UNIT 5 INFORMATION,

COMMUNICATION PROCESS,
MEDIA AND DIFFUSION
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Information
5.2.1 Conceptualisations of Information
5.2.2 Information as Commodity / Resource
5.2.3 Information as Data in the Environment
5.2.4 Information as Representation of Knowledge
5.2.5 Information as Part of Communication Process
5.3 Communication: Concept and Genesis
5.3.1 Definition of Communication
5.3.2 Channels of Communication
5.4 Types of Communication
5.4.1 Non-vocal and Vocal Communication
5.4.2 Non-verbal and Verbal Communication
5.4.3 Intra-personal, Interpersonal, Group and Mass Communication
5.5 Communication Process
5.5.1 Communication Cycle
5.5.2 Elements of Communication Process
5.5.3 Communication Media
5.5.4 Models of Communication
5.6 Information Diffusion
5.6.1 Meaning
5.6.2 Diffusion of New Ideas or Innovations
5.6.3 Patterns of Diffusion Process
5.6.4 Factors Affecting Diffusion of Information
5.7 Diffusion of Technological Information
5.8 Models of Information Diffusion Process
5.8.1 Epidemic Model
5.8.2 Economic Theory Model
5.8.3 Stock Adjustment Model
5.8.4 Vintage Model
5.8.5 Information Diffusion Theory
5.9 Information System for Diffusion
5.9.1 R&D Information Flow
5.9.2 Information Services, Information Institutions and Diffusion
5.9.3 Gatekeeping of Technical Information
5.9.4 Information Policy in Support of Information Diffusion
5.10 Summary
5.11 Answers to Self Check Exercises
5.12 Keywords 95
5.13 References and Further Reading
Information Generation and
Communication 5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
l understand the meaning of the term information and its different
conceptualisations;
l explain the concept of ‘communication’ and identify different types of
‘communication’;
l describe communication process and analyse the different elements of
“communication process”;
l distinguish the different communication media;
l define what “information diffusion” is;
l discuss the patterns of diffusion process;
l explain the various factors affecting information diffusion process;
l elucidate different “models” of diffusion; and
l discuss the role of information systems in information diffusion.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
There is a growing recognition that information and communication are
interrelated in very fundamental ways. The disciplines of Communication and
Information/ Library Studies have a long tradition of common interests and
concepts. This tradition has provided increasing interdisciplinary linkages
between the two fields. But, “the intersection of Communication and
Information Studies cannot be explained only, or even largely, in terms of
what might be termed a “Scholarly push”. Far more crucial to growing interest
in the communication-information relationship, is the momentum and rhetoric
of the market place. These forces give urgency to the need for frameworks that
clarify the theoretical relationship between communication and information
by identifying similarities and differences, exploring ways in which the
differences may be complementary and/or supplementary, and facilitating
theoretical integration in general”. In this Unit, an attempt is made to explain
to you the relationship between the concepts “information and communication”.
In the process, focussed perceptions of ‘information’ have been discussed.
When considering the nature and role of information, from whatever
perspective, meaning becomes central. Information is something that one person
communicates to another. There is widespread confusion associated with
defining of ‘communication’. “Not so, however, the attempt to investigate the
relationships between information as a phenomenon and communication as
process”. So far as definitions of the concept communication is concerned, the
one employed by Ruben has been commended (i.e.)…The process through
which individuals in relationships, groups, organisations and societies create,
transmit and use information to organise with the environment and one another.
This Unit discusses the aspects of definition of communication, types of
communication, communication process and communication media. Also the
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Unit describes information diffusion, patterns of diffusion and its implications
to information systems, services and information professionals. It is hoped all Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
these aspects will be useful in providing adequate knowledge to the participants
of MLIS programme.

5.2 INFORMATION
The question “What is information”? has eluded answer for a long time. Of
course, definitions proliferate and interpretations multiply even though nobody
has said the last word. The best minds in information science give considerable
importance to the concept and continue to discuss it. As T.D.Wilson observed
“it was not so much the definition itself that mattered as the uses to which it
was put” [T.D.Wilson, 1981].
The uses to which information is put are countless and therefore, the power of
those metaphors which link the human and the social organisms in describing
information as the life blood of society appear to be justified. Without a regular
and uninterrupted flow of meaningful information, society would quickly run
into difficulties, with business and industry, education, leisure, travel and
communications, national and international affairs, etc. In fact, the advanced
societies increasingly depend on the enabling powers of information and
communication technologies (ICT). It might be stated that information has
been a significant element in the life of all societies. Therefore, it is common
for each society to have its own characteristic information and, knowledge
base. However it may be noted that in the case of developing countries it
might well be that indigenous knowledge rather than that contained in the
World’s stores of information is likely to be more relevant [Menou, Michel,
1994].

5.2.1 Conceptualisations of Information

Information is a concept that is applied in multiple ways in everyday usage as
well as in the research literature [Mc Credie, etal. 1999]. Here, we identify
and illustrate the range of what is meant by information, hoping to shed light
on assumptions about information.

5.2.2 Information as Commodity/ Resource

Some researchers emphasise information as a thing or resource [Arrow, 1979,
Bates, 1988, Buckland, 1991], a commodity that can be produced, purchased,
replicated, distributed, manipulated, passed along, controlled, traded and sold.
By focusing upon information-as-thing Michael Buckland [1991] brings into
consideration such phenomena as objects and events, seeking in the process to
widen our perception of what constitutes data and documents. Buckland’s
approach is useful both for its breadth of vision and of the way it manages to
weave together such concepts as information, knowledge and communication.
Also, by demonstrating information as a thing that is embodied in objects or
information systems information can be tangible, as opposed to knowledge,
which is inherently intangible. By this approach, Buckland sheds more light
on the traditional approach of Machlup who saw information as intangible,
involving either the telling of something or that which was being told. Buckland
points out, in order to communicate knowledge it must be expressed or
represented in some physical way as a signal, text or communication. This 97
Information Generation and conceptualisation is consistent with a model of sending information as a
Communication
message from sender to receiver. It may include an assumption that the receiver
will interpret and understand the message as intended by the sender.
There are, however, difficulties with the treatment of information as a resource.
One such difficulty is associated with its intangible nature and also the fact
that unlike physical matter, information per se is not subject to the kind of
laws that would enable it to be treated in economic terms. Some writers have
also warned against the dangers of a pre-mature acceptance of the arguments
in favour of the resource characteristics of information. For instance, Michael
Menou is rather sceptical of those claims, which would portray information as
a critical resource in all circumstances- individual, organisational and societal.
[Menou, 1994]. He opines that such claims need to be supported by more than
anecdotal evidence and a limited body of empirical research. He emphasises
that information is seldom identified to the level of specificity required to
demonstrate its impact on any given situation or problem. Though, such
criticisms are not taken lightly, they have to be balanced against the fact that
the notion of information-as-resource is by now well-established in fact, most
evidently in recognition of the related concept of a ‘marketplace of ideas’, as
reflected in profusion of national and international laws and policies relating
to trade in information and its associated goods and services. This aspect serves
to highlight another practice of viewing information as a commodity.
The notion of information-as-commodity has gained considerable currency in
recent years, commodity comprising all types of information services, as also
transborder data flows. It is stated that the concept of information-as-commodity
is wider than that of information-as-resource, as it incorporates the exchange
of information among people and related activities, as well as its use. The
concept of information as a commodity is connected closely to the concept of
value chains with commoditised information gaining in value as it progresses
through different steps of creation, processing, storage, distribution and use. It
might be stated here that the problems include those of measurement and
appropriability, and with treating information as a public good as just one
more free market commodity.

5.2.3 Information as Data in the Environment

Some writers tend to view information more broadly to include data in the
environment available for interaction with human information processing
capabilities. This data category includes objects, artifacts, sounds, smells visual
and tactile phenomena, activities, events or the phenomena of nature. According
to Buckland, it is easy to assume that all communication is intentional. In
practice, however, one is informed also by perception of things that are
communicated unintentionally. In other words, neither the individual nor the
data unintentionally engage in communication. “The discoveries one makes
in the process of casual (non-goal-directed) browsing [Chang Di Rice, 1993]
or the references another makes about an individual’s character or performance
based on observation of the individual’s behaviour when exposed to view,
particularly when the individual is unaware of being observed, serve as
additional examples of unintentional communication available when one attends
to information as data in the environment”.
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“Taylor (1996) specifically uses the environmental approach in his concept of Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
information use environments, which are intersections of:
a) sets of people (professors, entrepreneurs, special interest groups, socio-
economic groups);
b) classes of problems (well- versus ill-structured, complex versus simple,
assumptions agreed upon versus not agreed upon and familiar versus new);
c) work settings (involving attitudes towards information, task domain,
information access and history/experience, constraints and opportunities)
and
d) what constitutes problem resolution. These environments are contexts for
various kinds of information needs.

5.2.4 Information as a Representation of Knowledge

Some of the researchers in information science view information as a
representation of, or pointer to, knowledge. The tradition of scientific method
and Scholarly publication is a clear example of this conceptualisation
[Lievrouw, 1988]. Card catalogues or databases of citations to scientific
documents illustrate an abstraction of representation of information, such as
in documents, books and periodicals. Traditionally, this view of information
has been based on the assumption that printed document is a primary
representation of knowledge. Recent years have seen a proliferation of
alternatives to print, such as representation of knowledge available on video
or audiotape, videodisc, CD-ROM, Internet or other electronic or computer
media.

