Computer Architecture and Organization: An Overview HR] Dats The term “data"\(‘data’ is the plural off “datuim’) is used to express raw facts concerning values, properties, nan.s, etc., of entities. For example, ‘Arif’, ‘age’, ‘22%, ‘good’, ‘young’, ‘man’ express some atomic facts but each individual unit of expression does not cary much useful meaning by itself. : The dictionary meaning of datum is ‘thing given, known, or assumed as basis for reckoning, reasoning, etc, Data, the plural form of datum, can be defined as facts, observations, assumptions, occurrences and factual materials used as a basis of reckoning, reasoning, calculation, measurement, etc. The term data is normally used to represent both datum and data. Be Information (Data after getting processed gives information. The data by themselves may not be immediately meaningful. For example, the individual data items like “Arif”, ‘age’, *22’, ‘good’, ‘young’, ‘man’ do not signify much sense except the meaning the words convey. However, if they are processed to give a statement like Arif is good or Arif is a good, young man who is 22 years of age, information is built up and it carries sense. Therefore processed and interpreted data is, called information. Information at one stage can be used as raw data in some later processing. The terms ‘information’ and ‘data’ are used interchangeably quite often Data, volumes of them, are stored in computers in the form of databases for quick answer to queries for required information. Facts are stored as data like name of trains, departure time, classes of ticket, number of seats provided, date of journey ete. A query may be raised whether a seat is available for a particular class on a particular train on a particular date. There can be varieties of queries raised and varieties of action performed to process the data and bring out information. The database technology is a vast subject by itself. 11.2] COMPUTER BUILDING BLOCKS We shall study computer Organization in more detail in the upcoming chapters. For now, let us, understand some of the fundamental concepts. Way back arourid 1833, Charles Babbage, Professor of mathematics at Cambridge University-in England, had planned for a mechanical computer, which he named as the Analytical Engine, This machine could not finally be built because of many reasons including that of technology not being available for making the units with correct precision. However, what he-designed was a prototype of a computer hundred years ahead. The basic architecture of Analytical Engine tallies with computers built even today. Babbage is remembered as the father of compater because of this reason. He had planned to incorporate a punched card input to his Analytical Engine, a memory unit, (he called store), an arithmetic unit (mill) and 2 sequential program control for running the engine. Alll these units, form the basic building blocks of a computer.G7 are mization 1 og a coh i. aoe eh te she tbe nO oo : eas aeOr by Com R on bah kc yp. “he ee Cermboon a Ore Warne ta se plea es sag SOE alae oa te 2, ze stp eee fa veal ab REL ye LO ahemdeweagt iefag h Dew wierd of Comptbe SE HLS Kaen Sp Heb Yaomed com be wed b eu ov MATE App et QarrR Sf- 2) cows, tele, et H/D> He8orrers Computx oy CO Thee sy No focus mr oS. Wigh Bemt —3 mfe De® code code ae AsSumbley ae ele ears ae(Computer Organization and Archite Vee ‘ Mathemd El Von Neumann Azchitecture The architecture, suggested by WOhi|WoHl Neumann, jis referred to as architecture, which has similar structural blocks as the constituent units which were suggeste by Charles Babbage. Neumann identified five bblocks to perform operations on the data. Memory Tnput Unit Fig. 1.1 Von Neumann Architecture The blocks are namely Input block, Memory block, Output block, Arithmetic and Loy Unit block (ALU) and the Control Unit block. Traditionally Arithmetic Logical Unit and Co Unit are built together. The functions of these two blocks are complementary to each other the extent that they are better built together. These two blocks together are referred to as Central Processing Unit (CPU). The units work with the inherent philosophy of stored progr concept given by yon Neumann. The concept utilises the memory to store all the instruction! be performed by the computer for a particular task prior to execution. The required data are to be stored in memory at execution time. The CPU fetches one instruction from mem decodes it and executes the same. At the end of the execution of the current instruction fetches the next instruction and the cycle continues till the job is finished. The key features of von Neumann architecture are as follows: The computer reads the instruction set from the outside world through the input de¥ The memory gets them through the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and stores them will The Control unit of CPU fetches one: instruction. at a time from the memory to the’ analyses ‘it, and-fetches required data. ALU executes the instruction, stores result b memory ifrequired. To give an output, the content from ALU is given to output device. unit of CPU controls all operations. It executes instructions in sequential order unless the of the instruction is to change the sequence of instructions. Itcan be well observed that there is @ single path between memory and ALU. Each in and operand need to be fetched from memory. Intermediate