INDUSTRIAL CONTROL

ETS515
BY
Ts Ir Dr KHAIRUL AZMAN AHMAD
0134885929/[email protected]
Room No: 4.10, Floor 4, Bangunan Perdana, UiTM Pulau Pinang.
Introduction to Control System
• Control system?
A control system is a system or process that manages, directs, or
regulates the behavior of other systems or processes. It is an
engineering field that involves the design, analysis, and implementation
of systems that control or regulate physical processes.
 Control systems are used in a wide range of applications, from simple household appliances like
thermostats and light dimmers to complex industrial processes like manufacturing, transportation, and
power generation.
Control Fan Speed

Fan controller Fan Motor Fan Speed

Thermistor
Control Air-Conditioner

Set temperature Microcontroller Compressor

The basic components of a control system include input, output, and a feedback mechanism that compares the
output with the desired input. The input to the system is typically a signal or data that represents the desired state or
behavior of the system, while the output is the actual state or behavior of the system. The feedback mechanism is
used to compare the output with the desired input and make any necessary adjustments to the system to bring the
output closer to the desired state or behavior. This process is repeated continuously to maintain the desired state or
behavior of the system.
There are two main types of control systems:
open-loop control systems and closed-loop
control systems. Open-loop control systems
operate without feedback,

while closed-loop control systems use

feedback to adjust the system's output.
Open loop control system Closed-loop control systems are generally
more accurate and reliable than open-loop
control systems, but they are also more
complex and expensive to design and
implement.

Closed loop control system

A control system typically consists of four main components:

Input: The input is the signal or data that is fed into the control system. This could be a physical measurement
such as temperature or pressure, or it could be a set of instructions from a human operator.

Controller: The controller processes the input and determines what action should be taken to achieve the
desired output. The controller could be a simple electronic circuit or a complex computer program.

Output: The output is the result of the control system's actions. This could be a physical movement of a
machine, a change in temperature, or any other measurable effect.

Feedback: Feedback is used to compare the output to the desired result and adjust the system accordingly. This
could involve measuring the output and comparing it to a setpoint or using sensors to detect changes in the
environment.

Overall, the control system takes input, processes it using a controller, produces an output, and uses feedback to
adjust the system and achieve the desired result.
Here are some common terms used in control systems:

Control: The act of managing or regulating a system or process to achieve a desired outcome.

Setpoint: The desired value or goal that the control system is trying to achieve.

Feedback: Information about the current state of the system that is used to adjust the control system's output.

Error: The difference between the setpoint and the actual value of the output.

Open-loop control: A control system that does not use feedback to adjust its output.

Closed-loop control: A control system that uses feedback to adjust its output.

Proportional control: A type of control that adjusts the output in proportion to the error.

Integral control: A type of control that adjusts the output based on the accumulated error over time.

Derivative control: A type of control that adjusts the output based on the rate of change of the error.

Transfer function: A mathematical representation of how the input of a system is transformed into the output of the system.

Stability: The ability of a control system to remain in a desired state without oscillations or instability.

Response time: The time it takes for a control system to respond to changes in the input and reach a new steady state.

These are just a few of the many terms used in control systems, and their meanings may vary depending on the specific context and application.
A transfer function is a mathematical representation of how the input to a system is transformed into the output of the system. Here's an
example of a transfer function:

Consider a simple system that takes an input voltage, processes it through a resistor and a capacitor, and produces an output voltage. The
transfer function for this system can be expressed as:

H(s) = Vout(s) / Vin(s) = 1 / (1 + RCs)

where Vin(s) and Vout(s) are the Laplace transforms of the input and output voltages, respectively, s is the Laplace operator, R is the
resistance of the resistor, C is the capacitance of the capacitor, and H(s) is the transfer function.
In this example, the transfer function shows how the output voltage depends on the input voltage and the values of the resistor and
capacitor. By analyzing the transfer function, we can understand how the system responds to different input signals, and we can design the
system to meet specific performance requirements.

For instance, we can observe that the transfer function has a pole at s = -1/RC, which means the system has a natural frequency of 1/RC. We
can use this information to design a filter that attenuates high-frequency signals by selecting appropriate values of R and C.
This is just one example of a transfer function, and there are many other types of systems with different transfer functions that can be
analyzed and designed using control theory.
The s-plane is a graphical representation of the Laplace transform of a transfer function and is a useful tool for analyzing the stability of a control system. Here's an example of how to use the s-
plane to determine the stability of a system:

Consider a second-order system with transfer function:

G(s) = K / (s^2 + 2ζω_n s + ω_n^2)

where K is the gain, ω_n is the natural frequency, and ζ is the damping ratio. The system is stable if all the poles of the transfer function are located in the left half of the complex plane.

