Mathematical Language and Symbols

Contents

A. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

B. Mathematical Expressions and Mathematical Sentences
C. Conventions in the Mathematical Language
D. Four Basic Concepts: Sets, Functions, Relations, Binary
Operations

The first part of the lesson provides similarities and peculiarities between the English
Language and the Language of Mathematics. This chapter enables us to be enlightened on
the proper use of the Language of Mathematics and it is hoped that everybody becomes well-
versed of the subject matter on hand.

English Language
Nordquist (2018) described English language as a primary language of several
countries in the world. This language serves as a common denominator between different
nationalities when they meet while travelling, doing business or in other contexts.

English Noun and English Sentence

Diagram from The Language of Mathematics (Devlin, Keith)

In communicating with one another, generally, we talk about something, a place, a

person, a physical entity or an abstract idea. This “something” is called a noun.

Definition: A noun is a name given to an object of interest. This object of interest may
refer to a person, a place, or a thing. It can either be a proper noun or a common noun.
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Remark: It does NOT make sense to ask whether that object of interest is true or false.
Examples:
a. Juan
b. dog
c. New York

A group of words containing an object of interest and what it is about the object is
called a sentence.
Definition : A sentence is a set of words that states a complete thought. It typically has
an object of interest (subject) and what it is about the object of interest (predicate).

Remark: It makes sense to ask about the truth of the sentence.

Examples:

a. Laoag City is the capital of Ilocos Norte.

b. The National Bible Day is a special non-working holiday.
c. A quadrilateral is any 4-sided figure.

Mathematical Language
Analogous to the English language is a system used by mathematicians to
communicate mathematical ideas among themselves. This is known as the Language of
Mathematics, or simply Mathematical Language.
This language includes words, technical terms, abstract codes and grammatical
conventions peculiar to mathematical discourse supplemented by a highly specialized
symbolic notation.
Mathematical language uses symbols that are necessary in formulating mathematical
equations and describing mathematical relations and other properties.

Some of the symbols commonly used in Mathematics are the following:

a. Digits/Numbers: 0, 1, 2, ... , 9
b. Letters:
c. Operations on digits or sets: +, -, x, ÷, ∩, ∪,…
d. Letters with special uses such as the following:
𝑒 – a mathematical constant that is the base of the natural logarithm; the unique
number whose natural logarithm is equal to one. It is approximately equal to 2.71828,
𝑔 – acceleration due to gravity at the surface of Earth. It has a standard value defined
as 9.80665 m/s2.
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e. Greek letters: 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, 𝛿, 𝜀
f. Grouping symbols: { }, ( ), [ ]
g. Equality and order relations: =, <, >, ≤, ≥
h. Logic symbols: ∀, ∃, ∧, ∨, →, ↔

Mathematical language also has a rich vocabulary of technical terms. Sometimes,

this vocabulary contains words like in everyday English but the meaning they convey are
different.
Examples:
Vocabulary English Mathematics
To make something flat or Can be written as 2𝑘, where 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
Even
smooth
Set of relation television/radio Sum of the terms of an infinite
Series
programs sequence
Capacity to direct others The number of times a base is
Power
multiplied by itself
Furniture with a flat top and Mathematical information
Table
legs organized in columns and rows
Yard Grassy area around a house A unit of measure equal to 3 feet
Angle A viewpoint Formed by 2 rays joined at a vertex
Volume How loud something is The number of cubes
The vegetable of a source of A point where a function is zero
Root something
Retrieved from https://matheducators.stackexchange.com/questions/10832/examples-of-vocabulary-that-have-different-meanings-in-
mathematics-compared-to/10858

A. CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that
mathematicians like to express. It is:
1. Precise
Being precise is to be able to make very fine or very detailed distinctions.
Ordinary speech is full of ambiguities while mathematical language is not. In
short, there is accuracy in precision.
2. Concise
Language may be flowery or verbose sometimes, especially in the English
language. However, in mathematics, language is said to be concise. To be
concise is to be able to say things briefly but substantially.
3. Powerful
The language of mathematics, when well understood (say definitions, concepts
and principles), translation of situations into symbols and equations (numerals
and other operation symbols) become relatively easy.
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B. MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS AND MATHEMATICAL SENTENCES

Diagram from The Language of Mathematics (Devlin, Keith)

