TRANSFORMERS & ALTERNATORS – 20EE31P

Instrument Transformer

For the measurement of large currents and high voltages in AC circuits, specially constructed
accurate ratio transformers are used in conjunction with low range AC instruments. These
specially constructed transformers are known as instrument transformers.

Types of Instrument Transformer

There are two types of instrument transformer. These are:

1. Potential Transformers (PTs)

2. Current Transformers (CTs)

These instrument transformers are also used in the power system in conjunction with protective
relays. For safety purposes, the secondaries of these transformers are grounded.

Current Transformer

Working & Construction of Current Transformer

Current transformers are used in AC power circuits to feed the current coils of indicting and
metering instruments (ammeters, watt-meters, energy-meters) and protective relays. These
transformers make the ordinary low current instruments suitable for the measurement of high
current and isolate them from high voltage.

The current transformer basically consists of an iron core on which a primary and one or two
secondary windings are wound. The primary winding has one or two turns of thick wire and is
connected in series with the load. It carries the actual power system current. Primary current
ratings vary from 10 A to 3000 A or more.

The secondary winding has a large number of turns of fine wire. It is connected across current
coils of indicting and metering instruments and protective relays. The secondary current ratings
are of the order of 5 A, 1 A, and 0.1 A. The latter is used for static relays.
ranges from 0 – 5 A to 0 – 600 A.

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Example: A 100 : 5 transformer is used in conjunction with a 5-amp ammeter. If the latter reads
3.5 A, find the line current.
Solution: Here, the ratio 100 : 5 stands for the ratio of primary-to-secondary currents, i.e. I1/I2 =
100/5
∴ Primary (or line) current = 3.5 × (100/5) = 70 A

Example: It is desired to measure a line current of the order of 2,000 A to 2,500 A. If a standard
5-amp ammeter is to be used along with a current transformer, what should be the turn ratio of
the latter? By what factor should the ammeter reading be multiplied to get the line current in
each case?
Solution: I1/I2= 2000/5 = 400 or 2500/5 = 500.
Since I1/I2 = N2/N1 hence N2/N1 = 400 in the first case and 500 in the second case.
It means that N1 : N2 = 1 : 400 or 1 : 500.
Ratio or multiplication factor in the first case is 400 and in the second case 500.

Potential Transformers

Working & Construction of Potential Transformers

Potential transformers are used in AC power circuits to feed the potential coils of indicting and
metering instruments (voltmeters, watt-meters, energy-meters) and protective relays. These
transformers make the ordinary low voltage instruments suitable for the measurement of high
voltage and isolate them from high voltage.

The PTs are highly accurate ratio step down transformers. Its primary winding has a large
number of turns and is always connected across the supply system. Its secondary winding has
few numbers of turns and is connected to the potential coil of indicting and metering instruments
and protective relays.
In general, they are of the shell-type and do not differ much from the ordinary two-winding
transformers, except that their power rating is extremely small.

The primaries of PT are rated from 400 V to several thousand volts and secondaries always for
110 V.

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Let the voltage to be measured of a power system is 11 kV. It is impossible to measure such a
high voltage directly by a voltmeter. Therefore, a PT having a secondary to primary turn ratio
1:100 is used in conjunction with a voltmeter, which steps down the voltage from 11 kV to 110
V, as shown in the figure.

Pulse Transformer ( Isolation Transformer )

In the above circuit pulse transformer provides isolation between low voltage SCR gate
triggering circuit and high voltage SCR anode circuit.

Structure
 The figure A shows toroidal shaped pulse transformer.
 It consists of one primary winding and two secondary winding.
 Each winding consists of same number of turns therefore any winding works as primary
or secondary winding.
 The pulse to SCR is given by 1:1 or 1:1:1 pulse transformer.

Toroidal Transformers

A toroidal transformer is a special type of electrical transformer with a doughnut-like

shape. Toroidal transformers provide increased design flexibility, efficiency, and
compactness when compared to traditional shell and core type transformers. They are an
ideal solution for low-KVA (up to 15 KVA) rated devices and equipment used in medical,
industrial, renewable energy, and audio applications.

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TRANSFORMERS & ALTERNATORS – 20EE31P

A toroidal transformer operates under the principles of electromagnetic induction similar to a

linear transformer. It features a toroidal core surrounded by primary and secondary windings.
As current flows through the primary winding, it produces an electromagnetic force (EMF)
that generates a current in the secondary winding; this process allows power to be transferred
from the primary coil to the secondary coil.

Advantages Of Toroidal Transformers

 Small and light. Toroidal transformers have an ideal shape that requires minimum
material.
 Low stray magnetic field. Toroidal transformers emit very low radiated electro-
magnetic fields as compared to other transformers.
 Low noise.
 Electrical efficiency.
 Easy mounting.
Isolation Transformer:

The construction & working of isolation transformer is nearly identical to conventional

transformers.
 Isolation transformers are specially designed transformers for providing electrical
isolation between the power source and the powered devices.