5.2.5 Information as Part of the Communication Process

Some researchers consider information as part of communication process, as
part of human behaviour in the process of moving through space and time to
make sense of one’s world. [Atwood and Dervin, 1982]. From this
conceptualisation, meanings are in people rather than words or data and
knowledge is what users do with data rather than what data do to users. An
assumption relating to this conceptualisation is that understanding must be
based on observation of human behaviour in information seeking and sense
making processes and on the meanings intended and interpreted by participants.
In the foregoing paragraphs, different conceptualisations of the concept
information have been discussed and explained to you so that you may be in a
position to understand focussed perceptions of the concept ‘information’. Let
us now attempt to know what communication is, and the different aspects
associated with the concept.
Self Check Exercise
1) Briefly explain the different conceptualisations of information.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
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5.3 COMMUNICATION: CONCEPT AND

GENESIS
The word ‘Communication’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Communis’, which
means ‘sharing’. Communication encompasses all methods used by living
beings to express or to convey a kind of thought or feeling. When we
communicate with someone, we try to establish a certain degree of commonness
with the person we communicate with.
If we look into the evolution of communication, we notice that communication
has taken place in many ways and has taken many forms throughout the history
of mankind. In the beginning sign languages or expressive body languages
were forms of human communication. With the evolution of language, spoken
word became the common form of communication. The invention of scripts
and writing paved the way for the written form of communication. Written
form of communication enabled recording and storing of information for the
future generations. Invention of printing provided major technological
breakthrough for recording knowledge and information in the form of
documents. Other inventions like telegraphy and telephone systems provided
mechanisms for people to communicate over long distances. Over the last
four decades or so electronic and mass media became commonplace methods
of communication.

5.3.1 Definition of Communication

Communication has been defined in many ways. For example, the Oxford
Dictionary defines it as “The imparting conveying or exchanging of ideas and
knowledge whether by speech, writing or signs”. On the other hand, Columbia
Encyclopaedia defines communication as “The transfer of thoughts and
messages as contrasted with transportation of goods and persons. The basic
forms of communication are by signs (signals) and sounds (hearing)”.
Also, we come across the following explanations for the concept in literature:
l act or instance of transmitting;
l imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions or information by speech,
writing, etc;
l something imparted, interchanged or transmitted;
l document or message imparting information, opinions, etc;
l process by which information is exchanged between individuals or groups
through a common system of symbols, signs or behaviour.
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If we analyse the above-mentioned definitions and explanations provided for
the concept, we note that they imply that communication refers to transmission Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
or exchanging of information and that for information to be transmitted, it has
to be first mentally conceived, generated or formed by an individual. Only
then, can information be communicated to another. The transmission process,
could, however, be oral, through visual images or icons, or through written
text in any language, or a combination of all these different modes of
communication. From what has been stated above, it might be inferred that
the media and the method used to communicate ideas through is important.
Therefore, let us try to understand the forms and channels of communication.

5.3.2 Channels of Communication

Basically, there are two ways of communication:
1) Oral communication,
2) Written or Documentary communication.

Oral Communication

Oral communication is a method of communication through speech. It is

characteristic of its immediacy and personal touch, which might be difficult to
capture in other forms of communication. In this form, there is often an informal
or flexible setting (atmosphere), which allows the sender and receiver, interact
with questions and answers, comments and response. All this takes place in a
given time and results in immediate feedback and permits an instant reaction.
Written Communication
Some basic characteristics of written communication are that it:
l has a more formal perspective, suggesting greater authority and trust
worthiness;
l can be a potential record, capable of extended life and of being used again
and again;
l can be extracted in parts or portions and can be quoted;
l it is suitable for reading at an individual’s convenience, speed and place;
and
l is accessible to a large readership which can lead to the benefit of expert
criticism and review by peers.

5.4 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication systems may be classified or grouped into vocal or non-vocal
or verbal or non-verbal as per the characteristic of physical phenomenon. They
can also be categorised into intrapersonal, interpersonal, group or mass
communication. Let us try to understand each one of these categories.

5.4.1 Non-vocal and Vocal Communication

Non-vocal communication refers to the use of signs, signals and symbols,
gestures, etc in communication process. Signals, signs and symbols are the
three related components of non-vocal communication process. This type of
communication can be found in pre-historic period in all cultures. 101
Information Generation and There is basic difference between signs and signals. A sign contains meaning
Communication
of an intrinsic nature while a signal is merely a device by which one is able to
formulate extrinsic meanings. In other words, the meaning of a signal is explicit
while that of a sign is implicit. Signals play a prominent role in communication
systems. In certain situations signals allow the flow of information and in
certain others they prevent. e.g.: use of signals in rail transport system.
Signs usually carry meaning by themselves. The meaning can be understood
only by trained staff. Traffic signs are common example of signs.
Symbols are generally complex and are not easy to understand. They usually
carry seminal meaning. Individual’s perception plays a very important role.
Example: Symbols used in classification schemes, such as Colon classification.
Symbol has been defined as a device with which an abstraction can be made.
These three components: signals, signs and symbols have been used in non-
vocal communication.
Vocal communication refers to any form of communication that uses the human
vocal chords. It can range from shouting to spoken languages. Man’s vocal
apparatus as a device of communication represents an apex of physical and
intellectual evolution. It has the potential to express the most basic instructional
demands as well as a range of highly intellectual processes including the
possible mastery of numerous complex languages, each with a large quantum
of vocabulary. The vocal organs permit the production of sound effects, animal
noises, birdcalls and other amusing high manipulations of speech.

5.4.2 Non-verbal and Verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication includes actions such as gestures, vocalisations,
facial expressions and other behaviour. Whereas, verbal communication refers
to the use of words. The era of verbal communication began with the
development of language. Communication is generally equated with speaking
and writing words (vocabulary) are viewed as the primary means by which
information is conveyed from one person to another. Communication by facial
expression, by tone of voice, by touch etc. falls under the category of non-
verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is of seven types. These
are:
l Para linguistics is a kind of complementary language which includes
meaningful variations in speech corresponding to patterns of loudness,
pitch, hesitation;
l Kinesics which includes facial expressions, eye movements, gestures, etc;
l Haptics which refers to the use of touch to communicate, for example,
shaking hands, holding hands, patting, etc;
l Proxemics refers to the use of interpersonal space, that is to say how far a
person is standing from the other, can communicate different meanings;
l Dress and appearance: dress, hair styles, make-up, jewellery, etc, can
also constitute non-verbal code of communication;
l Chronemics that is to say how time is considered is sometimes a message in
102 itself, a form of non-verbal communication and is called Chronemics; and
l Iconics, which means interpretation of symbolism, found in objects or Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
designs can be considered a type of communication. The best example of
this type of communication is international traffic signs.
5.4.3 Intra-personal, Interpersonal, Group and Mass
Communication
Communication can also be classified in terms of its levels. The different levels
of communication are as follows:
l Intrapersonal communication means communication within one person,
i.e., talking to oneself, reading something, etc. In this type of
communication, the source and recipient of information becomes one
person. Intrapersonal communication includes a person’s thoughts,
experiences and perceptions during a communication event. Intrapersonal
communication is of different types which include: i) postures, ii) muscle
tension, iii) sleep, iv) use of tranquilisers, and v) emotions.
l Interpersonal communication means communication between two or more
persons. It could be face-to-face, or it could be at a distance with the help
of telephone or letters, etc. For effective inter-personal communication
we must develop certain skills and tactics, which will help us to establish
rapport quickly with new persons. One such skill is to be able to control
the communication situation. This does not mean that we must act in a
dominant way.
l Group communication: In this form of communication many people are
involved and the speaker and the listener are shifted among the participants.
This type of communication may take place between small groups usually
not exceeding 25. It may also take place in large groups where there is
communication by one or more persons to an audience of more persons.
l Public or mass communication: This generally refers to communication,
which takes place between one person or a group of persons through a
special media to a large audience. Mostly large-scale communication is
disseminated by the media of print, broadcasting, film or the electronic
media to large audiences. This type of communication is referred to public
or mass communication.
In mass communication the relationship between sources and dissemination is
different from that in case of individual or interpersonal communications.
Interpersonal communication is one-to-one exchange, whereas mass
communication is one-to-many exchange in which a few sources transmit to a
great number of destinations.
Self Check Exercise
2) Identify different types of communication with the help of suitable examples.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
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5.5 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is not something that happens in a disjointed fashion. It is a
transfer of a cluster of transactional functions of body and mind of one individual
to another. Communication is said to possess the following characteristics:
intention of the communicator, nature of communication, emphasis on action,
measurability of action, comparability of intention and measured action.
Communication process always requires at least three basic elements: the
source, the message and the destination. In fact, source is the point at which
messages originate. It is also referred to as sender or initiator of information.
A source may be an individual (speaking, writing, gesturing, etc.) or a
communication organisation like newspaper, publishing house, television
station, etc. Message may be in the form of written or printed text, sound or
light waves in the air, impulses in the electric current, or in the form of any
other signal which is capable of being interpreted meaningfully. Destination
is the intended target of the message. Again, destination could be an individual
or a group or a mob. Destination is the final link in the communication chain.
It may be stated here that in communication process, we try to establish
commonness between the sender and the recipient of message. For this to
happen, two more steps need to be added in practice. The steps are: the encoding
of the message to be transmitted and a mechanism to decode it at the receivers’
end.
The establishment of commonness between the sender and the receiver depends
a lot on the field experience of the two. If the field of experience between the
two is different, it is difficult to establish commonness between the two. In
other words, the source can encode and the destination can decode the message
in terms of experience each has had. It might therefore, be said that
communication process is one of transmission and reception, the passing of
ideas, information and attitudes from person to person. All the steps in
communication process must be accomplished with high degree of efficiency
if communication is to take place.