Definition : A mathematical expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun;

it is a proper arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object
of interest.
Examples of mathematical expressions include numbers, sets, functions, relations
and matrices such as the following:
Number: 10 -105
Set: {3} {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, … }
Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3 sin(𝑥)
Relation (Ordered Pair): (𝑥, 𝑦) (−2, 0.0625)
1 0 0
𝑎 𝑏
Matrix: [ ] [0 1 0 ]
𝑐 𝑑
0 0 1

MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS CAN HAVE DIFFERENT NAMES

The name we use depends on what we are doing with the expression.
NUMBERS
Example 1: The number 10 can be written as

7+3 √100 50 ÷ 5 23 + 2 (1 + 2)2 + 1

SETS
Example 1: {..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . ..} and the set of integers ℤ
Example 2: The set of distinct letters in the word “mathematics” and {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}
FUNCTIONS
Example 1: 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 𝑥
Example 2: sin(𝜃) and 1/ csc(𝜃)
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RELATIONS
Example 1: (2, -1) and (𝑥, 1 − 𝑥) where 𝑥 = 2
Example 2: The point of intersection of the relations defined by 𝑅1 : 𝑦 = −2 and 𝑅2 : 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 ;
and the ordered pair (4, -2)
Definition: Simplifying an expression is rewriting the expression in a simpler way,
combining some components by applying operations which leads to less mathematical
symbols and in simplest form.
The word “simpler” can have different connotations:
a) fewer symbols
Example: 1 + 2 + 3 and 6
6 uses fewer symbols.
b) fewer operations
Example: 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 and 4 ∙ 3
4 ∙ 3 uses fewer operations.
c) better suited for current use
1 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡
Example: The expression and 1
12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
1 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡
may be preferred than 1 if we need to convert units of inches
12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

to units of feet.
d) preferred style/format
Example: The fractions 2/4 and ½
½ is more preferred since it is in reduced form

Definition: A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence. It is the proper

arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought.

Remark: In a similar manner to the English language, it makes sense to ask about the truth
of a sentence in mathematical language.
Examples: The following are mathematical sentences.
1. 2 + 5 = 6 (False)
2+5=7 (True)
2. – 23 = –8 (True)
3. 0 ∈ 𝜙 (False)
𝜙 is the so-called empty set, a set without any elements, that is, 𝜙 = { }
4. –5 ∈ ℂ where ℂ is the set of complex numbers (True)
5. 3 ∈ (3, 5] (False)
3 is the left endpoint of the interval which is not included since it is open
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6. √−4 ∈ 𝑍 (False)
√−4 = ±2i and ±2i are imaginary numbers or complex numbers.
7. If 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 2, then 𝑓(2) = 0 . (True)
1
8. 𝑦 = − 𝑥 is the inverse of 𝑦 = 2𝑥. (False)
2
1
The inverse of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 is 𝑦 = 𝑥.
2

9. (−1,2) ∉ {(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1} (True)

10. The x and y intercepts of the line y = x + 1 are the points
(0, 1) and (1, 0). (False)
The x-intercept is (–1, 0) and y-intercept is (0, 1).

C. CONVENTIONS IN THE MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

Grammar as everyone knows has long been associated with errors and correctness.
It has been regarded as a very important subject of study because it makes it possible for
everyone to talk about language, not only in English but also in Mathematics (thought.com).
According to the Cambridge dictionary, grammar is the use of the rule about how
words change their form and combine with other words to make sentences.
Analogous to the English definition of grammar in mathematics are structural rules
called conventions which govern the use of symbols representing mathematical objects.

Definition: A mathematical convention is a notation or usage which is generally agreed

upon by mathematicians.

In general, mathematics consists primarily of two things: numbers and symbols.

These mathematical symbols already existed since ancient times. They abound in all areas
of mathematics such as in algebra, geometry, calculus and others. Symbols are used to
represent values or relationships. For example, the concept of decimals or fractions are
symbolized by parts or partitions of a whole. The fraction ½ represents a value and is
equivalent to 0.5, at the same time, the symbol describes one part of a whole when divided
equally into 2. In algebra and calculus, we deal with the letters “x” or “y while in geometry, we
have symbolic representations for points using uppercase letters like P, Q, R which may
happen to be the vertices of a triangle or three collinear points. All these things are
conventional.

