LO ie ia SRHRTFSA . Communication Between Cultures Ba Aa pT Bg PRO Ws) | Sa fale ee Spl taSREP FRAMES ELH Commuuicatiou Between Cnitures ES 1b es Third edition Larry A, Samovar, Richard E. Porter and Lisa A, Stefani BiB Se Spee Swe Mt BREE >) MN(BOMEF 155 & ABLAIY: 01-2000 ~ 1904 Fae fee A (COP) ee BS CAGZEPR/ (HEBER BL (Samovar, L. A. 63; BRR AK. ~ dba She BETTE HMAL, 2000.8 USEN 7 — S600 — 1989 —7 1.B OR OB UN BeBe - BO - EK VHD ‘P BURAS PH 9% CIP Bede: (2000) 5 68141 ©1998 Wadsworth Publishing Company, a division of ITP Inc. All rights reserved. First published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, an imprint of Thomson Learning, United States of America, Reprinted for People’s Republic of China by Thomson Learning Asia and Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press under the authorization of ‘Thomson Learning. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of the ‘Thomson Leaming Asia and Foren Language Teaching and Reseerch Press. AB EDR cl MERE HY RM SAO BS BF EAL IR A WL ARE A HB HEA, ABLE ARE HRORA CAS, IRL RARE BESCALZE RR Larry A. Samcvar Bees SR oe REA Se RAS EARRAT: SNARE SHER RAL : ALSKTT SAAR 19 3 (100089) = http://www. flepp.com. cn at it moat FD Wah: IES RAED HR 650x9BI 1/16 PBK: 21.25 Ak: 2000 FB AB 1M 2000 4F 10 AG 2 REE — =f: 50G1—11000 Ft BS: ISBN 7 ~ 5600-1989 -7/G-884 Bt: 28.9050 «ox ‘Sa eA ERAN ETT FI A HLREARS Ef £RR al fe Re EI 2 UAE EG SE Hy FF) ay Z-F FBL FRE aR tp a wah (UAE BE mA FF} SKF Ema ata AR Ee wm&YP aK tt Bete Bae HE wi ERK BH He LES PF RH ae Pe aRik H REG HAL uh EAE ER zee aka FAR SERIE vik FH & F The te A Lae REE RRA RR AR ARR ake oe wi a Be ie a aE EE TRE 497 JE A EER Hee Hie PLE & i& eRPreface by Halliday Foreign Language Teaching & Research Press is to be congratulated ies availeble to on its initiative in making these publications in lingui foreign language teachers and postgraduate students of linguistics in China. The books ere # representative selection of up-to-date writings on the most important branches of linguistic studies, by scholars who are recognized as leading authorities in their fields. The availability of such a broad range of materials in linguistics will greatly help individual teachers and students to build up their own knowledge and understanding of the subject. At the sane time, it will also contribute to the development of linguistics as a discipline in Chinese universities and colleges, helping to overcome the divisions into “English linguistics” , “Chinese linguistics” and so on which hinder the progress of linguistics as a unified science. The series is to be highly commended for what it offers to al! those wanting to gain insight into the nature of language, whetber from # theoretical point of view or in application to their professional activities a8 language teachers. It is being launched at @ time when there are increasing opportunities in China for pursuing linguistic studies, and [ am confident that it witi succeed in meeting these new requirements. M.A.K. Halliday Emeritus Professor University of Sydney FitERR MER, GRREIBRS, SRHRSARR, HM TAMARA MRR: ERB. BE MAS 7; FREPZPRABREHAST, FERRE LA BREST, PEFR LEARLE EAT. REFURB kh, STEPPER REM EFZAA, HI ADE ANS WE ER RAL, LY ROB Ah a, LEEYRREARGTMEH, PARR, RARE. KR MR ERE ASRS SARP—RRM CARE IE PES MABE ERA). KARR M 54 RIE, CHET AWS BATE 2608 R ER, RHAARNGRMAR GR RA RMR SE RY HB A A ALA OE OE HABP#AR, RERBSOERPABASRABAR Ke ANSE, METER? RHR, SRMRT BRS WH-RESRAHHS, HAAR, HU- BB RAP RHPERA UM, HAS - METS FREER. BRE. BN ALN Te HE ab DB OE AL HHRMA: RMSRCRAHBRUYRA ABT *SH. ERRRA ROTH EARRAP RAR RM A, AMA 2, ATHBE, PTFSAAB TES LMS RAMA HALE, RNB, MARAE, THERM PH B. REMORHRARARARH, EMH. ULERMARA, AEDT ARHHA, APRES BEMAW GM LER? RMR, REARS-TSARE F12WR, RieRRAPHRAS PRM, ZILAREL- EURHKE. RMNRESA-, LMA OER Eis ea Sw AGEPRHRARRLAW, CREE REZ AHAB IE EEGALAG, HKELEASHAKEEM, NH KAR, HER PSMS RMR, CARAS, TEA ERM ART ARE, REPU AHEMAR ERB BFAMNKEE, GRAMMY, (BREA 50 FAR HAH, AWHURES FECABE. EEFRHAH, RUTH - AGH. ARS ki. AAW, LS7TEUAARAR AT ABD, Mls a Chomsky; HAH, BRABUS he HRAW, HEAT RARAEKHKTRESHR, RE EFER-HK. REERE, RESRRRRPUW PERRI, OT AVA REAP AST, FEED, HHARLARBER HERA, KEE, ASHER H EW REE, AA ORG, ULM; KTARMEGRERRG, MEST BE RRP AR, tt RHAR. LRERKRA, RNP, RERM BH, RARKH, HEPRRTRAT. VKH, ANRAE SOHHAREL, PRECHAKE A. RAR PRE, RARNERRAABR, RRR REH, RNA ABR THA, AH, ERE, RRS, RH, RARKAP A We RRMA RAR, BERR RANA S H. BTFSRABEPHETFHEARAT RAE Rh, SRER TET AM, BH: EaRiERAK SR, RMKATE Ss GRE BRERA LAAME, & MHRA T AR ARMS HS FIZA-AW, RUNMARTENPANALE SH, ALE SRARPRASK, HRGHPUN, BSP SM EA PREOPERE, WERRAATENAEALH, ATH WN BLA, AREER -MERMMHERE THF EENSEMA. HHA PHALRE, PREAH B-FREGH, BRRRHARA-W, — RRA Ih &, FRE Re ABRAKH, SURARAREKAMN RAR. B SRERERREHA: RMNRBPS HAD: BABE BREACH, BERAEHEMPA SRR, HMB AR AWS R, PRRMMRREWAR, PELRARKRRA ERNMSRPRNEY NAH RE. POREPPORA Bet, CHTREAUNE EER, HANA THEME HEA H. RNR MEME H-ARE, HABER HE Bo HZ, DAR. LER FR LRA BE ee SD Flds+ & BREEAM AMR ER, RE RM AL (Wadsworth Publishing Company) Hai) iB -A- BRR (Larry A. Samovar) #3! #¢ #8 -E 25 (Richard E. Porter) @ aH) CRIME ZEB) (Communication Between Cultures) FEAR WEIS MK ILE FAV MEB, BOAR SRE MRAB, WS TAO R SCA AE RAE ON BB TE HE KBAR 1991 EH 199s AEM, SBA ASRS. AT RARER, CRG CLR wR eA A, eta ee ee, ae A a J2 (Lisa A. Stefani) WR, TAG HER RET TT. HT 1998 FRU TRS. RKGTHRAER CH, EMRaER SE Sri: “MRS MRR. Flat ki. SHIT A RABRALE, RATS ARS To, ATR TT We FRADE RAH EMR TMS LAF RR ALPE eH HA AA PLATS, HRM MRR SE. AVES = RT. RAPT ALS AA TA BEAR RE FG, KTR TRAM AE, BRT TA TE, MET MAAR”. JX ITER CS OR A, RRL SHPROAERD BORA, MANE ENT REND, EF SE SME ET, CER FE BR SIC LE EY HE ih, FERRE S MK. 