5.5.1 Communication Cycle

Hither to we have been discussing the linear model of communication process
in which the source transmits message and the destination receives it. In regular
practice, however, the communication process does not end with the receiving
of the message by the destination. It must be stated that communication is a
continuous process in which each individual or institution functions as the
transmitter as well as receiver of messages. In other words, communication
process works in a cycle, in which each individual functions as the encoder,
interpreter and the decoder of information alternatively. In fact, communication
is interactive multidimensional process.
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5.5.2 Elements of Communication Process Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
Most of the communication systems, whether sophisticated or not, are perceived
to possess the following basic elements:
l Information source
l Encoder
l Message
l Communication Channel
l Noise
l Decoder and
l Receiver/Destination.
In other words, the act of communication has to originate from a source. The
idea/ message of communication has to be encoded using symbols. The process
of translating ideas, feelings and information into a code is known as encoding.
The device/ mechanism used to carry out the message is called a channel. The
success or failures of communication mainly depends on the channel used.
Self Check Exercise
3) Explain the basic elements of a communication process.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
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5.5.3 Communication Media

Media is obviously the plural form of ‘medium’– which is the conductor, the
channel, and the means by and through which something is transmitted. In
other words, medium is the channel through which messages or information
are transferred to the receiver. A medium could be a spoken word or printed
word or it could be an electronic message. The term communication media is
often used to refer to both the channel and the source.
Communication media can broadly be classified into conventional and non-
conventional media. Conventional media mainly comprises print media,
including graphic media while non-conventional media comprises mainly
electronic media including optical and hyper media.
Let us discuss, the most important of the media namely print media and
electronic media.
Print Media
Print media include: books, learned periodicals, conference proceedings,
magazines, newspapers etc. The main function of these media is to provide 105
Information Generation and information, and in certain cases provide entertainment also. The audience for
Communication
the print media could both be specialised, diverse and large. As a means of
communication the book has monopolised for centuries, followed by the
periodical and other forms of communication media, which make available
more information for use. Other types of print media like indexing and
abstracting periodicals, directories, conference proceedings, etc. provide
information about where to find information from primary sources like books,
periodicals etc. Print media still remains a powerful communication media.
Electronic Media
Electronic media refers to such media where messages are sent by such
mechanisms as telephone, telegraph, facsimile, etc. For example, broadcasting
which is carried out by radio and television provides with news and
entertainment to general public. These different media are briefly discussed in
this section.
l Telegraph: This is one of earliest methods of modern telecommunication.
It was invented by Samuel Morse in 1830. The invention of telegraph has
increased the speed of human communication. It involved the manual
keying of messages using a code known as Morse code. The code is built
up of short and long pulses of current in the telegraph wire, with the
transmitter’s Morse key. One of the major developments in telegraphy is
the invention of Baudot code system. In this system the sender could use
a sort of typewriter keyboard; each key press would automatically generate
a 5-bit combination (word of current pulses or pulse absence). At the
receiving end with a special output unit could reproduce the message,
either by punching holes in code patterns in a paper tape or by putting
readable characters directly on to a paper tape.
l Telephone: The development of the telephone represented a solution to
the technological problem of conversion of the sound patterns of human
voice into electrical patterns. Telephone happens to be one of the largest
established methods of electronic information transfer. It differs from the
telegraph in that the electric current carries the more complex patterns of
human voice over the wire. Originally telephonic communication between
two persons could take place only through a special cable link. The concept
of multiplexing is a major development in the direction. This allows a
number of different signals to pass through the same links at the same
time.
l Broadcasting Media: This makes long distance message transmission
possible between sources and receivers without the need of transportation
or a direct physical (wire) link. In case of broadcasting message is
transmitted in the form of energy waves in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Broadcasting includes mass communication devices like radio and
television, through which messages are sent out regularly by professional
communicators through electronic media to large and diverse groups of
audience. Broadcasting as a technology implies transmitting electronically
generated radio waves to receiving devices. Radio and telecasting stations
are the centres for transmission. Recent development in this field includes
106 the use of satellite communication systems. Space satellites now provide
 a worldwide television and telephone network that links every country on Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
the globe.
l Electronic Mail: It is conceived primarily as an alternative to the
conventional postal mail service. It is used for the transmission of messages
or documents in an electronic form. In most of e-mail systems, transmission
is accomplished via telecommunications network designed for data
transmission. The greatest advantage associated with e-mail is that it
overcomes the delay connected with traditional postal service. Also,
e-mail is economical compared to conventional mail system. The input to
and output from an e-mail system can be via a video terminal, or a word
processor with a printer, facsimile machine or any data terminal including
computer vision and voice communication systems.
l Videotext and Teletext: Both these are interactive information services
and that these allow individuals to request frames of information. But,
they are somewhat different technologies. In other words, Teletext is
delivered over the air while videotext is delivered by wire. In videotext, a
person can request for information from a central computer for delivery
over telephone or cable television lines. Teletext in contrast is a system
that enables the users to view on request frames of information already
being transmitted but invisible on their television screens.
l Videotext is a generic term that refers to both Videotext and Teletext.
Teletext and Videotext are the most radical of the new communication
technologies which have brought the powers of computer to the home TV
Set and have transformed the entertainment medium into an information
appliance.
l It may be mentioned here that electronically the society has progressed
from the wired era of telephone and telegraph to wireless era of
broadcasting and now stands on the threshold of era of integrated grid.
Integrated grid refers to the communication infrastructure that is now taking
shape world over, with internet revolutionising the communications
network. The developments in ICT are changing the entire nature of
telecommunications.
In the foregoing sessions we have learnt about communication media:
conventional as well as non-conventional. Since the conventional media are
inadequate to cope with the contemporary information environment, the non-
conventional media have been developed. These media have not only enhanced
the speed of communication, but also increased the chances of information
access. Computer mediated communication systems have brought in these
advances.

5.5.4 Models of Communication

Models simplify reality, select important elements and indicate the relationships
that exist among key elements. Similar is the case with models associated
with human communication. Many models of communication include certain
basic concepts such as a sender, a process of encoding into signals or symbols,
a message, a channel, a receiver, a relationship, a process of decoding, a range
of things to which message refers (referents) and an actual or probable effect,
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Information Generation and intended or not. Some models also include feedback mechanism between sender
Communication
and receiver.
Communication models help us to understand how communication systems
work. The best-known communication model is that of Shannon and Weaver.
Shannon and Weaver’s Model
In this model, a message emanates from an information source. It is converted
into a signal or series of signals by a transmitter. Enroute, this signal is mixed
with or contaminated by ‘noise’, that is to say, various kinds of unwanted
interference coming from ‘noise’ sources. The received signal is decoded by a
receiver, being converted back into the original message, more or less, which
is what the receiver (or destination) receives.
Shannon and Weaver’s model seems straightforward. It recognises that
encoding and decoding occur. It takes into account the problem of interference:
‘noise’ is a term from electrical engineering denoting electro-magnetic
interference. Noise arriving with the signal makes it more difficult to decode
accurately, as we all know from everyday experience.
This model has been criticised, however, because it is linear. That is to say, it
accounts only for the act of sending and receiving. It is a one way model,
based on engineering. In fact, this was the dominant model for a quarter century.
The thinking behind it was probably reflected in the thinking of many top
broadcasters, for example, thought of themselves as primarily responsible for
sending out messages, and perhaps for reducing ‘noise’ to a minimum, but not
for receiving them back. Broadcasting organisations put most of their resources
into production and transmission of programmes, and much less into listening
to audience opinion.
To convert Shannon-Weaver model into a two-way model of communication,
we must add a feedback channel, complete with transmitter, encoder, noise,
decoder and receiver, all to deal with messages running from the receiver to
the sender. It could be said that we are simplifying working Shannon and
Weaver’s model in reverse, but in fact we are working it almost simultaneously
in both directions. In this two-way model, the feedback channel can be vitally
important to the original receiver as a means of seeking clarification of the
original message. Feedback channels, verbal and non-verbal, continually serve
this purpose in human communication.
It may be stated that Shannon-Weaver’s model has been criticised because it
did not provide for the complex nature of relationships among humans, some
of the scholars like Schramm and Kincaid have advanced models intended to
fill this need. Let us briefly learn about some of these communication models.
Information
Source Transmitter Receiver Destination
Message Signal Received
Channel
Signal Message

108
Noise Source
Fig. 5.1: Shannon Weaver Model of Communication Process
The models that need to be considered are: Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
l Lasswell’s model
l George Gerbner’s model
l The Schramm model
Lasswell’s Model
Lasswell, a U.S. Political Scientist developed this model in 1948. This model
is very useful to split the communication process into different components.
The value of this model lies in its use as a structuring device and in situations
in which the sender has a clear interest to influence the receiver. The model is
summarised as “Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect”?