Therefore, in mathematics, interpretation and understanding of mathematical

concepts are very important, not so in the nature or amount of symbols involved, in order for
us to appreciate their usefulness in making mathematics much simpler.
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The succeeding section talks about four basic concepts of mathematics: sets,
functions, relations (ordered pairs) and binary operations. Conventions on the use of the
mathematical symbols of each concept are illustrated.

D. FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS

I. SETS
Definition: A set is basically a mathematical expression which refers to a well-defined
collection of distinct objects. The objects in a set are called the elements or members of
the set. Capital letters in the English alphabet is used in naming the set.
The set is said to be well-defined if it is possible to determine whether an object
belongs to a given set or not. Otherwise, it is ill-defined.
There are sets however that are commonly used in mathematics. These notations are
popularly utilized such as:
ℕ = set of natural numbers

ℤ = set of integers
ℚ = set of rational numbers

ℝ = set of real numbers

ℂ = set of complex numbers

NOTE: If S is a set and x is an element or member of the set, then we write x ∈ S.

Otherwise, x ∉ S.
Examples:
1. 4 ∈ ℚ since 4 is a rational number
2. 3 – 2i ∉ ℝ since 3 – 2i is a complex number

II. RELATIONS
Definition: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be any two sets. The product 𝑨 × 𝑩 is the set of ordered pairs
(𝑥, 𝑦) such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵. This product is referred to as the Cartesian product of sets
𝐴 and 𝐵.
Remarks:
1. In the ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑥 is referred to as the first component and 𝑦 as the second
component.
2. A Cartesian product may be formed using a single set. That is, for any set 𝐴
𝐴 × 𝐴 = { (𝑥, 𝑦)| 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 }
This product may also be written as 𝐴2 .
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Example: The xy-plane (or Cartesian plane) is the Cartesian product ℝ × ℝ. This rectangular
plane is also denoted as ℝ2 .

In getting a Cartesian product, an operation is performed by forming a set of ordered

pairs of elements in the given sets. This involves taking an element of a set and then
associate it with each and every element of the other set.

Example 1: Let A = { a, b }. Then A x A = { (a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b) }
Example 2: Let B = {1, 2, 3}. Then
B x B = { (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3) }.
Example 3: Let A = { a, b } and B = {1, 2, 3}. Then
A x B = { (a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3) }.

Remark: Cartesian products are not restricted to two sets. They can be extended to a
number of n sets, say A1, A2, … , An, forming an n-fold cross product A1 x A2 x . . . x An
whose elements are n-tuples of the form (a1, a2, . . ., an), ai ∈ A where i = 1, 2, 3, …, n.
Now, if we let A = {0, 1}, can you enumerate all the ordered triples for A x A x A or A3 ?

Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Forming the Cartesian product S x S, gives

S x S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}.

Definition: Let S be any set. A relation on S is a subset of S x S.

Different subsets can be formed from a given Cartesian product, S x S. By just looking at
the first and second components of the ordered pairs, a particular kind of relation exists. This
relation may come in any of the following forms: one-to-one relation, one-to-many relation or
many-to-one relation.

EXERCISE: Suppose that S = {1, 2, 3} and the subsets of S x S are any of the following,
describe each relation:
Relation
a. {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} __________________
b. {(3, 1), (3, 2)} __________________
c. {(1, 2), (2, 3)} __________________
d. {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} __________________

Definition: If R is a relation on the set S, that is, R⊆SxS, and (x,y)∈ R then we say that “x is
related to y” and denote this as xRy. If the relation is represented by ~, we write, “x ~ y”.
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Types of Relations
1. Reflexive: x ~ x
The relation R on the set S is reflexive if for all x ∈ S, (x, x) ∈ R.
2. Symmetric: If x ~ y then y ~ x.
The relation R on S is symmetric if for all x, y ∈ S, (x, y) ∈ R implies (y, x) ∈ R.
3. Transitive: If x ~ y and y ~ z, then x ~ z.
The relation R on the set S is transitive if for all x, y, z ∈ S, (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R,
then (x, z) ∈ R.

Example: Consider the set S = { 1, 2, 3 } and the following relations on S:

1. R = { (1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3) } is reflexive.
2. R = { (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1) } is symmetric.
3. R = { (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3) } is transitive.

Remark: If a relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, then it is an equivalence

relation. An equivalence relation is often denoted by “”.

Is R = { (1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 3), (1, 2) } an equivalence relation on the set
A = {1, 2, 3}? Verify your answer.