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PER RAO, CRRA ET TL, A he RARE AT A KALE 9 FRR ERELURREA NASER. CRM MIEN) 3, HR, PRL RRR MBE. BE, BERT ACCRA bw. FOR, SUK ME AWE RBA F GACH ie BANC Le, (EE HAMNER AEH, IHVEMRAT-K. Ra. RELHAE E, BASRMINTERPEAREBEH. AZ, RESRAM AAPUTIE, RAE TA BE REI—BB F22DB ATLL EAR RL AS a AAT A AT BRIA, FUR, AS CAG a a9 H=Mt MMC RR BLS BS 5RU—aBsSBxX BIB AL RB Xe BREE A AG AES ALTE Ps AX RRA MMS, Auk, Ree Gao KMS MH. 1) otk, (2) BAR, G) WRIST SEDER AGA FET RS AE TT ED TREY. AE ARE LORE, TSR POR ASR LA OR Ae OD ES AI HR BEA SIM RS. AS CRA) Mae aR TES Oe LF BLES AUS Se 1 FR A DS AE TR ET BR HANES. WMS LR. AMARA Le Ws A CA SCT MARL AR ORAM. SAAD, BATA A ARR TT AT ES APE Ae 2 ET BARA ROT, BMI AERA AE. A SRS iA A A 09 TT AE A HAAR, KABA RR RAE SH SAREE. WL fee RURAL BUG IE SF OS iD, Ti i Ba PT He AE SPELL PE AE RA IG FET. ROS RR PAS. MEE — MA tT AB CRAB SMARLES EMRE, PRATT TRE REK LEASED E, MGR SAG PRI RAR ALF BH RARE. EAS BR ETE RAR LRAT BA, AB ERR —iH, SA, bt fe] #0 SPL RR AT fe 3 BI Aw HAE SE TS AR. 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SAR SACI RAS Baia APRRERMLSIM, MMAR RB. PAE AMS MER SOT OR. TE A, SRR RTE SS MRE. PRAT BN BE A BAL OC IL de AE A PARR ES SB PRR ILM BI. RAMSR HBS. PRA RLM PO REET (A, ARS PE Ae Oe TA B. RRETKLHAOTRARA, GREETS Che AT REIT EE APO UR ED ATE A fs RT ah A PSUS SERRE DAR FSR AE SD I A A BLE HS SE DU RTRAE AE AA. TR SRE SOK LR BW, SHAK PRAY PEERED AAS A, A Sh, BU SR Fe BN AAR OS HELIA RS, SE a I th ER BC Se BS BE eG SE RAMI TREE ERE LK AC KP A PR PEE EZ SKERLSSACH LARK Xk. MANSON ER SRR BS A. ASU HEE Wr A Ag eS BBO ATE eee Oe, PRR BS I a — Pla, QUIT PEPE, AE I SED RIE SAR se eo BRK BI A RRA, LA GERNOT MK BAL) AS: ERR. PAPER MAR ERR, BEAM UA RY RAEN Serr WR ATA A Xb LE RH HAE NR RRE—B. AIS I, MI ROME S Ps SA AR F25XhLHS. MAK BENE PR. RAR ae RR. TRIS EEA ATE, Ie RE SP RTP ESE TARE TA, 2 BE RAP ea i. HERMES BOG ERE. CHAAR, PAB EEE POA AIRE BERMAN S RAM SRE RERRIER, TAT FXERT ECM, RRR RRB BAe Se, FEAR SIE . LO A A SS AR OB I SEPA ZEISK ie TES GAG CRE REP, SEPT He RH ed EE EAN RRS HAT {ORLA TASER SE A ALIA TT Set 22 1a) ne Bae AZ, SMS MRF +2 RARR—HBULKRRM BS PE SCHL SE RY PEE EME TE. RADA FPETES AB A BO TAA: KBE TIPRORS, BAT PE HE BUCSRCASEROWAR, HATHAEMAR. RAS J, PULA PREMEERER. PER ARWA RH, A SME HE, SRAM, IER a: Ms Ae nei A RE RTE, ts ST Bik. BMS UE CROs SRM MAH, BR iS; JARI, RRR: Feehan, Pee ARE — ERO DRL Ae he PR (I-#E-HKAARMOTARH AHEM. PISS, ERX SR Ue OATS FAs SRA AC SET HT XHhEF ORES. F26Preface y Culnare, the acquainsing ourselves with the best thas bas been koto sand said in the workd, and thus with she history ofthe humen pint. MATTHEW ARNOLD Every tale can be wld in a diffrent way. GREEK PROVERD "We pproached she occasion of third eition with three very different responses: grat cation, excitement, and caution. Our pride and egos were delighted chat our previous efforts were successful eniough to warrant this new edition. We were also excited over the prospects of tinkering wich what we had done in che other editions. We knew we had co be prudent when advancing additional perspectives and material so that we did not abandon the orien- tation that contributed to the popularity of the last two editions. We believe chat in this third book we have been able co balance the past, present, and future of intercultural com- munication. We have retained the core of che field, added current thinking and research, and staked out some new territory. This book is still about the unique relationship between communication and culture. More specifically, itis about what happens when people from different cultures come together to share ideas, feelings, and information. Because communication and culture work in tandem, we have tried to incorporate the basic principles from both topics through- out this book. “This text is intended for those whose professional or private life is likely to include en- counters with people from cultures or co-cultures different fiom their own. We, therefore, deal with both communication among ineernational cultures and communication among co-cultures in che United States. Rationale Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when chan ges in cechnology, travel, economic and political systems, immigra- tion patterns, and population density have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, those interactions will continue ta grow in both frequency and intensity. Huston Smith said much the sate thing when he wrore, “When historians look back on our century, they may remember it most, not for space travel or the release of nuclear energy, but as the time when the peaples of the world first came to take onc another seriously."! Huston Smith, Tae World! Religions (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), 7. P27Second, people now know chat the influence of culture affects communication in subde and profound ways. Our cultural perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in that world. Approach Fundamental to our approach to intercultural communication is the belief that all forms of human communication involve action. Put in slightly different terms, communication is an activity that affects us and other people. Whether we are generating or receiving words or movements, we are creating and producing action. Therefore, any sttaly of communication must include information about the choices we make in selecting our messages, plus a dis- ‘cussion of the consequences of those choices. Hence, this book takes a view of interculearal ‘communication that is both pragmatic and philosophical. We have attempted throughout to translate ideas and concepts into practices that can improve your communication and help you attain your communication goals, We also cantinue to remind you in each chapter about the consequences of your choices. Philosophy ‘A dual philosophy has guided usin the preparation of this book. First, tis to the advantage of all 3.5 billion of us who share the planet o improve our intexpersonal and incercultural communication alsliies. The world has grown so small char we all depend on each other now. What happens in one place in the world affect: other places. Second, most of the obstacles to understanding can be overcome with motivation, knowledge, and appreciation of culeutal diversiey. We hope to supply you with al chee, CCulnute and communication, we have come to believe, involve personal matters, and we have therefore developed our own philosophy about intercultural communication. At times, 4 you read this book, you will observe thar we have openly stated our own positions, and ‘we make no apologies for them, We have