results are also needed to be in memory. This path between the memory and the ALU is kept busy almost every mom Being a single path it is very critical. This path is called the bottleneck of the von Neut architecture.Computer Architecture and Organization: An Ovewiew The von Neumann machines are termed as Institute of Advanced Systems (IAS) machine or Princeton Machine by some authors. This is because the design of the system was done in Institute of Advanced Systems (LAS) at Princeton University, USA. A number of machines have been built with variatio Von Neumann. One such is the Harvard Archit units for instruction and data. = — s in architecture from the classical re, in which, there are separate memory CPU ‘The Central Processing Unit does the work of performing the computations given tothe computer. Its task is to carry out arithmetic and logical functions as well as controlling all the functional blocks of the computer. It controls storing of information in the memory, and communicates with the outside world by means of the I/O blocks and peripherals. ‘The CPU always uses a program to do its work. For CPU to perform, the program must be first placed in its memory in a special language called machine code, The machine code is Gifferent for each type of CPU and consists of 0’s and 1’s. Machine code instructions are normally very simple like: » Getting the content of address X out of the memory > Storing the content B in address X ® Adding the contents B and C together, etc. A programer may write a program using machine codes. He has to use the exact codes for instructions and supply the exact data addresses for accessing data. Remembering codes and calculating exact addresses of data is difficult. Computers can also be programmed in ‘Assembly Tanguage’ Which is easier to use than the machine codes. In Assembly language programming, cach machine language instruction is given a symbolic name called Mnemonie. The data is also Eiven symbolic addresses in assembly language. Programs written in assembly language cannot be executed directly by the machine. A special program called Assembler reads the program written in assembly language and translates the same to machine code, which can be executed by the CPU. The program written in a language other than the machine code is calied source code or source: ‘Program. The machine code, written directly or translated, is called object code, Memory Memory Tastuction | Date Acithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) Control Unit — Dataaddress — control lines Fig. 1.2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)‘Computer Organization and Architect For convenience, most programmers write programs in high level languages rather than assembly language. When you write a program in a high level language, you must translate Usually, this means you have to run a special program, which would translate your pros into machine code. The program translating your high level language program may be of fy types, compilers and interpreters. We will discuss them in upcoming chapters. The digital circuits (Electronic circuits) in a computer system are made in such a way t they recognize some instructions and can execute them. The circuits required for the executip ofall the instructions are wired at manufacturing time. At the time of running, for a particu instruction certain circuits become effective while the rest of them remain disabled. The ba instructions are put in the computer memory in binary codes of 0’s and 1’s. The purpose individual instruction is quite simple Add, subtract, multiply divide, ete. Increment a number vVvv Move data from one part of memory to another Fetch a number from memory Fetch data from an input device vvv Store a number in memory > Pass data to an output device, etc. These basic binary coded instructions provided in a machine, together, are called instruction set (IS) of the computer. The instruction set forms a computer progr language called the machine language. Machine language consists of a series of 0’s try to make the basic instructions as simple as possible for easy programming, fitting purpose and required performance, not posing impossible challenges to the implementation costing less to manufacture. Performing circuitry'does not understand any other language except that which is deci by the designers (ie., the machine language). It is usually difficult and tedious for programers to use the machine language for Wi big programs To make it simpler for the programers, high level languages have been thought of @ machine manufacturer supplies (sometimes a third party) a program which can translal instructions written by the programer in a high level language, into the specific machine l instructions. The machine language instruction is called machine code or object code. A pk written in a language other than the machine language is called a source code or source proge For a machine code program, the programer has to write the machine codes in 0's and I has to calculate the data values in 0°s and 1’s combinations and also calculate the addres data and instructions and express the same in 0’s and 1’s code in the program. ‘Assembler’ is one such supplied program which accepts a program written in a land called ‘Assembly language’ and translates that to machine code. 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