To analyze the stability of the system using the s-plane, we first rewrite the transfer function in terms of its pole locations:

G(s) = K / [(s - p1)(s - p2)]

where p1 and p2 are the roots of the characteristic equation:

s^2 + 2ζω_n s + ω_n^2 = 0

The pole locations in the s-plane are given by p1 = -ζω_n + ω_n√(ζ^2 - 1) and p2 = -ζω_n - ω_n√(ζ^2 - 1).

If ζ < 1, the poles are complex conjugates with negative real parts, and the system is stable. If ζ = 1, the poles are real and negative, and the system is marginally stable. If ζ > 1, the poles are
complex conjugates with positive real parts, and the system is unstable.

For example, suppose we have a system with K = 10, ω_n = 5 rad/s, and ζ = 0.7. The pole locations in the s-plane are:

p1 = -1.75 + 4.15j
p2 = -1.75 - 4.15j

Both poles have negative real parts, so the system is stable.

In summary, the s-plane is a useful tool for analyzing the stability of a control system by examining the locations of the poles in the complex plane. If all the poles lie in the left half of the complex
plane, the system is stable. If one or more poles lie in the right half of the complex plane, the system is unstable.
There are several methods to determine the stability of a control system mathematically. Here are two common approaches:

Root locus analysis: The root locus is a graphical representation of the locations of the closed-loop poles of a system as a function
of a parameter, such as the gain of a controller. By analyzing the root locus, we can determine the stability of the system for
different values of the parameter. If all the closed-loop poles lie in the left half of the complex plane, the system is stable. If one
or more poles lie in the right half of the complex plane, the system is unstable.

Nyquist stability criterion: The Nyquist criterion is a graphical method for determining the stability of a system based on the
shape of the system's frequency response. The Nyquist plot is a plot of the complex plane trajectory of the frequency response of
the system as the frequency varies from zero to infinity. By analyzing the Nyquist plot, we can determine the stability of the
system. If the Nyquist plot encircles the -1 point in the complex plane in a counterclockwise direction, the system is stable. If the
Nyquist plot encircles the -1 point in a clockwise direction, the system is unstable.

Both of these methods involve analyzing the characteristics of the system's transfer function to determine the stability of the
closed-loop system. Other methods, such as the Bode plot or the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, can also be used to analyze
the stability of a control system mathematically. Ultimately, the choice of method depends on the specific characteristics of the
system and the preferences of the designer.
In control systems, response time refers to the time it takes for a system to reach a steady-state or final value in response to a
change in input or setpoint.

For example, if a temperature control system is designed to maintain a constant temperature of 25°C and the setpoint is
suddenly changed to 30°C, the response time is the time it takes for the actual temperature to reach 30°C and stabilize at that
value.

The response time can be measured in different ways, depending on the type of system and the application. For example, it can
be defined as the time it takes for the system's output to reach a certain percentage of the final value (such as 90% or 95% of the
steady-state value).

A fast response time is often desirable in control systems, as it enables the system to quickly and accurately respond to changes
in input or setpoint. However, achieving a fast response time may require trade-offs with other performance criteria, such as
stability or overshoot.
Let's consider a first-order system with transfer function:
G(s) = K / (sT + 1)

where K is the gain and T is the time constant. The response time of the system can be determined using the following formula:
t_r = 3T

where t_r is the response time, defined as the time it takes for the system to reach 95% of the final value in response to a step change in input.
To see why this formula works, consider the step response of the system:
C(s) / R(s) = G(s) / (1 + G(s)H(s))

where C(s) is the output, R(s) is the input, and H(s) is the feedback transfer function (assumed to be unity feedback in this case).
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get:
c(t) = K(1 - e^(-t/T))

where c(t) is the output response and t is the time. To find the response time,
we set c(t_r) = 0.95K and solve for t_r:
0.95K = K(1 - e^(-t_r/T))

0.05 = e^(-t_r/T)

ln(0.05) = -t_r/T

t_r = -T ln(0.05)

Using the fact that ln(0.05) ≈ -2.996, we get:

t_r ≈ 3T

Therefore, the response time of a first-order system with transfer function G(s) = K / (sT + 1) is approximately 3T, where T is the time constant. This formula can be
used to estimate the response time of a system and to design a controller to achieve a desired response time.
 Here is an example of a control system:
Let's consider a simple temperature control system for a room with a heater and a temperature sensor. The objective of the
control system is to maintain a desired temperature setpoint in the room, even if the outside temperature changes.

The control system consists of the following components:

Input: Desired temperature setpoint
Sensor: Temperature sensor that measures the actual temperature of the room
Controller: Calculates the required amount of heat to be supplied to the room based on the difference between the desired
setpoint and the actual temperature
Actuator: A heater that supplies heat to the room
Output: The actual temperature of the room
The control system works as follows:

The desired temperature setpoint is entered into the system as an input.