also made a conscientious effort to keep our own ethnocentrism in cieck, but for chose instances in which it has accidentally emerged, we do apologize. Organization ‘We have organized the book in manageable increments that build on exch aches. What you learn in one chapter, you will carry into the next. The book is divided into four incerreated parts, Parc T introduces you to the study of communication and cultuse. After pointing our the importance of interculrural communication in Chapter 1, we use Chapter 2t0 exemine communication, culture, and intercultural communication. Part I] focuses on tha ability of culture to shape and modify out view of realty. Chaprer 3 examines how one’s culture influences perception and communication. In Chapter 4, we examine the sources of chose perceptions and behaviors by looking at cultural differences in world view, family experiences, and history. Part II puts the theory of interculcural communication ineo practice. Chaprers 5 and 6 explore differences between verbal and nonverbal messages. Chapters 7, 8, and 9 explain the sways in which cultuses respond differently to business, educational, and huulth care setings. F28In Part IV, we extend what we have leamed throughout the preceding chapters by con- verting knowledge into action. In Chapter 10, we offer guidelines for improvement as well asa philosophy for a future that we belicve will be filled with invercultural experiences. New Features ‘The third edition of Communication Acros: Culewres brings a number of significant changes and new fearures. One of the most obvious changes is that a new author has been added— Lisa A. Stefani. Lisas research and writing on the tole of context in intercultural communi- cation, combined with her extensive travel and teaching experience, gives us an in-depth examination of how one’ culsure affects the business, education, and health care settings. ‘Our addirion of new concent has been guided by the excellent feedback provided by our readers and reviewers. We have, of course, infused a great deal of current material that reflects our own interpretation and vision of she field of intercultural communication, Although some of the new features will be obvious to users of che second edition, many ‘other changes are less visible. Ler us mention a few of the alterations from both categories. Perhaps the most obvious feature of the new book is the addition of a chapter chat focuses on the role of culture in the health care setting. In the second edition, we identified the need for people to understand how the business and educational contexts reflected one’s culture. By including the health care setting, we have expanded the number of places where people from different cultures encounter each other. [n the belief that cultural similarities often contribute to successfol communication, we have, in this edition, spent much more time discussing the many ways cultures are alike. For instance, similarities in world views and cthical standards have been added to the new edition. Past editions have focused on the incteasing awareness of the guannity of imercultural contacts. We now have also turned our attention to the quality of chose contacts. Because of increased racial tensions in the United Statesand abroad, we have expanded our analysis of stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination, and cthics. ‘As more immigrants move from one culture to another, the issues of cultural adaptation take on added significance. Hence, we have added a new section on chat particular topic. “This edition also offers an increased focus on the role of co-cultures in North America. ‘Aswith prior editions, we have integtated fresh examples throughout the book. We have also added hundreds of new references to this current volume. Acknowledgments No book is the sole domain of the authors, Many people contributed to this new edition, and we would like to thank them. We begin by thanking our publisher, Wadsworth Pub- lishing Company. In this day of fada and short-lived frienddhips, we greatly appreciate an association that spans nearly thirty years and includes fourteen books. The staff and editors at Wadsworth have offered us support, sound advice, and the freedom to advance new idess. “We especially acknowledge the edivorial direction provided by Randall Adams. “Two other people have been instrumental in bringing this third evlcion 10 a rewarding conclusion. First, Michael Gillespie, by his patience and grace, once again succeeded in hav- ing us believe thar we were the only authors preparing books for Wadsworth Publishing, Company, Second, we thank Mary Douglas and Myrna Engler at Rogue Valley Publica tions; cheir editing and advice helped us fine tune this edition. F29We are grateful to our manuscript reviewers for their many helpful suggestions: Robbin Craberee, New Mexico State Universiry; Femando Delgado, Arizona State Universicy—West; Connie Hellmann, Western Connecticut State University; Marilyn J. Marelski, Boston College; and Richard L. Wiseman, California Stare University at Fullerton. Finely, we express our appreciation to the thousands of students who have read past edi- tions. They have allowed us 0 “talk co them’ about intercultural communication and, by finding something useful in our exchange, have justified yet another edition of Communien- tion Besweer Calbures. Lamy A. Samovar Richard B. Porter Lisa A. Stefani F30Part I Chapter 1 Contents Preface by Halliday F1l FERRIF FIZ SR OFIS Preface F27 Communication and Culture 1 Tntercultural Communication: Interaction in a Changing World 2 Importance of Intercultural Communication 2 The Quantity and Quality of Interculsural Contacts 3 International Contacts 3 Domestic Contacts 9 Approaching Intercultural Communication 15 The Content of Intercultural Communcation 15 A Philosophy of Ierculcural Communication 16 Studying Intercultural Communication 17 Individualism 17 Objectivity 19 Preview of the Book 19 Summary 20 Activities 21 Discussion Ideas 21 Communication and Culture: The Voice and the Echo 22 Defining Communication 22 Complexity of Communication 23 Tatentional and Unintentional Behavior 23 