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 The transformer has primary and secondary windings placed on the common core
limbs which have equal number of turns so that the voltage fed to the primary is
available at the secondary without any change in its magnitude.
 Any spikes on the primary side are subdued and prevented from getting
transformed to the secondary side to a very large extent thus protecting the
devices or loads connected to secondary side.
 These are built with special insulation between primary and secondary. vi) It acts
as a decoupling device. vii) These transformers block the transmission of direct
current (DC) signals, but allow AC signals to pass from one circuit to another.

Autotransformer

An autotransformer is a special type of transformer because its construction is different from a

normal transformer. It is a transformer where the secondary winding is also part of the primary
winding. i.e., It is a single winding transformer where the winding is common for both the
primary and secondary sides.

Its operating principle and general construction are the same as that of a conventional two
winding transformer. Economically this type of transformer is very cheaper compared to a
normal transformer.

Construction & Working of Autotransformer :

The construction and working principle of an autotransformer are similar to a normal two
winding transformer. But, here only one winding is wound with the laminated core as shown in
the below figure. The secondary winding of the transformer is taken from the portion of the
primary winding. The amount of the portion connected to the secondary winding depends upon
the voltage rating.

By interchanging the winding connection ( making secondary as primary and vice-versa ) we can
make an autotransformer either as a step-up autotransformer or step-down autotransformer.

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For a step-down autotransformer ( V1 > V2 ), the connection is made in such a way that the
entire winding act as the primary winding and the secondary winding will be part of the primary
winding ( but not equal to primary winding ) i.e., N1 > N2.

For a step-up autotransformer ( V1 < V2 ), here the whole winding will be made as to the
secondary side and the primary side will be part of the secondary side ( but not equal to the
secondary side ) as shown below, i.e., N1 < N2.

The main use of autotransformer is due to its reduced size by making a single winding as the
primary and secondary side. Which in turn reduces the amount of copper used.

Advantages of an Autotransformer
 Cheaper.
 More efficient, because losses stay the same while the rating goes up compared to
a conventional transformer.
 Lower exciting current.
 Better voltage regulation.

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Disadvantages of an Autotransformer
 Larger short-circuit current
 No isolation exists between the primary and secondary windings
 Only useful for moderately smaller voltage changes

Applications of Autotransformer
 They are generally used to connect transmission lines of slightly different
voltages ( e.g., 115 kV and 138 kV or 138 kV and 161 kV)
 They are employed to compensate for voltage drops on long feeder circuits where
it is important that each load device receives the same voltage ( e.g., on airfield
lighting circuits to ensure uniform lamp intensity)
 They offer variable voltage control in the laboratory setup: as we move the sliding
contact, virtually all of the coil can become the series coil. Therefore, the entire
coil must be sized for maximum current.
 They are used to adjust the transformer output voltage in order to keep the system
voltage constant with varying load.

Testing and Troubleshooting of given transformer

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Installation and Commissioning of transformer

Following are steps to install and commissioning of power transformers.

1 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE LOG SHEET

• It is important that an inspection and maintenance log sheet be kept regularly.
The original of this log sheet should be kept along with the Instruction Manual
for future reference and record.
• The log should include dates and details of all inspections and maintenance
carried out.
• Results of oil tests and insulation resistance together with the temperatures at
the time of measurement should also be recorded in the log sheet.
• Before commencing the test it should be ensured that the secondary terminals
of all current transformers are kept short-circuited. After test these shorting
connections shall be removed.

2 PHYSICAL CHECKS
• Check oil levels in the level gauges of all condenser bushings.
• All air release plugs shall be loosened and closed after releasing trapped air if
any.
• Check and confirm tightness of all fasteners.
• Check and confirm that valves are either open or closed as indicated the valve
schedule plate.
• Check all bolted gasket joints and confirm that there is no oil leak.
• All blanking plates and spares including spare gasket should be stored
carefully for future use.
• Check all cable terminations and ensure that cables are properly connected
and cable numbering ferrules are provided.
• Check and ensure that all protective covers like valve guards, LV bushing
protection covers etc. are removed.
• Check and confirm that all bushing porcelain are cleaned thoroughly and are
without damage.
• Check & confirm that the test tap caps of all Condenser type Bushings are
tightened.
• Remove the cap provided at the bottom of silicagel breather for the
transportation purpose.
• Arcing horns if provided are set to the specified gap
• All earthing connections are tightened properly.
• Anti condensation heaters are functioning correctly.
• Rating and connection diagram plates and other marking labels are fitted
properly.
• All isolating switches are set at ON position.
• Cooler control switch is set to AUTO.
• All alarm circuits are reset.
• OLTC to Transformer equalising pipe shall be removed after oil filling under
vacuum and the opening shall be coverd by blanking plate supplied with the
transformer.

