

1.25

▪ That means machine A is 1.25 times faster than Machine B. And, the time to
execute a given program can be computed as:
▪ Execution time = CPU clock cycles x clock cycle time
End of The Chapter 1st
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