Components of Communication 24 Characteristics of Communication 27 No Direct Mind-to-Mind Contact 27 We Can Only Infer 28 ‘We Seek to Define the World 28 FSFo Part Ii ‘Chapter 3 Chapter 4 ‘Communication ls Sdf-Reflective 29 The Brain Is an Open System 29 ‘Communication Has a Consequence 30 We Are Alike and We Are Different 31 Understanding Culture 34 Basic Functions of Culture 34 Definitions of Culture 36 Characteristics of Culture 37 Intercultural Communication 48 A Definition of Intercultural Communication 48, Forms of Intercultural Communication 48 APreview of Principles 51 Summary 52 Activities 53 Discussion Ideas 54 The Influence of Culture 55 Cultural Diversity in Perception: Alternative Views of Reality 56 Understanding Perception 56 Culure and Perception 57 Beliefs 58 Values 60 Cultural Patterns 60 ‘Dominant American Culsaral Patterns 62 Diverse Culural Patterns 65 Discussion Ideas 86 The Deep Structure of Culture: Roots of Reality 87 World View 89 Religion as a World View 90 ‘A. Comparison of Workd Views 103Part IIT Family 105 Importance, Functions, and Types 105 Culture and Family 106 History 111 United States 112 African Americans 113 Jews 14 Russians 115 Chinese 116 Japanese 117 Summary 118 Activities 118 Discussion Ideas 118 From Theory to Practice 119 Language and Culture: Words and Meanings 120 ‘The Importance of Language 120 Language and Culture 122 Culaure and Meaning 123 Culture and the Use of Language 125 Foreign Languages and Translation 131 Problems of Translation and Equivalence 132 ‘Working with a Translaror 134 Language Diversity in the United States 136 Argot 136 Co-Cultures and Language Use 139 Summary 144 Activities 145 Discussion Ideas 145 Nonverbal Communication: The Messages of Action, Space, Time, and Silence 147 The Importance of Nonverbal Communication 147 Defining Nonverbal Communication 149 7F8 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Functions of Nonverbal Communication 150 Repeating 150 Complementing 150 Substiruting 150 Regulating 151 Concradicting 151 Nonverbal Communication: Guidelines and Limitations 151 Nonverbal Communication and Culture 152 Body Behavior 153 Space and Distance 164 Time 167 Silence 170 Summary 173 Activities 174 Discussion Ideas 174 Cultural Influences on Context: The Business Setting 175 Context and Communication 175 Culture and the Business Context 177 The International Business Context 179 Cultural Views Toward Management and Managers 179 Culvure-Specific Business Practices 182 ‘The Domestic Business Context 192 The Imporeance of Diversity in Advertising 192 Value Conflicts in the Workforce 193 Summary 196 Activities 197 Discussion Ideas 197 Culpural Influences on Context: The Educational Setting 198 Educational Differences 199 Education in Kore: 200 Education in Japan 201 Education in Mexico 203 Multicultural Education in the United States 204 Approaches to Multicultural Education 205 Learning Styles 205Chapter 9 Part IV Chapter 10 Language Diversity 210 Gender, Culture, and the Classroom 214 Multicultural Teaching Competencies 216 Classrooms of she Furure: Technology asa Bridge to Culture 218 Summary 219 Activities 221 Discussion Ideas 221 Cultural Influences on Context: The Health Care Setting 222 Explanations, Treatment, and Prevention of Illness 223 Cultural Variations in the Cause of Hiness 224 Calcural Variations in che Treatment of llness 225 Cultural Variations in che Prevention of Mines 226 Religion, Spiritualiey, and Health Care 227 Gender Roles and Health Care 229 Male Dominance in the Health Care Setting 229 Female Purityand Modesty 230 Pregnancy and Childbirth 230 The United States: Health Care ina Diverse Patient Population 232 Self-Disclosure 232 Language Barriers 232 Nonverbal Messages 233 Formality 234 Improving the Multicultural Health Care Interaction 235 Summary 236 Activities 237 Discussion Ideas 238 Knowledge into Action 239 Accepting Differences and Appreciating Similacities: APoint of View 240 APhilosophy of Change 241 ‘The Bruin Is 2n Open System 241 We Have Free Choice 242 FoF10 Potential Problems in Intercultural Communication 243 Seeking Similarities 243 Uncerainty Reduction 244 Diversity of Communication Purposes 245 Stereotyping and Prejudice 246 Power 248 Culture Shock 249 Ethnocentrism 250 Improving Intercultural Communication 251 Know Yourself 253 ‘Consider the Physical and Human Serings 255 Seek to Understand Diverse Message Systems 257 Develop Empathy 259 Encourage Feedback 262 Learn About Cultural Adaptation 263 Ethical Considerations 265 A Definition of Ethics 265 Guidelines for an Interculeural Ethic 267 Summary 271 Activities 272 Discussion Ideas 272 Notes 273 Index 293 HERS] 304PART ONE Communication and CultureCHAPTER ONE Intercultural Communication: Interaction in a Changing World y ‘Human beings draw close to one another by their common narure, but habits and customs keep them apart. CONFUCIAN SaVING Our most basic common link is thas we ail inhabir this planes, JOHN F, KENNEDY When in 422 n.c, Euripides wrote “Allis welh all yields ics place and then goes” he surely did not realize that he would someday be helping to introduce a book on inter- cultural communication, Yet he recognized that people, the world, and society are dynamic and always in a state of change. The study af interculcural communication is about change—changes in the world’s fabric of social relationships and how we must adapr to them, This book deals with the international and domestic changes thar have brought us into direct and indirect contact with people who, because of theit cultural diversity, often behave in ways thar we do not undeistand. With or without our con- sent, the last four decades have thrust us into social and professional sicsations with people who often appear alien, exotic, and pethaps even wondrous. These people may live thousands of miles away ot right next door. Importance of Intercultural Communication Smercultural communication, as you might suspect, is not new. Wandering nomads, religious missionaries, and conquering warriors have encountered people different from themselves since the beginning of time, Those mectings were frequently confus- ing and quite