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3 INSULATION RESISTANCE CHECK

• Check and record insulation resistance between pair of windings and windings
to earth using 2.5/ 5 kV Motorised megger and record the values at 15, 60 &
600 seconds. Calculate the ratios of insulation resistances IR 600/ IR 60
(Polarisation Index.) and IR 60/ IR 15. Compare the values with factory test
results.
• Check insulation resistance between core and frame to ground if the earthing
connection is brought out through bushings.

4 RATIO TESTS
• Connect 3-phase 415 volts supply between HV terminals and measure the
voltage ratios at all taps and record. (Refer Appendix-C)
• Earth connections from star point shall be removed during measurement and
reconnected after tests.

5 VECTOR GROUP TESTS

• Connect 415 V, 3-phase supply to HV winding terminals. The transformer
shall be at rated tap.
• Connect one HV terminal to one LV terminal and measure voltage between
each HV terminal to each LV terminal in turn. Compare the values with
factory test results

6 MAGNETIC BALANCE TEST

• Single-phase 240 volts is applied across any HV/LV winding (wrt voltage
class) and voltage induced across the other phases are measured and record
and compared with the factory test results.

7 SHORT CIRCUIT IMPEDENCE

• LV terminals are shorted by using suitable cables.
• 3 phase 415 volts supply is connected to HV winding and HV exciting current
of all the phases and LV circulating currents of all the phases are measured
and recorded.
• Percentage impedance = Rated current x Applied voltage x 100
• Measured current x Rated voltage
• Compare the results with factory test results.

8 WINDING RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

• Note down the oil/winding temperature. If the measurements are done after
hot oil circulation; the oil/winding temperature may be different from the
ambient temperature.
• Measure the resistance of all windings using a Micro-Ohm meter.
• Convert the resistances to 75°C.
• R (75) = R (measured) x (234.5 + 75)
• (234.5+Oil temperature at the time of measurement)
• Compare the values with factory test results.
•

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9 OPERATION CHECKS
• Check direction of rotation of pumps and fans.
• Check and confirm that flow indicators are mounted correctly.
• Check signalling circuits for pump fail/fans fail etc., and reset.
• Check setting of over load relays and reset.
• Tripping arrangement shall be connected for below mentioned accessories
before transformer charging: -
• WTI
• OTI
• PRV (Main Tank)
• PRV(OLTC)
• BUCHHOLZ Relay
• MOLG
• Low Oil Level Tripping

10 BUCHHOLZ RELAY OPERATION

• Check inclination of Buchholz relay pipe. The slope should be in upward
direction, between 3 ~ 9O to horizontal towards the conservator.
• Connect a compressed air line (Pressure 4 kg/cm2) or a nitrogen cylinder to
the petcock on top of the Buchholz relay. Open the petcock slowly and allow
air to enter into the Buchholz relay.
• Check the continuity of alarm contacts by using a multimeter. Record the
volume of air in the Buchholz Relay at which the alarm switch contact closes.
• Close the air supply and release all the air by opening the other petcock on the
Buchholz relay. Open the petcock quickly and allow air full flow with surge.
Record the minimum pressure required to operate the surge contacts.
• Release all the air trapped in the Buchholz relay.

CONSTRUCTION OF DC GENERATOR

The construction of a DC generator is similar to a DC motor. So, a DC generator can work as a

DC motor and vice-versa. The basic constructional features of a DC generator are described
below.

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YOKE:

The yoke is the outer covering of the DC generator and is made of cast steel or cast iron. It
serves two purposes:

1) Provides a path for pole flux.

2) Provides mechanical support to the whole machine.

FIELD POLES:

It consists of pole core and pole shoes. The pole core supports the field winding while the pole
shoe distributes the flux in the air gap uniformly.

FIELD WINDING:

It is made of copper and wound around each pole core in such a way that adjacent North and
South poles develop when the field winding is excited.

Field poles and Field windings

ARMATURE CORE:

The armature is the center of electromechanical conversion. It is the rotating part of the DC
machine and consists of grooves or slots over the entire periphery. These slots carry the current-
carrying armature conductors. The armature core is made up of thin laminations to reduce eddy
current losses.

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ARMATURE WINDING:

Armature winding is made of copper and placed inside the slots of the armature core. Each
conductor in the winding is insulated from each other and also from the armature core.

COMMUTATOR

A commutator is also known as a mechanical rectifier. It provides an electrical connection

between the rotating armature coil and the stationary external circuit. It consists of hard-drawn
copper segments insulated from each other forming a ring structure. In a dc generator, the
commutator collects the current generated in the armature winding.