Who Says In which To whom With

communi- what channel Receiver what
cated message medium Effect
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 5.2: Lasswell’s Model of Communication Process

Lasswell’s model can be interpreted in the context of Libraries in the following

manner:
Who? Authors, publishers, research bodies, translators, professional
bodies, etc.
What? Symbolic contents of knowledge, use of language notations,
symbols etc.
Which channel? Books, journals, mss, reports, conference proceedings, a.v.
materials, computer media etc.
Whom? Library users or members of society
What effect? Knowledge addition to individuals of society or users of
library.
George Gerbner’s Model
This model is conceptually different from the earlier two models. Gerbner
developed this model in 1956. the essence of this model is to “connect the
communication situation and the participant’s perception of and response to
the situation and the communication process. This model can incorporate
machine as well as human process in different combinations and at various
stages.

109
Information Generation and
Communication
E Selection content E Perceptional dimension
Relation between
Communication urgent
Availability
and word of events.

Means and control dimensions relationship between

communicating agent and communication products.
S E

Fig. 5.3: George Gerbner’s General Model of Communication

The Schramm Models
Schramm tried to develop a human communication model giving emphasis on
experiences of two individuals and the interaction between those two were
later designed as models. He developed three models to explain the proposed
concept or theory. The three models are diagrammatically represented.

Destination

Source Encoder Signals Decoder

Fig. 5.4: Schramm’s Model I
According to this model, communication starts from source (i.e. 1st individual)
and it is encoded transmitted through signals. These signals are decoded either
manually or mechanically and reach destination (i.e. 2nd individual). This model
is more or less similar to Shannon-Weaver Model.

Source Encode Signal Decoder Destination

Fig. 5.5: Schramm’s Model II

In this model, he introduces the idea that only that which is shared in the fields
of experience of both the sources and destination is actually communication
because only that portion of the signal is held in common by source and
destination.
Message

Encoder
Interprets Decoder
Decoder Interprets
Encoder

Message

110 Fig. 5.6: Schramm’s Model III

This model deals with communication as an interaction with both the parties Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
encoding, interpreting, decoding, transmitting and receiving signals. In this
model feedback and the continuous loop of shared information can be noticed.
Each model is intended to explain certain points, which its creator feels are
relevant in communication process or structure. No model can accomplish
everything that is desired. In other words, it cannot be “do it all” model.
Therefore, it is essential that we select models that would best suit our purpose
to solve the problem at hand.
In the above paragraphs, an attempt has been made to explain to you what a
communication model is all about and discuss some of the important models
available at present. In what follows let us try to learn about Information
Diffusion.
Self Check Exercise
4) Discuss briefly the Shannon and Weaver Model of communication. List
other prominent models of communication.
Note : i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
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5.6 INFORMATION DIFFUSION

5.6.1 Meaning
We generally observe that information spreads from person to person in the
society. The phenomenon of spread or dispersion through time and space is
known as diffusion. Ideas and innovations are dispersed from producer to the
user. Innovations are translation of ideas into new practices, processes or
products. The diffusion of ideas and innovations is an essential component of
social and economic change for better or worse. In other words, the diffusion
of ideas and innovations is a source of advancement for the society as a whole.
Because of its wide spread influence, the diffusion process has been extensively
researched and documented. In this entire process, communication has been
found to be a key element.
Research on the diffusion of new ideas has its origins primarily in the field of
rural sociology with studies focussing on the adoption of new agricultural
techniques by farmers in the United States. Subsequently, attention was drawn
to other types of innovations, such as new medical products and new industrial
processes, as a result, a more international scope emerged. Though, earlier
studies were mostly based on desirable changes in society, contemporary studies 111
on diffusion deal with both harmful and beneficial effects of innovations.
Information Generation and Development communication has emerged as a specialised field dealing with
Communication
factors affecting the diffusion of innovations and attitudes of populations,
especially in developing countries. Research on diffusion research also focuses
on role of social networks, information flow, demographics and psychological
variables “innovativeness” and “resistance to adoption”.

5.6.2 Diffusion of New Ideas or Innovations

The traditional approach to diffusion research was concerned more with social
processes and other demand-related factors affecting the diffusion of
innovations, and not with commercial or supply view point. To fill this gap
Lawrence Brown developed a “market and infrastructure” model of
information diffusion that focussed on supply-oriented rather than “demand-
oriented” factors affecting diffusion. There are three stages in this proposition:
l First Stage: establishment of public or private agency through which an
innovation is distributed or made available to the population at large (this
provides a special pattern of diffusion)
l Second Stage: conceive and implement strategies to promote adoption
among the populations in their service or market areas. This leads to
establishing infrastructures such as service and delivery systems and also
designs of information dissemination programmes.
l Third Stage: create different levels of access to an innovation, depending
on individuals’ economic, locational social characteristics. This ultimately
influences the decision of adoption or rejection.
Thousands of new products are introduced each year.. However, a large majority
of them fail: Failure to gain acceptance may frustrate both private and public
sectors. As public sectors use public funds on R and D, they are more prone to
criticism. The ‘limited effectiveness’ of technological and social change
programmes is attributed to the failure of public agencies to employ
sophisticated marketing techniques and strategies.

5.6.3 Patterns of Diffusion Process

A variety of temporal patterns have been associated with diffusion processes.
Let us try to understand basic patterns namely: i) temporal pattern of diffusion,
and ii) spatial pattern.

Temporal Pattern of Diffusion

While studying the temporal pattern of diffusion, we come across certain

questions like:
l When does an idea or innovation first begin to spread within a country,
region or organisation?
l How quickly does it spread once introduced?
l What types of people, organisations or firms tend to be early adopters?
l What types of ideas and innovations spread most quickly?

112 The spread of ideas and innovations generally begins slowly, accelerates as
the diffusion process begins to unfold more fully, slows after some turning Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
point is reached, and levels of as saturation is approached. A graph of the
cumulative level of adoption over time follows an S-shaped (sigmoid) curve.
Figure 5.7, taken from E. M. Rogers (1983) shows the basic sigmoid curve
and its relationship to the rate of spread of information.

100%
Rate of
Awareness-Knowledge
Cumulative percentage of population

Adoption
Decision
Period
50%
Rate of
Adoption

Time
Fig. 5.7: Diffusion over Space and Time

The sigmoid (S-shaped) curve that describes most diffusion processes: rate of awareness-
knowledge (uppermost curve), rate of adoption (lower Curve), and the adoption decision
period (gap between awareness-knowledge and adoption curves). Adapted from Everett M.
Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (1962), 3d ed., New York: Free Press, 1983.

The graph indicates the fact that an innovation can be accepted by a person
only if the person is aware of the existence of the innovation. In other words,
the behaviour of the population toward an innovation is closely related to the
distribution of information regarding new phenomenon, even though the
availability of information may not, by itself, ensure the acceptance. The graph
also depicts the variable adoption period, which is stated to be the shortest in
case of early adopters. Another concept (i.e. the diffusion effect) is also built
into the curve. It may be observed that when 5% of the individuals in a social
system are aware of innovation, there is little normative pressure to adopt it.
On the other hand, as the rate of awareness of an innovation increases among
the population to 20 to 30 per cent, peer pressure begins to develop, and the
rate of adoption increases. Once this threshold is passed, a diffusion effect
begins to trigger substantial influence from peer networks to accept the
innovation. This diffusion or snowball effect is partially important in social
systems that are highly connected.
Spatial Pattern of Diffusion
In spatial pattern of diffusion, two distinct types been identified. They are: the
neighbourhood effect, and hierarchical effect. Let us try to learn about them.
l Neighbourhood effect: It has been observed distance affects the rate of
distribution. In other words, the neighbourhood effect refers to the time
elapsed between the introduction and adoption of an idea or innovation
tends to increase with distance from nearest source of information or 113
Information Generation and access. The source may be a near by adopter, the distributor of an
Communication
innovation, or some other propagator of information or resource. Distance
to a source affects rates of diffusion. It may be stated that personal
communications occur more frequently across shorter distances when
compared with longer distances. Also, costs of adoption increase with the
distance from the source of an innovation, owing to the expenses incurred
due to transport, delivery, service and repair. In this case, diffusion occurs
in a wavelike fashion as depicted in the figure 5.7. In the first instance,
adoption is restricted to a compact area. As the diffusion process continues,
the circle of acceptance and use expands and distance increases between
the points of origin and the area of most rapid adoption. As distance and
time lapse increase the innovation waves weaken gradually (see the figure
5.7 Diffusion over Space and Time).
l Hierarchy or Cascade Effect: This effect refers to the tendency of large
urban places adopting an innovation before small urban places do so. The
per capita rate of adoption is also greater as the larger cities have the
capital to introduce innovations. It may also be mentioned that as the
density of population increases, the amount of information also increases.
This phenomenon is known as ‘Hierarchy’ or ‘Cascade’ effect. It has
been observed that the Neighbourhood and Hierarchical Effects often
occur in concert. This process is depicted by a schema developed by
Torsten Hagerstrand in 1967 [Figure 5.7]. This schema portrays diffusion
as occurring through a hierarchy of social communication networks. The
national, regional, and local levels of spatial aggregation each contain a
network within which neighbourhood effect principles of contact operate.
Further, a node on one level will have contact with nodes on another
level, providing mechanisms for the filtering of contacts down the urban
hierarchy. It may be mentioned here that if only the national scale is
considered, a neighbourhood effect would be observed, but if nodes on
all three levels were considered together, the pattern could be seen
hierarchical.