often hostile. In ancient times, the recognition of alien differences lacked accompanying cultural knawledge and often elicited the human propensity co respond malevolently to those differences. This notion was expressed over two thou- sand years ago by the Greek playwright Aeschylus who wrote, “Evetyone’s quick to blame the alien.” This sentiment is still a powerful element in today's social and polit- ical rhetoric. For instance, it is common in today’s society to hear that all of the social and economic problems in the United States are caused by immigrants. Despite the persistence of this notion, today’s intercultural encounters differ from earlier meetings. They are more abundant and, because of the interconnectedness of the world, more significant. We can now board a plane and fly anywhere in the world in a matter of hours, and the reality of @ global economy makes today’s contacts farChapter One Interculrural Communication: Interaction in a Changing Werld 3 more commonplace than in any other petiod of the world’s history. For example, in just a single year, 1994 to 1995, multinational companies boosted their international investments 40 percent to a record $315 billion.’ Reflect for 2 moment that the Slurpees we drink now come from over a thousand 7-Elevens owned by the Japanese, The web linking us together becomes vivid when we sec a newspaper headline thar tells us “Americans Once Again into Africa... And Staying a Lot Longer in Bosnia.” Additionally, the emergence of the information age has allowed us che epportuniry to expand our knowledge so chat the recognition of cultural differences need not result in hostile encounters. Think of the message sent to the world when U.S. and Russian astronauts-—whose countries a decade ago were archenemies—began to participate in joint space ventures, Ironic and hurrorous as it might have seemed, it reflected a new world order. The above examples emphasize the changes that have taken place throughout the world and at home. In this chapter, we explore these changes. Many of you will be able to verify the examples we offer to document these alterations in intercultural con- tact, for some of you have had firsthand experiences with people whose cultures are ifferenc from your own, Our rationale for looking at these changes is threefold. First, as the farniliar gives way to a new and different world, the entire human tace is affected. Second, many of the events that have brought diverse groups together have heen coo subile to detect and have taken place over a long period. Hence, we believe that many of them may have been overlooked. Finally, by demonstrating both the quantity and quality of these changes, we might be better able to arouse your interest in intercultural communica- tion, We begin by looking at the quantity and quality of intercultural contacts, both abroad and at home, and their implications to the study of intercultural communica- tion. Next, we alert you to some of the problems inherent in the study of intercultural communication, Finally, we offer a brief preview of the remaining chapters so that you know what lies ahead. The Quantity and Quality of Intercultural Contacts International Contacts ‘We are beginning to realize that a symbiotic relationship ties all people togecher. No nation, group, or a:lture can remain aloof or autonomous. [Fyou touch one part of the ‘world, you touch all parts. Three international developments have made intercultural contact more axiomatic and pervasive: (1) new technology and information systems. (2) changes in the world’s population, and (3) « shift in che world’s economic arena, New Technology and Information Systems ‘Technology has accelerated interculeural convact by spurring development in two areas of human endeavor: mansportation stems and communication systems. Trips once taking days are now measured in hours. Supersonic transports can place a tourist any- where in the world within hours, In fact, coday courism is one of the fastest-growing industries in the world. Ac one time, only wealchy Americans could afford to visit for- cign lands, but now people from every country in the world use air cravel as a means of discovering other cultures.4) PartOnc Communication and Culture “Today up to 40 million people use the Interner. ‘Vacationing tourists are not the only ones enjoying the increased mobility brought about by technical advances in transportation systems. Business executives and gov- ernment officials can now attend a breakfast meeting in San Francisco and a dinner conference in Paris—-during the same day. One result of these expanded travel oppor- tunities is that people are encountering cultures that sometimes seem bizarre and even mysterious. Sources of differences now go far beyond cating utensils, raditionel attire, and modes of travel. People are exposed to cultural idiosyncrasies in the perception of time and space, the treatment of women and the elderly, the ways and means of con- ducting business, and even the discovery and meaning of uth. Other developments in transportation technology are on the horizon—develop- ments that will farther inctease cultural contact. Aerospace divisions of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas have experimental machines designed power themselves verti- cally into Earth's orbit and then return to land in the same position. These develop- ments put us on the verge of being able to build inexpensive, reliable, and dependable single-stage-to-orbit space ships.” And if these vehicles live up to their promises, we will be able to reuse suborbital rockets as well as orbital vehicles for travel.? This means that travel time measured in houts today may some day be measured in min- utes: instead of taking twelve or more hours to fly from Los Angeles to Beijing, we may be able to do so in ninery minutes. With incrcascd ease of mobility, we will likely encounter new cultures at a greater rate than before. ‘New and advanced communication systems have also encouraged and facilitated cultural interaction during the past decade. Communication satellites, sophisticated television transmission equipment, and digital switching networks now allow people throughout the world to share information and ideas at the same time, The world now has 1.2 billion television sets and 180 million personal computers.