Equivalence relations are also applicable to infinite sets of numbers. For example, if
we consider the set of integers ℤ = {… , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, … } and the relation ~ defined as
follows:
𝑥~𝑦 means 𝑥 − 𝑦 is divisible by 5.

Then 26~6 since 26 − 6 = 20 is divisible by 5. Moreover, 6~26 since 6 − 26 = −20 is

also divisible by 5. This exhibits the symmetric property of the relation. But is this true for
all integers?
Clearly, the relation is reflexive. For any integer 𝑥, it is true that 𝑥~𝑥, that is, 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 0
is divisible by 5.
To verify transitivity, let us take the integers 26, 6 and 1. Earlier, it was shown that
26~6 and we can also verify that 6~1. If the relation ~ is transitive, then 26~1. Clearly, it
is true that 26 − 1 = 25 is divisible by 5. But is this property true for all numbers in the set
of integers?

Think of other numbers that are related to 26, 6 and 1, including negatives. Can you
add more numbers to the following list: …,–9,–4 , 1, 6, 26, …
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Given that not all integers will belong to the same list, how many sets will be formed
by the given relation? Make some observations on the sets formed.

As an exercise, show that the relation “ = “ (equality) is an equivalence relation on any

set of numbers. Are the relations “≥” and “≤” equivalence relations?

III. FUNCTIONS
Definition: A function is a relation for which each value from the set of first components of
the ordered pairs is associated with exactly one value from the set of second components
of the ordered pair.
Examples:
1. { (−1, 1 ), ( 1, 1 ), ( 0, 0 ), ( 2, 4 ) } is a function
2. { (4, 2 ), ( 4, −2 ), ( 0, 0 ), ( 16, −4 ) } is not a function

Using more rigorous mathematical terms, a function 𝑓 is a mapping from a set D (called
the domain of the function) to another set R (called the range of the function) such that
every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 is associated with a unique number 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅. The mapping is denoted as 𝑓: 𝐷 → 𝑅
and we have 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 where 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅.

Among the different forms of relations (i.e., one-to one, one-to-many, and many-to-one),
which of these satisfy the conditions of a function?

A function is often written as an equation which varies in form and degree. The
expressions present in a function can tell a lot about its behavior and can help us describe
its properties.
For example, suppose 𝑓: {0, 1, 2} → {5} where
𝑓(0) = 5
𝑓(1) = 5
𝑓(2) = 5

What do you notice about the function? Yes, the function is an example of a constant
function where 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 for every 𝑥 in the domain. Notice that every element in the domain
of the function is paired with the same element in the range.

For a better view of functions, we can look at the graph of a function, which consists
of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐷 × 𝑅 which satisfy the definition of the function 𝑓.

The graph of the function in the previous example drawn on the plane is shown in
Figure 1. Notice that the graph consists of discrete (or separate) points.
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Figure 1: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 where 𝑥 = 0, 1, 2.

We can extend this constant function 𝑓 on the set of real numbers ℝ, i.e., 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ
where 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 for all real numbers 𝑥. The graph of this function is a horizontal line parallel
to the x-axis passing through the points (0, 5), (1, 5) and (2,5) as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The graph of the constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 over ℝ

Example: Let 𝑓 ∶ {1,2,3, … ,10} → ℝ where

𝑓(1) = 2
𝑓(2) = 4
𝑓(3) = 6
⋮
𝑓(10) = 20

Can you represent the function 𝑓? Is the graph of the function a set of discrete points or a
continuous line?
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In mathematics, we see different graphs of functions: discrete, continuous lines or

curves, and some are combinations these. Functions that we often encounter involve
polynomials like those of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 where 𝑎, 𝑏 are constants (fixed numbers).
Functions that have this form are referred to as linear functions. On the plane, the graph of
such functions are lines which basically explains the term “linear”. In the case of discrete
points, the graph follows a linear pattern.

Is the function defined in the previous example a linear function? Can you give an example
of a linear function in ℝ × ℝ and draw the graph?

Consider the following function:

𝑓: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → ℝ} where

f(0) = 0
f(1) = 1
f(2) = 4
f(3) = 9
f(4) = 16
f(5) = 25

Can you represent the function? Extend this function to the set of real numbers and
sketch the graph. Is it linear?

EXERCISE. Represent the given functions below and sketch their graphs.

1. Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ where f(-2) = -3, f(0) = 1, f(5) = 11. [Hint: It is a linear function.]

2. Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ where f(0) = 1, f(1) = 3, f(2) = 9. [Hint: It is a quadratic function.]

3. Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ where f(-1) = -1, f(-1/2) = -0.625, f(0) = 0, f( 2) = 8, f(3) = 27. What type
of function is f?

IV. BINARY OPERATIONS

This section deals with combining two elements in a given set S and producing a third
element that is again in S. The most basic of such processes is performed in arithmetic, i.e.,
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Definition : Let 𝑆 be a set. A binary operation ∗ on 𝑆 is a function ∗ : 𝑆 × 𝑆 → 𝑆 such that ∗ is

defined for every pair of elements in 𝑆, and ∗ uniquely associates each pair of
elements of 𝑆 to some element of 𝑆.
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To show that ∗ is a binary operation, one needs to satisfy the two conditions below:
i. (Closure). For any two elements 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the set 𝑆, the product 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 is an element
of 𝑆.
ii. (Uniqueness). Given that 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑐, if there exists another element 𝑑 ∈ 𝑆
such that 𝑑 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏, then 𝑑 = 𝑐.
Examples:
1. Let 𝑆 = ℝ and ∗ be “+” (usual addition). For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
This is a binary operation.
2. Let 𝑆 = ℤ and ∗ be “⋅” (usual multiplication). For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.
This is a binary operation.
3. Let 𝑆 = ℤ and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = max{𝑎, 𝑏}, the largest of a and b. This is a binary operation.
4. Let 𝑆 = ℤ and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎/𝑏. This is not a binary operation as 𝑎/𝑏 is not defined when
𝑏 = 0 (condition ii) apart from the fact that 𝑎/𝑏 is not always in ℤ (condition i).

BINARY OPERATIONS FOR SMALL SETS

For some finite sets, binary operations can be presented using a “multiplication table”.
The resulting entries in the table after performing the operation can provide relevant
information regarding the set.

Examples:

1. Let 𝑆 = {−1, 0, 1} and the operation  be the usual multiplication. Show that  is a binary
operation by means of a multiplication table.
Solution:
 -1 0 1
-1 1 0 -1
0 0 0 0
1 -1 0 1

One can easily check on the table that the product (as the operation is multiplication) of
each pair of elements of 𝑆 produces a third element of the set.

2. Let ℤ4 = { 0, 1, 2, 3 } and +4 be the operation that gives the remainder when the sum
of two elements in ℤ4 is divided by 4 (e.g., 2 +4 3 = 1). Show that +4 is a binary operation
on ℤ4 . (This is left for the student as an exercise.)
 14

PROPERTIES OF BINARY OPERATIONS

A binary operation may exhibit several properties but not necessarily all of the
following:
Definition: Let ∗ be a binary operation on a set 𝑆. Then:
a. ∗ is commutative if for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.
b. ∗ is associative if for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐.
c. An element 𝑒 of 𝑆 is an identity for ∗ if for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎.
d. If 𝑒 is an identity for ∗ and 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, then 𝑎 is invertible if there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 such that
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒. The element 𝑏 is called the inverse of 𝑎.

Examples:

1. Let 𝑆 = ℝ and a ∗ b = a + b.

Suppose that a, b, c ∈ 𝑆. Then, a ∗ b = a + b = b + a = b ∗ a.

So ∗ is commutative. Moreover,
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a + (b + c) while (a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b) + c.
Hence, ∗ is associative.

2. Let 𝑆 = ℝ and a ∗ b = a.

If we take the real numbers 1 and 2, then 2 ∗ 1= 2 while 1 ∗ 2 = 1. Thus, ∗ is not

commutative. However, if we consider the real numbers 1, 2 and 3, then
1 ∗ (2 ∗ 3) = 1 and (1 ∗ 2) ∗ 3 = 1. Hence, ∗ is not associative.

3. Let 𝑆 = {−1, 0, 1} and ∗ be the usual multiplication. What is the identity in 𝑆? Can
you give the inverse of each element of 𝑆?
EXERCISE.
1. Determine whether 𝑆 = ℚ − {0}, a ∗ b = a/b is a commutative or associative binary
operation.
2. Determine if the binary operation ∗ defined by the table below is commutative.
∗ a b c d
a a b c d
b b c d a
c c d a b
d d a b c

Based on the table, what is the identity? What is the inverse of b? c?