5.6.4 Factors Affecting Diffusion of Information

Different ideas and innovations diffuse at different speeds. According to
Marilyn Brown the following factors affect the rate of diffusion:
l Relative Advantage: If the new innovation is perceived to be the superior
to the product or practice already in existence, it will replace the existing
one. Relative advantage may be considered in terms of cost-effectiveness,
a lessening of social conflict, greater comfort or security.
l Compatibility: If a new idea or technology requires less change in the
prevalent sociocultural values, behavioural patterns, facilities, existing
equipment, and procedures, it has greater chances of its rapid diffusion.
l Impact on social relations: Many ideas and innovations may lead to
alterations in social relationships. The new ideas may inhibit or promote
adoption and thus help further diffusion process. For instance, the new
agricultural technologies have accelerated urbanisation in some developing
countries, and this in turn affected family and community relationships.
114
l Complexity: The use and understanding of an idea or innovation depends Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
on how complex the idea or innovation is. In other words, complexity
associated with new ideas or innovations inhibits its adoption and use.
l Communicability: If an idea or information about an innovation can be
obtained or communicated to the potential adopter easily, it will be quickly
disseminated.
l Observability: If use of an innovation is observable, knowledge of its
existence is facilitated. For example, the diffusion of many agricultural
innovations such new equipment and crops is facilitated by the fact that
they are visible and therefore, easily made known to the uninformed.
Divisibility and Reversibility: If an innovation is divisible into smaller
parts, then trials are possible and diffusion is promoted. Also, diffusion is
more rapid, if it is possible to return to the original condition or situation
after its initial trials, in case of failures.
Early Majority (34%)
Late Majority (34%)
Early Adopters (13.5%)
Number of New Adopters

Laggards (16%)

x = mean
Innovators (2.5%)

sd = standard deviation

Time
x x x x
- 2sd - sd + sd

Fig. 5.8(a): Adopter Categories

Adoption Cycle
Repurchase Cycle

Further Repurchase Cycle

Sales

1 2 3 4 5

Time
1 =Introduction, 2 = Growth, 3 = Maturity, 4 = Saturation, 5 = Decline.

Fig. 5.8(b): Innovation Life-cycle stages

Fig. 5.8: (Diffusion) Adoption and Innovation life-cycle curves. a) Adopter Categories.
Adapted from Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, New York: Free Press, 1962.
b) Innovation life-cycle stages. Adapted from David F. Midgley, Innovation and New
Product Marketing, London: Croom Helm, 1977. 115
Information Generation and
Communication

Proportion of Adopters
T3
T2 T4
T5

T1

Distance from Origin of Innovation.

Fig. 5.9: (Diffusion). The shape of diffusion in space and time: proportion of adopters at
successive time periods as a function of distance from origin of the innovation. Adopted from
Richard L. Morrill, “The Shape of Diffusion in Space and Time,” Economic Geography 46
(1970): 259-268.

National

Regional

Local

Fig. 5.10: (Diffusion) Schematic portrayal of diffusion networks viewed at three different
spatial scales. Adapted from Torsten Hagerstrand, Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.

Categorisation of Adopters of New Ideas and Innovations

It may be noted when the absolute number of adopters are plotted into a graph
for a distinct time period, a bell shaped approximately normal frequency curve
is obtained. Using this bell or normal curve, it is possible to talk about the type
of people who tend to adopt an idea or innovation during different stages of
116 the diffusion process (Figure 5.8a, 5.8b). It may be stated that people who
adopt an idea or innovation at similar times tend to have similar characteristics. Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
Particularly, innovators and early adopters generally are better educated, have
higher social status, are more risk-taking and cosmopolitan, and have greater
social participation and opinion leadership than later adopters. They also tend
to gain more information from impersonal sources and are less reliant on
Interpersonal Communication as an influential source of information. Laggards
the lost to adopt tend to have traditional values and low social status, education,
and income. Their adoption occurs only after information has “tickled down”,
when pressures to adopt are strong, and when the prices for the new product
have dropped.
Adoption of New Ideas
It may be mentioned here that the adoption of new ideas by organisations and
individuals reveals certain characteristics.
Organisations which adopt innovations more readily reflect certain traits such
as: openness to communication with their surrounding environment,
functionally different subunits, expertise of members, decentralised power,
flexible rules and regularisations, and availability of resources, etc.
Apart from organisational aspects, individuals also play important role in the
adoption of new ideas. The individual’s decision making process can be divided
into time periods. E. M. Rogers and F. F. Shoemaker developed a model
describing the stages through which an individual passes from first knowledge
of an innovation to a decision to adopt or to reject it. This model is known as
A-I-E-T-A model of decision-making. As per this model, the decision-making
process comprises the following time periods:
l Awareness: The individual learns about the existence of a new idea or
innovation,
l Interest: The individual recognises that he/she may have a need for this
new idea or innovation.
l Evaluation: The individual assesses the idea or innovation in terms of its
benefits and costs and decides whether or not to try it.
l Trial: It is an evaluation of an idea or innovation through a small scale or
a limited use. The trial reduces the uncertainties associated with the
innovation.
l Adoption: It refers to the adoption or use of new idea or innovation on a
continuous, full-scale basis. Problems associated with the use of the
innovation may emerge at this stage, particularly when the individuals
involved in the adoption decision are different from those involved in or
affected by the actual implementation.
The A-I-E-T-A model of decision-making can be used to describe the role of
different sources and channels of information. In general, mass media and
other impersonal sources of information create awareness or interest, but later
stages in the process require more personal, specific, and local sources of
information.
117
Information Generation and
Communication 5.7 DIFFUSION OF TECHNOLOGICAL
INFORMATION
In the literature, we come across several studies on the diffusion of technological
information in the society (Chatman). Models of information diffusion are
constructed. These models help us to estimate the number of people with the
information in question at any given point of time. There are different
parameters, which may be estimated if the exact values are known. Such
parameters include the maximum number of information recipients (Nm) and
the number of recipients to whom a transmitter sends information during a
time interval (ni). The diffusion process-taking place is represented in the
diagram (see the Figure 5.11).

Time: 0 1 2
Informed 0 4 16

Fig. 5.11: Person-to-Person Diffusion Process (Source: Losee, R. M.)

When information diffuses, it may be seen as having an origin where only one
person has information as indicated on the left side of the diagram. It may be
noted that in this example population, each information recipient transmits to
three additional people.
At the time t = 2, the person who originally had the information transmits it to
three new people, as indicated by the arrows on the right half of the diagram.
At the end of the transmission cycle the total number of people who have
received the information will be the number of people who had received the
information at the end of the previous transmission cycle plus three times this
number. The total number of recipients, who have received information at
time‘t’ is N (t) = 4N (t – 1). The total number of recipients, N (t), grows at an
exponential rate. If the population were infinite in size and infinitely dense, so
that one can never transmitted to some one who already had the information,
N (t) could be graphed as a curve ‘A’ shown in the following Figure 5.12.

Population Size
Number with Information

118
Time
Fig. 5.12: Diffusion Curve (Source: Losee, R. M.)
Neither of these assumptions is ever fully met. As time progresses, more and Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
more people will already have received the information and fewer additional
people will be added to the list of informed. The graph of the number of
informed people now looks more like curve ‘B’. The rate of difference ‘r’ for
curve ‘B’ is of the form r = (t) (Nm – N (t)). The component (Nm – N (t)) will
be larger at‘t’ = 0 and will approach 0 when the number of people with
information approaches Nm. If f(t), is Ci N(t)), it may be understood as a
coefficient of internal influence on diffusion process. Diffusion is seen as
occurring only through interpersonal contacts, and the N(t) [Nm – N(t)] may
be interpreted as the product of number of people with the information and the
number of people without information.
If f(t) is a constant Ce, the number of people already having information not
being a factor, the diffusion is controlled by factors external to diffusion
environment. When control of diffusion process is mixed between external
and internal factors, the rate of diffusion may be modelled as:
r = [Ce + Ci N(t)] [Nm – N(t)]
Where Ce and Ci are factors representing external and internal coefficients of
diffusion, as above.
This entire explanation of Information Diffusion provided above has been taken
from Robert M. Losee. ‘The Science of Information’, 1990, pp.250-253.
So far, we have used the term ‘diffusion’ rather loosely without precise
definition. Mansfield conceives of a three-way definition for diffusion:
1) Imitation or Interinstitutional diffusion refers to spread of new process
from firm to firm with in an industry.
2) Intrainstitutional diffusion refers to spread of the process within individual
firms.
3) Overall diffusion refers to the spread throughout the society as a whole.
Thus, interorganisational diffusion might be measured by the proportion of
institutions that have adopted a new process, interorganisational diffusion by
the proportion of any one firm’s output produced using the new process, and
overall diffusion by proportion of the total industry output that is produced
using new process. In general, diffusion means Interinstitutional diffusion,
because it is interesting to study adoption and usage process between
institutions.

5.8 MODELS OF INFORMATION DIFFUSION

PROCESS
Interorganisational diffusion surveys, study the adoption and adaptation process
of an innovation, particularly the analysis of variance between firms. It
concentrates on individual innovations diffusing through single type of
industries and attempts to explain differences between institutions in the time
taken to adopt an innovation. This is known as the institutional characteristic
of diffusion. In the international approach, an explanation of international
differences in the speed of diffusion of innovation in terms of the characteristic
119
of the countries and industries is presented.
Information Generation and Rogers argued that the adoption of an innovation mainly depends on
Communication
communication and often follows an S shaped curve when plotted over time.
Rogers’ model is the most well-known and wide spread diffusion model, but
far from the only one. Mahajan, et al (1990) presented an overview of diffusion
models, arguing that the Bass model (1968) had given the most important
impulses to the research on diffusion innovations. Bass identified two forces
behind the diffusion process, mass media communication and word of mouth
communication. Mahajan, et al mentioned nine assumptions that warrant
attention. Four of those considered are of special importance when estimating
the diffusion of computers and Internet to households.
These are:
i) Diffusion of an innovation is independent of all other innovations;
ii) Nature of an innovation does not change over time;
iii) Diffusion of an innovation is not influenced by marketing strategies;
iv) There is only one single adoption by each adoption unit.
Mahajan, et al presented several other diffusion models, where attempts have
been made to maintain better predictions by handling facts, not fitting the
mentioned basic assumptions. Let us try to understand the significance of some
diffusion models we come across in the research literature.