* CapiralChapier One Intercultural Communication: Interaction in a Changing World 5 Cities/ABC announced in 1995 their plans to launch a national 24-hour news chan- nel to compete with CNN. Currently, CNN is available in 210 countries, and 28.5 million bouscholds vicw it in an average week. The new ABC channel is expected to be available in 90 countries wich 63 million households viewing it in an average week.® The power these television networks have on intercultural communication is significant. As U.S. News and World Report noted, “Television's impact on the world community cannot be overstated.” The development of communication satellites has also led to the expansion of the World Wide Web and the Internet computer network. A recent article in Newsaueek made the same point: “The information revolution began in the United States, and the Internet is gradually spreading it around the world.”” In the last two years, the Internet has more than tripled in size. Half the computers on the Lnternet are in the United States, and the test of the subscribers are spread out among connceted net- works in 100 countries—some 22 countries joined the Internet in 1995. Computer education for children is on the rise worldwide. “Children are heing educated in ways never conceived. They arc linked across the globe through computer literacy. Some vwill grow up never knowing a time when chey did not use the computer.”” As a result of chese computer links, many children may relate mote to their global peers than 10 their local counterparts. In addition, a well-organized international film industry has evolved that lets soci- eties share cultural experiences with one another as films arc produced. and shown around che world. Many countries also’ participace in numerous international film fes- tivals each year including such popalar and well-known competitions as Cannes and, the Hawaii International Film Festival. The New Population The second impetus co international communication has been the rapid increase in the world’s population. In 1965, there were 3.3 billion people in the world; by 1995, there were 5.7 billion people. ‘This means that last year alone, che world’s population grew by 100 million people—the largest increase ever, Worldwide, this means 2 net population increase of 3 per second, 10,600 per hour, and 254,000 per day. By the time you eat dinner tonight, 240,000 babies will have been born." Because popula- Gon increases threaten the health of the planet, nations have begun to examine issues such as finite nacuraf resources, pollution, and international conflict. Finite Natural Resources. Over the next half century, itis predicted chat water, our most precious natural resource, will replace oil as the prime trigger for international conflict. “At least 170 million people living in cities worldwide lack access to clean water for drinking, cooking, and washing; in rural arcas, the number execeds 855 mil- tion." Nations are also beginning to confronr each other aver the dwindling supply of Fish in che world’s oceans. The dectease in food sources, in part brought about by the world’s burgeoning population, is another example of how limited resources pro- duce intercultural friction. As the historian Linden notes. “As the global population dlimbs by nearly 100 million a year, starker limits appear on the horizon, and the potential for strife and disorder rises.”!? Negotiating these “limits” and avoiding “strife and disorder” are among the goals of intercultural communication. When we consider that 1 billion people worldwide lack sufficient food to meet energy and protein requirements for a productive and healthy Hfe, it is easy to see how food insecurities6 ParcOne Communication and Culane For the first time in history, people are beginning ro realize thac the world is running out of space. — Ss) ——_—<$<— could pit nation against nation. 3 Finite nauural resources provide yet another reason for people to come together for international understanding Pollution. The media are replete with examples of environmental issues, such as pol- lution, that affect all cultures. For example, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) announced in September 1995 thar the Antarctic azane hole is already twice the size ir was last year—now at 3.9 million square miles, it is as big as Europe and still growing.” It has become clear that pollution does not observe geographic and.cul- tural boundaries. This and other environmental issues such as destruction of rain- forests, pollution of oceans and rivers, extermination of valuable plants and animals, the greenhouse effect, dumping of toxic wastes, and lax enforcement of regulations for nuclear plants affect the entire planet. Nations are beginning to realize that we must ‘work together to solve these problems or face common disaster. International Conflict. As the population of the world has increased, it has become more difficult co remain detached and isolated from global tensions and conflices. Recent events have given credence to the axiom that hostilicy anywhere has the poten- tial to become hostility everywhere. As a recent article in U.S. News and World Report pointed out, “Elare-ups in Zaire are dangerous because they could spill aver into any of nine neighbors.”"> The article reminds us chat the ‘United States, although thow- sands of miles away, is also a “neighbor.” Peacekeeping in Bosnia, “ethnic cleansing” in Macedonia and Kosovo, tensions between Israel and Syria in che Golan Heights, and conflict berween China and its “province in rebellion,” Taiwan, represent the potential for worldwide military involvement, Further, continued threats by Saddam Hussein in Iraq, Africa’s famines and civil disosder, the movement of North Korea's militaryChapter One Intercultural Communication: Interaction in 2 Changing World 7 Worldwide there is 2 net population increase of 3 babies per second, 10,600 pet hour, and 254,000 per day. into the Demilitarized Zone, continued conflict in Russia as it attempts to adjust toa markct cconomy, increased terrorism, and civil, religious, and tribal wars in third world councries all present passibilities for global conflict.'