The temperature sensor measures the actual temperature of the room and sends it to the controller.
The controller calculates the difference between the desired setpoint and the actual temperature, and determines the required
amount of heat to be supplied to the room.
The actuator (heater) supplies heat to the room based on the signal from the controller.
The temperature sensor measures the new temperature of the room, which is sent back to the controller for comparison with
the desired setpoint.
Steps 3-5 are repeated continuously to maintain the desired temperature setpoint in the room.
A sensor is a device or component that detects and measures physical or chemical properties, such as temperature, pressure,
light, motion, sound, or other variables in the environment, and converts them into an electrical or digital signal that can be
processed, analyzed, and used for control or monitoring purposes.

Sensors are used in various applications such as industrial control systems, automotive systems, medical devices,
environmental monitoring, consumer electronics, and many others. They are essential components in the Internet of Things
(IoT) and smart devices that enable automation, data collection, and analysis, and improve efficiency and safety.

Sensors can be categorized based on their operating principles, such as resistive, capacitive, inductive, optical, magnetic,
thermal, or piezoelectric, among others. They can also be classified based on their functionality, such as proximity sensors,
temperature sensors, pressure sensors, motion sensors, and many others.

Temperature sensor Flow sensor Pressure sensor Weight sensor

There are many types of physical sensors, here are some examples:

Temperature sensors: These sensors measure the temperature of an object or environment and can be based on different principles, such as
thermocouples, thermistors, RTDs (resistance temperature detectors), or infrared sensors.

Pressure sensors: These sensors measure the pressure of a fluid or gas and can be based on different principles, such as strain gauges,
piezoelectric crystals, capacitive sensing, or vibrating elements.

Accelerometers: These sensors measure acceleration or vibration and can be used to detect motion, tilt, shock, or vibration in various
applications, such as automotive, aerospace, or consumer electronics.

Proximity sensors: These sensors detect the presence or proximity of an object and can be based on different principles, such as capacitive
sensing, magnetic sensing, ultrasonic sensing, or optical sensing.

Flow sensors: These sensors measure the flow rate of a fluid or gas and can be based on different principles, such as thermal sensing, ultrasonic
sensing, or differential pressure sensing.

Light sensors: These sensors detect the intensity, wavelength, or polarization of light and can be used for applications such as photometry,
spectroscopy, or imaging.

Humidity sensors: These sensors measure the relative humidity of the air or other gases and can be based on different principles, such as
capacitive sensing, resistive sensing, or optical sensing.

Gas sensors: These sensors detect the presence or concentration of gases in the environment and can be used for applications such as air quality
monitoring, industrial safety, or medical diagnosis.
There are several types of temperature sensors available, and some of the most common types are:

Thermocouples: A thermocouple is a type of temperature sensor that consists of two different metal wires connected at one end to create a
temperature gradient. When the temperature at the measuring junction changes, it creates a voltage difference that can be measured to
determine the temperature.

RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors): An RTD is a type of temperature sensor that uses the change in resistance of a metal wire with
temperature to determine the temperature. Platinum is a common material used for RTDs because of its linear response and high accuracy.

Thermistors: A thermistor is a type of temperature sensor that uses the change in resistance of a semiconductor material with temperature to
determine the temperature. They are commonly made of metal oxide materials, and their resistance decreases as temperature increases.

Infrared Sensors: Infrared sensors detect temperature by measuring the amount of infrared radiation emitted by an object. They can be non-
contact sensors and are often used in applications where the temperature needs to be measured from a distance.

Bimetallic strips: A bimetallic strip is a temperature sensor that consists of two different metals bonded together. When the strip is heated, the
metals expand at different rates, causing the strip to bend, which can be used to detect temperature changes.

IC Temperature sensors: These are semiconductor sensors that measure the temperature based on the voltage output from a diode or transistor.
They are often small and low-cost and can be integrated into circuits or devices.

Each type of temperature sensor has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of sensor depends on the specific application,
accuracy requirements, response time, and cost considerations.
There are several types of flow sensors available, and some of the most common types are:

Differential Pressure Flow Sensors: Differential pressure flow sensors measure the difference in pressure across a restriction in the flow path, such
as an orifice plate or a venturi tube. This pressure difference is proportional to the flow rate, and the sensor measures the pressure difference
and calculates the flow rate accordingly.

Turbine Flow Sensors: Turbine flow sensors use a rotating turbine to measure the flow rate of a fluid. As the fluid flows through the sensor, it
spins the turbine, and the rate of rotation is proportional to the flow rate.