5.8.1 Epidemic Model

The epidemic model, also known as the learning model, is more popular in
sociological and marketing literatures, but has also been used by economists.
A common feature of this model is the analogy drawn from the spread of
diseases. Consequently, a theoretical tool often used is one of the mathematical
theories of epidemics. As reference to these theories is also often made by
economists working in this area, an exposition of simplest model of epidemics
will provide a useful introduction to the study of this model. The basic
hypothesis of a simple epidemic model is represented by the following equation:
mt + 1 - mt = ß (n - mt ) mt / n
Where m is the number individuals in a fixed population of n having contacted
the disease, between elapse time epochs t and t + 1. This is proportionate to the
product of the number of uninfected, both at time t. The value of ß (epidemic
indicator) will depend on a number of factors such as the infectiousness of the
disease, and the frequency of social interaction.

5.8.2 Economic Theory Model

As a result of the nascent nature of process innovations and of the imperfect
information, there may be major differences between firms in the expectations
of how profitable the adoption of any innovation will be. This, coupled with
the likelihood that firms differ in their attitude to risk general and new
innovations in particular, leads to the conclusion that different firms react
differently to the same innovation. Specially, the time lag before adopting the
innovations will probably differ significantly between firms within the same
120 industry. For economic reasons, it was suggested that an important contributor
to interfirm differences would be the difference in their size (i.e., the size of Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
the firm). This logic has been formalised into a model called “Industrial Engel
Curve” which relates probability of a firm having adopted the new innovation
to the firm’s size. When the Industrial Engel Curve was fitted with data
collection, results were encouraging. The sample innovations, on which the
data was based, indicated positive relationships between the speed of adoption
of innovation and the firm’s size. Many other correlations could be brought in,
such as nature of innovation vis-à-vis industrial growth, cyclical factors and
growth factors, the role of the firm’s size and industry concentration, etc.
5.8.3 Stock Adjustment Model
This model is used in the study and analysis of investment behaviour. In fact,
the Stock Adjustment Model was used to study the stock levels of computers
in U.S. and U. K. in the 1960s and 1970s. It helps to indicate the stock level, in
particular, equilibrium stocks in any time period. Although the Stock
Adjustment Model has limited applications, it is of great help to study
interorganisal diffusion process of innovations.
5.8.4 Vintage Model
The vintage model was postulated by Salter and others in 1960 (Productivity
and Technical change, 1960) brings in an economic theory of diffusion. The
basic structure of a ‘Vintage Model’ may be summarised as follows: “New
knowledge assumed to be embodied in new product and so, gross investment
in the vehicle of diffusion. Old product is only replaced or scrapped when its
operating costs exceed the returns it earns. Similarly new equipment is only
installed if its total costs are covered by the revenue it earns. It is usually
assumed, for analytical convenience, that plant is invisible and that new
knowledge cognate be introduced on old equipment. Thus, each vintage of
product embodies the best practice know-how of its date of production and is
then committed to this nascent knowledge until its expiry. The appearance of
a cost saving process innovation within their frame work will have the following
consequences:
It will become profitable to replace immediately some proportion of existing
product because the total costs of the new products are lower than the operating
costs of some old product. The existing capital stock comprises a number of
vintages embodying the old know-how the newer vintages being slightly more
efficient than the old, due to minor improvements in specification over the
years.
However, the simplicity of the model depends heavily on the assumptions of
cost minimisation, on the one hand, and the invisibility of plant and the
embodiment hypothesis on the other. In, principle, each of these assumptions
can be relaxed without destroying the essence of the model. In practice, however
it is doubtful whether the model would retain its productive power if all the
four assumptions were relaxed simultaneously.
5.8.5 Information Diffusion Theory
Elfreda A. Chatman identifies three diffusion models, namely:
l Elements of Diffusion Model 121
Information Generation and l Attributes of Innovation Model
Communication
l Stages of Adoption Model
She applies these models to study the awareness, use, and diffusion of an
innovation in a job environment among working poor.
The diffusion of information is studied with four elements (1) the innovation,
(2) communication, (3) social structure, (4) time. Attributes of innovation
explain the characteristics that may improve acceptance of innovation or
rejection. Finally, stages of adoption are used to explain the decision making
process of adoption or rejection of an innovation.
Elfreda A. Chatman presents her analysis of the information diffusion from
person, to person, the social structure that helps movement of various models
of communication, the impact of variance of these modes. The study also
analyses the attributes, such as (1) relative advantage, (2) compatibility, (3)
complexity, (4) trialability of innovations. The stages of adoption model,
designed for the diffusion of technological innovation appears to have limited
applicability to the diffusion of job information. According to the study of
information about a job has a finite usefulness when disseminated. Although,
the “job adopter” experiences awareness, trial and acceptability of information
about a job, the diffusion of the information as useful is limited to the number
persons who can be hired for a position. Information diffusion models are
some times found overlapping in actual practice and they can be theoretically
separated to draw influences.

5.9 INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR DIFFUSION

A nation’s competitiveness depends on the capacity of industry to innovate
and upgrade. Innovation is based on new ideas, including new combinations
of old ideas, the utility of which is tested with applications of many kinds of
information. Empirical studies have repeatedly found that in more prosperous
enterprises there is greater awareness of information and greater ability to
manage it. Sweeny (1989) reports “empirical evidence strongly indicates that
it is the quality of information activities and of the information process by a
firm which makes its innovation commercially successful and gives the
competitive edge”. “Information plays a large role in the process of innovation
— information that is not sought or available to competitors, or information
available to others that is interpreted in new ways. Sometimes it results from
sheer investment in market research or R & D. It is striking, though, how often
innovators of those firms that are simply looking in the right place,
unencumbered by or unconcerned with conventional wisdom” [Michael E
Porter, 1990]. It has been observed that innovative ideas are initiated either by
the perception of a need or recognition of technical feasibility. Several studies
suggest that most major technological breakthroughs are initiated by the
discovery of a technological possibility.
Diffusion of innovation happens through the appropriate flow of information.
It begins from the R&D stage itself.
5.9.1 R&D Information Flow
122 Maddock observes that the main function of an R&D establishment as being a
link in the innovation chain to enable the innovation-flow to occur more Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
efficiently. He defines the role of an R&D in the following terms. Firstly, it
should be in close contact with relevant advances in science and technology.
Secondly, it should provide an opportunity to bring relevant but difficult
disciplines together. Thirdly, it should apply science and technology at the
lowest cost in terms of time and effort. Fourthly, and most importantly, it
should be active in technology transfer and should, therefore, preferably be
located close to the users of R&D work. Fifthly, it should be able to assess
objectively the feasibility of an innovation project. From what has been stated
above it is clear that an R&D establishment has to rely on a large input of
information from external sources as shown in the Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Information in Diffusion of Innovation

INFORMATION IN DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION

The Listening Post
The Interdisplinary Role
Science / Technology Application at Lowest Cost
In Time and Effort
Technology Transfer
The Feasibility Appraisal Role

In this connection it is important to note difference the between company and

corporate research and development establishments, on the one hand,
cooperative or national research institutes on the other hand. Whereas the former
have a major commitment to industrial innovation in general, and new product
development in particular, the later tends to pay more attention to process
improvement and to research aimed at improving the technological
infrastructure. The national research institutes, therefore, often act as important
sources of scientific and technical information to research establishments in
industry, although they must themselves rely on other sources of information
(Table 5.2).
Table 5.2: Diffusion and Information Orientation
DIFFUSION AND INFORMATION ORIENTATION
CORPORATE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ESTABLISHMENTS
l Innovation Oriented
l Cost Conscious
l User of Information
l Information of Proprietary Nature:
Know-how “Commodity”

NATIONAL RESEARCH INSTITUTES

l Infrastructure Oriented
l Providers of Advice and Information
l Information More of an Open Nature:
“Resource”

5.9.2 Information Services, Information Institutions and

Diffusion
It may be mentioned here that concepts such as library, information service, 123
Information Generation and extension services, etc. are manifestations within a continuous spectrum with
Communication
a shift in the major activity and in the need to adapt to changing requirements.
The physical form of the services is determined by the measure of specialisation,
which is necessary to satisfy the need for which the service is created or designed
(Table 5.3).
Table 5.3: Spectrum of Services

SPECTRUM OF SERVICES
TYPES OF SERVICES ACTIVITY RATE OF CHANGE
Archive Library Storing Low
Special Library
Documentation Service
Information Service Interpretation
Information Analysis
Information Synthesis
Extension Service
Advisory Service Advising High

Broadly speaking, an information service, as activity, comprises the

interpretation of information in terms of user needs. In other words, it is a
“repackaging” function. In accomplishing this function of information service,
as an organisation can make use of all possible resources or concentrate more
on documentary information (such as journals, indexing and abstracting
services, monographs, etc.). A typical R&D information service would provide
conventional or computerised current awareness and retrospective search
services to supply the user with necessary documents. (Table 5.4).
Table 5.4: Information Services in Diffusion
INFORMATION SERVICES IN DIFFUSION
Alerting
l Broad Current Awareness
(To Group of Firms)
l Highly Specific SDI
(To Individual Scientists, Engineers)
l Retrospective Searching
(In-Depth Searches. Quick Reference Enquiries)
Document Delivery
l Acquisition
l Cataloguing. Classification
l Lending. Copies
Interpretation of Information
(Analysis of Information in Documents)
l Specialised (In-House) Databases
l Extension (Field Liaison)

Depending on the organisation and the size of R&D establishments, as also

the mandate of an information service within such establishment, more
sophisticated information services like information analysis and advisory
services as well as specialised databases would be provided.
Where R&D information services also provide information services directly
124 to industry, it is not uncommon to find field liaison services, especially in the
case of information services forming part of national R&D establishments. Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
Information services in industrial R&D establishments will probably pay more
attention to patent literature and trade intelligence when compared to
information services forming part of those national R&D establishments, which
are more infrastructure-oriented.