° Abroad bombs arc planted in the Paris Metro, and poison gas in the Tokyo subway. These are the urban equivalents of the guns and machetes of tribal warfare in the deserts and jungles, And ar home {in the United Scaes), what an irony that fertil- izet, which is supposed to promote life, is turned into an explosive instrument of deach.!7 Nuclear capability also presents unlimited potential for global conflict. Newsweek issued a special sepore in July 1995 called “Nuclear Nations”: “With a leaky nuclear Russia and renegade states in search of the bomb, the risks may be greater today than ever before.”!® Global tensions prompted President Clinton in October 1995 to address the largest gathering of world leaders in history and call for an international war on crime." This conference represents yet another example of how events in one part of the world, in this case crime, couch all parts of the world. In December 1995, The Christian Science Monitor reported another positive developmett: A largely unseen, but significant and hopeful private force for taclding world prob- lems is developing, It involves the quice efforts of some of che most expericn: former and present leaders (including Mikhail Gorbachev, Margaret Thatcher, and George Bush} ftom at least 50 countries linked together in a quest to shape expert recommendations for making life on che planet safer and saner.> “Tension, conflict, and hostility are not new to the 1990s. As Schlesinger points out, “The hostility of one wibe for another is among the most instinctive human reac- tions."?) When people of different nationalicies and ethnic origins, who frequently8 ParOne Communication and Culture speak different languages and hold different convictions, attempr to work and live cogether, conflicts can easily arise. “Unless a common purpase binds chem together,” Schlesinger said, “ttibal hostilities will drive them apart. Ethnic and racial conflict, it seems evident, will now replace the conflict of ideologies as the explosive issue of our times. "22 Indeed, nationalism and cthnicity ate responsible for the fragmentation of na- tions, Nationalist fever and ethnic passions seethe around the globe. Seldom a day passes without new reports of interethnic conflict. The world in which we live is beset by an increasing polyethnic norm of human society. Today fewer than 10 per- cent of the world’s 186 countrics are ethnically homogeneous, and the rest are multi- ethnic states.”? Many major conflicts tbat are being fought within states are sparked by issues of ethnicity. Ethnicity is the primary cause of ongoing violence in Nosthern Ireland, South Aftica, and the Balkans.* The potential for cultural conflict is also evident when we consider the peacekeeping missions in many parts of rhe world. The recent explosion at a major military facility in Saudi Arabia demonstrates tha rerrorist acts and the growing threat from nuclear and biological weapons affect us all. Thus, although many intercultural contacts have been productive and bettered humankind, there is still much improvement to be made in the arca of international communication. The New Economic Arena A Russian proverb states, “Joha has one custom and Jack another.” We can easily extend this saying to che cultural context of the business secting. where different cultures come together to communicate. Changes in the international business com- munity, coupled with new alignments among import and export countries, have compelled the United States to reexamine what President Coolidge called “the business of America.” For many years, the United Srates prospered by relying primarily on its huge internal market. In the early 1960s, che market expanded from the United States to the world. Globalization expanded, and the size and num- ber of multinational corporations increased rapidly? As Harris and Moran note, “People ate increasingly communicating across cultures.”*® They point out that “there are morc than 37,000 transnational corporations with 207,000 foreign al- filiates.27 The days of producing and selling goods solely on American soil are gone forever. Multinational corporations now participate in various international business ar- rangements such as joint ventures, licensing agreements, turnkey projects, subcon- tracts, and management contracts. We offer one more example ta make the point that cach country’s economy is now tied to che economic fortunes of athers. On Friday, Februaty 4, 1994, the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) Dow Jones Average dropped 96.24 points. On Monday, February 7, the first day of stock trading follow- ing the NYSE drop, Asian stock markets declined as well. In early trading, New Zealand’s stock marker fell 47.74 points. By midday, markers in Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok, South Korea, and Japan also registered declines. Although this may have been what analysts call a knee-jerk reaction, it vividly illustrates the inter- connectedness of the world cconomy.* As Professor Rohe-Arriaza says, “There's grow- ing recognition of the inter-connectiveness of all this, of corporate decisions made here with results happening a long ways away”?Chapter One Intercultural Communication: Interaction in a Changing World 9 ‘These and countless other economic ties mean that it would not be unusual for you to work for an organization that does business in many countries or for you to conduct business in remote parts of the world. In Chapter 7, we say more about your role in the business secting. Domestie Contacts ‘As changes took place throughout the world during the last few decades, s0 too was the landscape of the United States altered by intercultural issucs. Within our own boundaries, people were now redefining and rethinking the meaning of the word American. That word could he used to describe a homogeneous group of people. The recognition chat Americans come in different colors and from diverse cultural