Electromagnetic Flow Sensors: Electromagnetic flow sensors use Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction to measure the flow rate of
conductive fluids. A magnetic field is applied to the fluid, and the voltage generated by the fluid flowing through the magnetic field is proportional
to the flow rate.

Ultrasonic Flow Sensors: Ultrasonic flow sensors use sound waves to measure the flow rate of a fluid. The sensor sends ultrasonic waves through
the fluid, and the time it takes for the waves to travel upstream and downstream is measured. The difference in travel time is proportional to the
flow rate.

Thermal Flow Sensors: Thermal flow sensors measure the flow rate by measuring the amount of heat removed from a heated element by the
fluid flowing past it. The heat transfer is proportional to the flow rate, and the sensor measures the temperature difference and calculates the
flow rate accordingly.

Vortex Flow Sensors: Vortex flow sensors use the von Karman vortex shedding principle to measure the flow rate of a fluid. The fluid flowing past
a bluff body generates vortices that are shed alternately from each side of the body. The frequency of vortex shedding is proportional to the flow
rate.

Each type of flow sensor has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of sensor depends on the specific application, accuracy
requirements, response time, and cost considerations.
There are several types of pressure sensors available, and some of the most common types are:

Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors: Strain gauge pressure sensors measure the strain of a diaphragm or a bending beam due to applied pressure. The
strain is converted into an electrical signal using a Wheatstone bridge circuit, and the signal is proportional to the pressure.

Capacitive Pressure Sensors: Capacitive pressure sensors use a diaphragm and a fixed electrode to create a variable capacitor. The capacitance
changes with applied pressure, and the change in capacitance is converted into an electrical signal that is proportional to the pressure.

Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors: Piezoresistive pressure sensors use a diaphragm with an integrated piezoresistive element that changes its
resistance when pressure is applied. The change in resistance is converted into an electrical signal that is proportional to the pressure.

Optical Pressure Sensors: Optical pressure sensors use the changes in optical properties of a material due to applied pressure. The pressure
causes a change in the refractive index or the thickness of the material, which is detected and converted into an electrical signal that is
proportional to the pressure.

Vibrating Element Pressure Sensors: Vibrating element pressure sensors use a vibrating element, such as a tuning fork, that is affected by the
applied pressure. The frequency of the vibration changes with the pressure, and the change in frequency is converted into an electrical signal that
is proportional to the pressure.

Resonant Wire Pressure Sensors: Resonant wire pressure sensors use a wire that is resonated at its natural frequency. The pressure changes the
wire tension and causes a change in the resonant frequency, which is detected and converted into an electrical signal that is proportional to the
pressure.

Each type of pressure sensor has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of sensor depends on the specific application, accuracy
requirements, response time, and cost considerations.
An actuator is a device that converts electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic energy into mechanical motion to perform a specific task.
It is an essential component of a control system that receives signals from a controller and generates a physical output, such as
linear or rotational motion, to control a process variable.

Actuators can be classified into several types based on their mechanism of operation, such as:

Electric actuators: These use an electric motor to generate motion, which can be either linear or rotary.

Hydraulic actuators: These use hydraulic fluid to generate motion, which can be either linear or rotary.

Pneumatic actuators: These use compressed air to generate motion, which can be either linear or rotary.

Piezoelectric actuators: These use the piezoelectric effect to generate motion, which is typically very precise and can be either
linear or rotary.

Shape memory alloy (SMA) actuators: These use SMA materials that can change shape when subjected to heat, to generate
motion.

Actuators are used in various applications, such as robotics, aerospace, manufacturing, automotive, and many others.
Here are case studies of closed-loop control systems that you can select as your assignment 1:

Determine, explain and show in block diagram the setpoint, controller, process, actuator and sensor of systems given below.

1. Cruise control in a car: This is a closed-loop control system that maintains a constant speed of a car by adjusting the throttle
and brake based on feedback from speed sensors. The desired speed is set by the driver and the controller adjusts the throttle
and brake to maintain that speed.

2. Automatic light dimming: This is a closed-loop control system that adjusts the brightness of a light based on feedback from a
light sensor. The desired brightness is set by the user and the controller adjusts the power to the light source to maintain that
brightness.

3. Temperature control in a chemical reactor: This is a closed-loop control system that maintains a desired temperature in a
chemical reactor by adjusting the heating or cooling system based on feedback from temperature sensors. The desired
temperature is set by the operator and the controller adjusts the heating or cooling system to maintain that temperature.

4. Robot arm position control: This is a closed-loop control system that controls the position of a robot arm by adjusting the
torque applied to the joints based on feedback from position sensors. The desired position is set by the user and the controller
adjusts the torque to maintain that position.