BRUSHES

The brushes are either made of carbon, electro graphite, or copper graphite. They always slide
over the commutator, thus ensuring a proper electrical connection. Their main function is to
collect current from the commutator and supply it to the electrical load or external circuit.

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Alternator
Definition: It is a machine that converts the input mechanical power into an output alternating
electrical energy. It works just like a generator. Hence, it is also called as AC generator.

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Armature Winding

To understand armature windings in a DC generator, we first need to understand pole pitch,

coils, and coil span.

What is Pole Pitch?

Pole pitch is defined as the peripheral distance between the center of two adjacent poles in a DC
machine. This distance is measured in terms of armature slots or armature conductors that come
between two adjacent pole centers.
Pole Pitch is equal to the total number of armature slots divided by the total number of poles in
the machine.

For example, if there are 96 slots on the armature periphery and 4 poles, the number of armature
slots that come between two adjacent pole centers would be 96/4 = 24. Hence, the pole pitch of
that DC machine would be 24.
Hence pole pitch is equal to total numbers of armature slots divided by total numbers of poles,
we alternatively refer to it as armature slots per pole.
The formula for pole pitch and a worked example is discussed in the video below:

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What is a Coil?

The coil of the DC machine is made up of one turn or multi turns of the conductor. If the coil is
made up of a single turn or a single loop of the conductor, it is called a single turn coil. If the coil
is made up of more than one turn of a conductor, we refer to it as a multi-turn coil.
A single turn coil will have one conductor per side of the coil whereas, in multi turns coil, there
will be multiple conductors per side of the coil. Whatever may be the number of conductors per
side of the coil, each coil side is placed inside one armature slot only.

That means all conductors of one side of a particular coil must be placed in one single slot only.
Similarly, we place all conductors on the opposite side of the coil in another single armature slot.

Coils and coil span is discussed in more detail in the video below.

What is Coil Span (Coil Pitch)?

Coil span (also known as coil pitch) is defined as the peripheral distance between two sides of a
coil, measured in terms of the number of armature slots between them. That means, after placing
one side of the coil in a particular slot, after how many conjugative slots, the other side of the
same coil is placed on the armature. This number is known as coil span.

If the coil span is equal to the pole pitch, then the armature winding is said to be full – pitched.
In this situation, two opposite sides of the coil lie under two opposite poles.
Hence emf induced in one side of the coil will be in a 180 o phase shift with emf induced in the
other side of the coil. Thus, the total terminal voltage of the coil will be nothing but the direct
arithmetic sum of these two EMFs.
If the coil span is less than the pole pitch, then the winding is referred to as fractional pitched. In
this coil, there will be a phase difference between induced EMFs on two sides, less than 180 o.
Hence resultant terminal voltage of the coil is the vector sum of these two EMFs and it is less
than that of the full-pitched coil.

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In practice, coil pitch (or Span) as low as eight-tenths of a Pole Pitch, is employed without much
serious reduction in emf. Fractional pitched windings are purposely used to effect a substantial
saving in copper of the end connection and for improving commutation.

Pitch of Armature Winding

Back Pitch (Yb)

A coil advances on the back of the armature. This advancement is measured in terms of armature
conductors and is called back pitch. It is equal to the number difference of the conductor
connected to a given segment of the commutator.
Front Pitch (Yf)

The number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a coil on the front is called front
pitch.Alternatively, we define the front-pitch as the distance between the second conductor of
the next coil which connects the front, i.e., commutator end of the armature.

In other words, it is the number difference of the conductors connected together at the back end
of the armature. We are showing both front and back pitches for a lap, and wave windings in the
figure below.

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Resultant Pitch (Y)

It is the distance between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it
is connected.

As a matter of precautions, we should keep in mind that all these pitches, though normally stated
concerning armature conductors, are also times of armature slots or commutator bars.

Commutator Pitch

Commutator pitch is defined as the distance between two commutator segments in which two
ends of the same armature coil are connected. We measure commutator pitch in terms of
commutator bars or segments.

Single Layer Armature Winding

We place armature coil sides in the armature slots differently. In some arrangement, each one
side of an armature coil occupies a single slot.

In other words, we place one coil side in each armature slot. We refer to this arrangement as
single-layer winding.

Two Layer Armature Winding

In other types of armature winding, arrangement two coil sides occupy every armature slot; one
occupies the upper half, and another one occupies the lower half of the slot.

We so place the coils in two layers winding that if one side occupies upper half, then another
side occupies the lower half of some other slot at a distance of one coil pitch away.

The advantages of short pitch winding

1. They save copper for end connections

2. They improve the waveform of the generated EMF.
3. The generated EMF can be made to approximate to a sine wave more easily and the
distorting harmonics can be reduced.

The disadvantages of short pitch winding

The total voltage around the coils is some what reduced. Because the voltage induced in the two
coil sides are slightly out of phase.

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