back- grounds reverberated through the country. From all ovcr the world, people from a Jarge variety of cultures were now calling the Uniced States their home. At the same time this pattern was emerging, co-cultures thar, for a host of reasons, had remained silent for years, now asked—and at times demanded—to be heard. The members of these co-culeurcs, like che members of the dominant culture, shared perceptions, val- ues, modes of communication, and lifestyles that made them unique. To beter understand the impact of chese groups, we look first at the immigrants and chen examine some co-cultures in the United States. Finally, we consider three primary arenas for domestic intercultural contact between these groups and the dominant culeate Immigration USS. policy has made it relatively easy for people from other countries to move here. In fact, “a large share of Americans were forcign born earlier in this century.”” Although che percentage of immigrants dropped after che 1930s, the numbers grew drastically in the 1990s. Today, the U.S. population annually increases by a net figure of 3 million people. “According to che Census Bureau in 1994, 8,7 percent of Ameri- cans were born in other countries.”>"‘The immigration rate is high because the United States permits more legal immigration than the rest of the world combined. Many observers believe that there will continue co be an increase in immigration to America because the rest of the world does not welcome foreigners to che degree found in the United States. From Hong Kong to Western Europe, foreigners are finding the doors closed. As Time magazine noted, “With millions of people in search of asylum, com- passion is drying up." Hence, many of che world’s current 15 to 18 million refugees will immigrate to the United States, [n 1995, non-Hispanic whites accounted for approximately 73.6 per- cent of the toral population of the United States, a figure that is expected to drop to 52,8 percent by 2050.39 Berween 1983 and 1991, over 7.8 million iamigrants came to the United States from Asia, Mexico, the Caribbean, Europe, Central America, South America, Africa, and the Soviet Union. ‘Although immigrants to the United States arrive from many different places, most come from Southeast Asia and Lacin America. The Latino population. which is the fastest growing in the United States, now approaches 28 million. These numbers rep- resent people from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and South America. Immigsation sta- tistics provide a net population growth of 325,000 Latinos yearly, which combined10 Part One Communication and Culture with $50,000 annual Lating births adds 900,000 co the Latino population exch year?" Not only is the United States the fastest-growing developed nation, but the bitthrate of many new immigrants outpaces that of che white population, significantly affecting the demographics of the cnvire North American continent, Because of immi- gration and birthrates, ethnic populations aze increasing, at a rate much faster chan that of the dominant culture. The late journalist Walter Lippman commented: “The reat social adventure of America is no longer the conquest of the wilderness, but the absorption of fifty different peoples.” ‘Wichin the United States, immigration has altered the number of intercultural contacts involving Americans, This fact was emphasized in a special issue of Time magazine entitled “The New Face of America” in which the author, Wacenberg, labeled America “the first universal nation, the first truly multi-culrural sociery marked by unparalleled diversity."*® Thus, immigration has brought us into contact with more and varied culcures Co-Caltures and Recognition In this section, we briefly examine some North American co-cultures that have become prominent in che Unizec States partly becaase of their numbers and partly because of their lack of subscription to many of the mainstream heliefs, attitudes, and values. Although there are many other co-culeures in the United States, the four we consider—Latinos, African Americans, women, and gays and jesbians—have become incceasingly prominent because of their demands for equality. The values and beliefs from these four co-cultures often complicate relational dynamics within the United States. We discuss those dynamics as we look at each co-culture. Latinos. Although Latinos in the United States come from a wide variety of national origins, ewo prominent issues coromon to this co-culture create tuthnlence in the qual- ity of interactions in American sociery: (1) illegal immigration and (2) English as a national language. First, at least 300,000 Latinos enter the United States illegally each year—“half by crossing into cities like San Dicgo, half by enteting legally and over- staying their visas."” Most Latino immigrants come here legally, but those who come to the United States illegally receive far more attention. Nonetheless, the large number of illegal immigrants constitutes an intercultural crisis, since they are che target of anci- Latino feeling and rhetoric. Second, many Latinos have retained their native language rather than adopting Englisb. Of che nation’s two latgest cities, Spanish is the second largest native language at 10.7 percent in New York and 42.7 percent in Los Angeles.*® Many North Americans believe that lack of a shared national language is decrimencal to a unified society. As we sec in later chapters, businesses, schools, and health care organizations are struggling to find an equitable solution to the issue of language diver- sity. Communication will be a crucial part of orchestrating a solution. African Americans, The African American population is now over 30 million and accounts for 12 percent of the total U.S. population, Prior to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Afican Americans and members of the dominant culture had only limited con- tact. Since that time, both groups have interacted with much greater tegularity. How- ever, as is often the case when ewo diverse cultures come into contact, not all the encaunters have been successful. Two important perceptual issues are at the heart of