5.9.3 Gatekeeping of Technical Information

Many papers, articles and handbooks have been published on this topic. As
such, only some broad guidelines on what industrial firms can do to use external
information sources to their best advantage are indicated here. These guidelines
concern the establishment of in-house libraries, correspondence information,
monitoring and business intelligence systems, as well as the use of external
information systems (Table 5.5).
Table 5.5: Information Sources and Diffusion

INFORMATION SOURCES AND DIFFUSION

l Library: Books, Journals , Reports Trade Literature, Newspapers, Cuttings,
Patents, Standards, Manuals
l In and Outgoing Correspondence Information Syst em: Technical Subjects
l The Use of External Systems for Literature Current Awareness or
Selective Dissemination of Information
l Sharing Facilities for Scientific, Technical and Business Databases:
Bibliography and Numerical
l Information Search Unit: Study of Literature to Trigger New Ideas
l Monitoring or Early Alert System: Identification of Threats and
Opportunities
l Business Intelligence System: Alliances of Information for Decision Support

In this context a distinction can be made between the information needs of

entrepreneurs establishing new industries and those of existing industries. It
may be mentioned here that the small firms may need advice on how to set up
in-house libraries and / or information services mentioned earlier. Many
international organisations as well as national documentation centres are able
to provide such advice.
No mention has been made, till now, of management information systems,
although many firms (especially smaller ones) are in need of unbiased advice
on the creation of such systems. There are clear indications, however, that the
fields of documentary information, management information, records
management, and office automation are converging in a manner similar to the
converging of computation and telecommunication.
It must be stressed at this stage that no amount of information can encourage
innovation if the management of the organisation is not receptive to risk taking
for the sake of innovation, especially in these days of “professional
management”.

5.9.4 Information Policy in Support of Information Diffusion

Information flow is a necessary condition for diffusion of information related
to innovations. In many countries evidence is available in favour of
governmental obligation to provide innovation support to industry. It has been 125
Information Generation and mentioned that government policies are rather biased to support large industrial
Communication
firms. But, resent studies indicate that small firms can also contribute
extensively to innovations. Chico writing on Technonet Project in South East
Asia, lists technical information services, industrial extension services and
entrepreneurial development programs as important ingredients for promoting
innovation, especially in small firms. However, most of the small industrial
firms of developing countries lack these facilities. The developed countries
have well designed policies in this regard. In the USA, the policy is to stimulate
innovation through removal of impediments, while in other countries direct
governmental involvement in the form of subsidies for industrial R&D, based
upon selective industrial strategies, as well as the introduction of other
innovation support programmes is advocated. Several Western Countries, as
well as Japan, have established, or are in the process of establishing formalised
information policies for this purpose.
Self Check Exercise
5) What is meant by diffusion? Explain the varieties of diffusion.
6) Discuss the economic theory of diffusion.
7) Briefly discuss some of the important models of diffusion.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
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5.10 SUMMARY
In this Unit, we have attempted to explain to you different conceptualisations
of the term ‘information’. The main aspects discussed are: Information as
commodity / resource; information as data in the environment; information as
representation of knowledge and information as part of Communication process.
The second topic covered in this Unit relates to the concept of ‘communication’.
In this regard, the idea and meaning of communication, the definition of
communication is explained to you. The form and channels of communication
are described and are represented diagrammatically to have a clear
understanding. The essentials or ingredients of communication are dealt with
briefly. The different functions of communication along with its types are
discussed in detail. Attempt has been made to highlight the significance of
personal communication bringing out clearly the importance of models and
media of communication.
The third aspect discussed in this Unit happens to be “Information Diffusion”.
In this regard, the main aspects discussed are: the meaning of diffusion, which
is a process of transfer of knowledge, or the movement of technical know-how
126 within a group of users such as farmers, doctors, engineers, etc.; the pattern of
diffusion process occurs in two ways namely temporal and spatial; diffusion Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
could be interfirm, intrafirm, or spread through out the industry; several factors
such as relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, communicability,
observability, and diversability; affect the information diffusion of innovations;
the process of information diffusion has been studied through four models:
Epidemic Model, Economic Theory Model, Stock Adjustment Model and
Vintage Model, each having its own characteristics. Also, the information
system for diffusion is affected through information units operated close to
R&D establishments. A spectrum of services is offered by information
institutions for the support of innovation, for example Gatekeeping or Technical
Information is a unique service adopted to provide information support to
innovation. Mention has also been made in the Unit about national efforts
providing information support services through a variety of institutions that
activate spreading of information.

5.11 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) Different Conceptualisations of Information:
Information is not just one thing. It means different things to those who expound
its characteristics, properties, elements, techniques, functions, dimensions and
connections.
In every day life, the word ‘information’ is closely related to the concept of
communication, more specially with the aspect of communication of ideas,
thoughts, and knowledge bringing forth an understand of information that it
has properties to convey ideas, thoughts, concepts and knowledge.
The table below furnishes different conceptualisations of information.

Conceptualisation Description Assumptions

A message, commodity, Assumes sender –>

something that can be receiver, assumes receiver
Resource / Commodity produced, purchased, makes of message what
distributed, sold, traded, sender intends.
manipulated, passed along,
controlled.

Objects, artefacts, sounds, Accounts for unintentional

smells, events, visual and communication
Data in environment tactile phenomena, activities,
phenomena of nature.
Documents, books, Assumes printed
periodicals, some visual and documents are primary
Representation of auditory representations, representation of
Knowledge abstractions of information knowledge; assumes
(e.g. citations) primacy of scientific
technical knowledge.
Part of human behaviour in Assumes meanings are in
Part of process of process of moving through people, not in words;
communication time / space to make sense of assumes human behaviour
world is basis of the process.
Buckland identifies three principal uses of the word information:
127
i) information as process (i.e. the ability to inform),
Information Generation and ii) information - as knowledge (i.e. the knowledge that is imparted in the
Communication
process of being informed, and
iii) information - as thing, concentrating on the various properties of
information and its different manifestations and understandings.
By focussing upon information - as - thing, Buckland brings into consideration
such phenomena as objects and events, seeking in the process to widen our
perception of what constitutes data and documents. Buckland's approach is
useful both for its breadth of vision and for the way it manages to weave
together such key concepts as information, knowledge and communication.
Moreover, by demonstrating that as thing, which is embodied in objects or
information systems, information can be tangible, as opposed to knowledge
which is inherently intangible, he sheds light on the traditional perceptions of
information, most notably that of Fritz Machlup who considered information
as an intangible.
2) Communication systems can be distinguished in the following manner:
i) Vocal and Non- vocal Communication: Vocal communication refers
to any type of communication where human voice is used; it could
be spoken language, shouting or laughing. Non-vocal communication,
on the other hand, refers to use of signs, symbols, signals, gestures
etc. to communicate something.
ii) Verbal and Non-verbal Communication: Verbal communication
refers to the use of words to communicate something; different
languages come under the category of verbal communication. Non-
verbal communication, on the other hand, refers to those different
modes of vocal and non-vocal communication where words are not
used. The examples of non-verbal communication are gestures, facial
expression, vocalisation etc.
iii) Intrapersonal Communication: Communication within one person
such as reading a book.
iv) Interpersonal Communication: Communication between two persons
such as writing letters, face-to-face conversation.
v) Group Communication: It could be either a small group ranging from
three to about 25 persons or large group where one or several persons
communicate to an audience of 25 or more persons. Social gatherings
and conferences are examples of group communication.
vi) Public or Mass Communication: Any large scale communication that
disseminates through media such as print, broad casting etc. comes
under this category. Broadcasting of news through radio and television
are examples of public mass communication.
3) The basic elements of communication process are:
i) Source: Which generates information.
ii) Encoder: Translates the information or message into words, signals,
128
signs, etc.
 iii) Message: It is the meaningful representation of the thought or ideas Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
of the information source.
iv) Channel: The medium trough, which the message is transmitted.
v) Noise: Disturbance that interferes with the message in the
transmission process and degrades or distorts the information or
message.
vi) Decoder: Translates back the message from words, symbols, etc. into
thoughts and ideas of the information source.
vii) Receiver / Destination: The person or equipment, which receives the
information. In oral communication the listener is the receiver as
destination of information. In the case of electromagnetic
communication the equipment e.g., telephone, televisions are the
receivers and the person or group of persons for whom the information
is meant is the receiver.
4) Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication is one of the best-known
models of communication. In this model (depicted in the figure), a message
emanates from an information source. It is converted into signal or series
of signals by a transmitter. Enroute, this signal is mixed with or
contaminated by 'noise', that is to say, various kinds of unwanted
interference coming from noise sources. The received signal is decoded
by a receiver, being converted back into the original message, more or
less, which is what the receiver (or destination) receives.
This model has been criticised, however, because it is linear. That is to
say, it accounts only for the act of sending and receiving. It is a one-way
model, based on engineering. In fact, this was the dominant model for a
quarter of a century.
To convert Shannon and Weaver's Model of Communication into a two-
way model of communication, we must add feed back channel, complete
with transmitter, encoding, noise, decoding and receiver, all to deal with
messages returning from the receiver to the sender. It could be said that
we are simply working Shannon Weaver model in reverse, but in fact we
are working it almost simultaneously in both directions. In this two-way
model, the feedback channel can be vitally important to the original
receiver as a means of seeking clarification of the original message. Feed
back channels, verbal and non-verbal, continually serve this purpose in
human communication. New information technology enables us to engage
in far more two-way communication than was possible earlier.
Information
Source Transmitter Receiver Destination
Message Signal Received
Channel
Signal Message

Noise Source
129
Shannon Weaver Model of Communication Process
Information Generation and Some of the other prominent models of communication are:
Communication
i) Lasswell's Model
ii) Gerbner's Model
iii) Schramm Model.
5) Diffusion is an information transfer process of knowledge. It is the spread
or activation of the usage of technology within a population of users,
usually within a group characterised by some common element of
productive activity viz. farming, mining, etc. Thus diffusion is the
movement of technical know-how within the group of users such as
farmers, doctors, engineers, etc. This is clearly distinguished from the
lateral shift i.e. from one group of users to another e.g. from farming to
mining.
Mansfield has conceived three varieties of diffusion. They are:
a) Interfirm diffusion: It refers to spread of new process from firm to
firm within an industry. It is also known as imitation diffusion.
b) Intrafirm diffusion: It refers to the spread of the process within
individual firms.
c) Overall diffusion: it refers to the spread of transfer through out the
industry as a whole.
However, in general diffusion means interfirm diffusion which reflects
the adoption and usage process between firms within an industry.
6) According to Economic Theory of diffusion there can be major differences
between firms within the same industry of how profitable the adoption of
any innovation will be. This will depend on the nature of innovations,
information about it, and attitude of the firms taking risk. Apart from the
size of the firms may also contribute to the interfirm differences. This
argument has been formalised into a model called ‘Industrial Engel Curve’
which relates probability of a firm having adapted to the new innovations
to the firm's size. Data collected to Industrial Engel Curve indicate positive
relationship between the speeds of adoption of innovations to the firm's
size. Many other correlations could be brought in such as nature of
innovation vis-à-vis industrial growth, cyclical factors and growth factors,
the role of firm size, industry concentration, etc.
7) There are considerable number of intra and interorganisational diffusion
surveys focussing on the adoption and usage process of innovations. The
time taken for the spread of diffusion of innovation is influenced by the
institutional level characteristics. At the international level the
characteristics of countries and organisations therein affect the adoption
of innovation. The researchers of innovation diffusion have compared
the diffusion process with epidemics, economic theory, stock adjustment
and vintage and devised four models of analogy. Of these, the Epidemic
Model and the Economic Theory Model are considered somewhat
important. Let us try to know what these models are.
130
 Epidemic Model: This model is known as the ‘learning model’. It is more Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
popular in the sociological and marketing literatures, but has also been
used by economists.
A common feature of this model is the analogy drawn from the spread of
diseases. Consequently, a theoretical tool often used is one of the
mathematical theories of epidemics. As reference to these theories is also
often made by economists working in this area, an exposition of the
simplest model of epidemics will provide useful introduction to the study
of this model. The basic hypothesis of a simple epidemic model is
represented by the following equation:
mt+1 - mt = ß (n - mt ) mt / n
Where m is the number individuals in a fixed population of n having
contacted the disease, between elapse time epoch's t and t + 1. This is
proportionate to the product of the number of uninfected, both at time t.
The value of ß (epidemic indicator) will depend on a number of factors
such as the infectiousness of the disease, and the frequency of social
interaction.
The second important model is that of
Economic Theory Model: As a result of the nascent nature of process
innovations and of the imperfect information, there may be major
differences between firms in the expectations of how profitable the
adoption of any innovation will be. This, coupled with the likelihood that
firms differ in their attitude to risk general and new innovations in
particular, leads to the conclusion that different firms react differently to
the same innovation. Specially, the time lag before adopting the
innovations will probably differ significantly between firms within the
same industry. For economic reasons, it was suggested that an important
contributor to interfirm differences would be the difference in their size
(i.e. the size of the firm). This logic has been formalised into a model
called “Industrial Engel Curve” which relates probability of a firm having
adopted the new innovation to the firm's size. When the Industrial Engel
Curve was fitted with data collection, results were encouraging. The sample
innovations, on which the data was based, indicated positive relationships
between the speed of adoption of innovation and the firm's size. Many
other correlations could be brought in, such as nature of innovation vis-à-
vis industrial growth, cyclical factors and growth factors, the role of the
firm's size and industry concentration, etc.

5.12 KEYWORDS
Compunication : Convergence of communication and
computer technology.
Diffusion : It is a transfer process in which there is
movement of technical know-how within
a group of users.
Epidemic Model of Diffusion : Diffusion process examined on the analogy
131
drawn from the spread of diseases.
Information Generation and Facsimile Transmission : Transmission of an image over
Communication
communication line in the form of electric
signals in such a way that the image is
reproduced at the destination using special
equipment and paper.
Industrial Engel Curve : Relates to probability of a firm having
adopted the new innovation to the firms'
size.
Interfirm Diffusion : Spread of new process from firm to firm
within an industry.
Intrafirm Diffusion : Spread of new process within a firm.
Multiplexing : It is a system of device which takes a
number of data communication channels
and combines the signals into one common
channel transmission.
Optical Fibres : A thin glass or plastic fibre used to carry
data in the form of light waves.
Teletext : A generic term for information services
provided by television companies in which
data is super imposed on the television
signal in such a way that a suitably adapted
television can display the data as full
screens of alphanumeric and block graphic
characters.
Videotext : A generic term for system whereby
computer based information is made
available on an adapted television monitor.

5.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Arrow, K.J. (1979). The Economics of Information. In: Dertouzos, M.L. and
Moses, J (eds.) The computer Age: A Twenty-Year View. Cambridge: M I T
Press. Pp. 306-317.
Atwood and Dervin (1982). Challenges to Sociocultural Predictors of
Information Seeking. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Baptista, R. (1989). The Diffusion Process Innovations: A Selective Review.
International Journal of Economics of Business. 61, 107.
Bates, B.J. (1988). Information as an Economic Good: Sources of Individual
and Social Value. In: Mosco, V. and Wasco, J (eds.). The Political Economy
of Information. Madison; WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
Brown, L. A. (1981). Innovation Diffusion: A New Perspective. New York:
Methuen & Co.
Brown, Marilyn A. (1989). Diffusion. In: Encyclopaedia of Communication.
132 New York: Oxford University Press. Vol. 1. Pp. 31 - 36.
Buckland, Michael (1991). Information as Thing. Journal of the American Information, Communication
Process, Media and Diffusion
Society for Information Science. 42(5), 351-60.
Charpie, R. A. (1970). Technological Innovation and the International
Economy. Fifth Annual Lecture of the Science Foundation. London: Wiley
Interscience.
Chatman, Elfredn A. (1986). Diffusion Theory: A Review and Text of
Conceptual Model in Information Diffusion. JASIS, 36, 377 - 386.
Davies, S. (1979). The Diffusion Process Innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Dholakia, N., and Bakke, J. W. (1996). Institutional Patterns of Information
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Dutton, William, (ed.) (1996). Information and Communication Technologies:
Visions and Realities. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Geroski, P. A. (2000). Models of Technology Diffusion. Research Policy, 29
(4/5), 603 - 625.
Hall, B. H. (2003). Innovation and Diffusion. Preprint. 46p.
Lennstrand, Bo (1998). Diffusion of Information and Communication
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Conference at Stockholm.
Lievrouw, L. A. (1988). Four Programs of Research in Scientific
Communication. Knowledge in Society. 1(2), 6-22.
Losse, Robert M. Jr. (1990). The Science of Information. San Diego: Academic
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Mc Creadie, Maureen and Rice, Ronald E. (1999). Trends in Analyzing Access
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Maddock, Sir Ieuam (1981). Research Organisations and Their Contributions.
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Menou, Michael (1994). The Impact of Information: Definitions and
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Shannon, C.E. and Weaver, W. (1949). The Mathematical Theory of
Communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Stoneman, P. (2001). The Economics of Technological Diffusion. Oxford:
Blackwell's.

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Information Generation and Taylor, R. (1996). Information Use Environments. In. Auter, E. and Choo, C.,
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(eds.) Managing Information for the Competitive Edge. New York: Neal-
Schuman.
Torsten, Hagerstrand (1967). Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process,
Translated by Allen Pred. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Valente, Tom (1995). Network Models of the Diffusion of innovations. New
Jersey: Hampton Press.
Witson, T. D. (1981). On User Studies and Information Needs. J. Doc. 37 (1),
3-15.
Zettlemeyer, F. and Stoneman, P. L. (1993). Testing Alternative Models of
New Product Diffusion. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, 2,
283 - 308.

134