Energy 276 (2023) 127451

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Energy
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Energy and exergy evaluation of new design nabla shaped tubular solar air
heater (∇ TSAH): Experimental investigation
Hamdy Hassan a, b, *, Osman Omran Osman b, Mahmoud N. Abdelmoez b, Saleh abo-Elfadl b
a
Energy Resources Engineering Department, Egypt Japan University of Science and Technology, New Borge Alarab, Alexandria, Egypt
b
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Soteris Kalogirou Solar air heating (SAH) is a low-cost method for air heating using solar energy. An energy and exergy perfor­
mance is performed experimentally on new designed tubular SAH having tubular absorber of adjacent tubes
Keywords: forming flat pack. Each tube of the absorber contains three adjacent internal tubes forming nabla shape (∇). The
Nabla shape nabla tubular SAH (∇TSAH) performance is studied compared to ordinary tubular SAH (OTSAH) having tubular
Solar air heater
absorber only for single pass (SP) and double pass (DP) flow conditions and different mass flow rates of air
Single and double pass
(MFRA). The study is investigated under upper Egypt hot climate conditions and 0.018–0.081 kg/s MFRA. The
Mass flow rate of air
Energy and exergy results demonstrate that ∇TSAH has higher outlet air temperature, energy gain, higher energy, exergy, and
Experimental thermohydraulic efficiencies, and lower top losses than the OTSAH. The new design boosts the exit air tem­
perature by about 13.5 and 5 ◦ C for SP and DP, respectively compared to OTSAH. Moreover, it enhances the
energy efficiency by about 28.1% and 71.5% and the exergy efficiency by about 56.2% and 76.8% compared to
OTSAH and flat plate SAH (FSAH), respectively at 0.027 kg/s. The maximum ∇TSAH output net energy gain is
achieved at 0.072 kg/s for SP and 0.036 kg/s for DP.

1. Introduction fins [6], using nanofluid [7], etc. Said et al. [7] presented a review paper
on the energy, exergy, and economic analysis of using nanofluids in the
The dramatic increase of the required energy throughout the world SAH performance. They found that using nanofluids can enhance the
due to the fast increase of the world inhabitants and their activities and energy performance of the solar systems by around 3%–5%.
the large development in the applied industry has oriented all the One of the simplest techniques that have proved its efficacity in
interested sectors, organizations, and nations by energy to find substi­ enhancing the SAH performance, is redesigning the SAH absorber.
tute resources of energy and profit from the available sources [1]. Different studies have targeted this technique and they have generally
Despite the traditional energy resources such as fossil fuel, oil, coal, etc. yielded a sensible improvement of SAH performance. One of these
are sometimes cheap and available in some of the world’s regions, redesigned SAH is utilizing extended surfaces or fins. El-khawajah et al.
however, their reserve will be depleted besides, their negative impact on [8] conducted experimental work to evaluate the performance of
the environment. This shifted the attention toward renewable and clean double-pass SAH with various numbers of fins. Instead of an absorber
energy resources [2]. Solar energy represents one of the primary clean, plate, wire mesh layers were employed between the fins. Stated findings
abundant, promising, and widely distributed renewable energies that is showed that utilizing six fins at the same MFRA resulted in the most
applied in many kinds of applications such as photovoltaics, solar dryer, outstanding efficiency with a value of 85.9%. The thermal energy effi­
and solar air heating (SAH) [3]. SAH is the simplest and cheapest ciency of a counter air flow packed bed SAH was significantly improved
technique that can be used in various applications such as food drying compared to a traditional SAH by Mahmood et al. [9]. They designed
and preservation and heating purposes of space. The main drawback of and tested SAHs with four transverse fins in SP and DP airflow config­
the SAH is that its efficiency is relatively low because of the low thermal urations. The findings demonstrated that the thermal efficiency of the
capacity of the air. Therefore, a great number of works and studies are DP SAH is 62.5% and for SP SAH is 55%. Abuşka [10] presented a novel
orientated to enhance SAHs performance such as using double pass air absorber plate with conical surface fins. He examined the SAH at three
flow, porous materials, backed mesh [4], thermal energy storage [5], different MFRAs of 0.04 kg/s, 0.08 kg/s, and 0.10 kg/s. Compared to the

* Corresponding author.Energy Resources Engineering Department, Egypt Japan University of Science and Technology, New Borge Alarab, Alexandria, Egypt
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (H. Hassan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.127451
Received 28 September 2022; Received in revised form 21 February 2023; Accepted 4 April 2023
Available online 22 April 2023
0360-5442/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

flat plate absorber, the conical-finned absorber is shown to have the difference between the intake and output of the collector was reduced.
greatest thermal energy efficiency in all testing conditions. The achieved Elfadl et al. [20] The new absorber was made up of conductive
maximum efficiency was 74.6% at 0.1 kg/s. In addition, the conical aluminum tubes that were placed parallel to each other and mounted in
shape promotes smooth airflow over the absorber plate, increases sur­ the same direction as the SAH’s airflow. According to the finding, in
face area, and minimizes shadowing and dead surface areas. An inves­ comparison to flat plate SAH, this designed SAH had a higher outlet air
tigation of the influence of alternative absorber plate designs on the temperature, energy efficiency, net energy gain, and heat loss.
performance of a double pass SAH with two intake ports was described Furthermore, its efficiency, energy production, and pressure drop
by Hassan and Abo-Elfadl [11]. Results showed that raising the upper air increased with increasing MFRA. The maximum daily efficiency was
fraction reduces the temperature of the absorber plate and improves 82.6% at MFRA of 0.075 kg/s. The study of Moshery et al. [21] inves­
SAH energy efficiency in all examined setups. The corrugated-perforated tigated the theoretical and empirical impact of transverse ribs attached
pin fin absorber has the greatest efficiency with a value of 82.6%, while to the back side of a jet impingement SAH absorber panel. Results
the flat absorber plate had the lowest with a value of 58%. Priyam and showed that the greater the rate of MFRA owing to laminar layer
Chand [12] provided a theoretical investigation of the impacts of wavy breakup and the more significant is the increase in thermal energy ef­
fin amplitude and wavelength on a single pass flat plate SAH’s thermal ficiency. In Rani et al. [22] study, an experimental evaluation of SAH
performance. Outcomes demonstrated that the thermal-hydraulic effi­ equipped with a semicircular loop of baffles and fins was conducted.
ciency declines as wavelength increases throughout the whole range of Results showed that the air temperature was lower than that of the loops
mass flow rates. Qader et al. [13] use a 2D computational fluid dynamics and absorber plate, but upper than that of the glass plate. Compared to
analysis model for a SAH with angled fins beneath the absorber plate. typical flat SAH, the average air temperature increment in finned col­
The analysis was done for twelve alternative fin configurations and six lectors was 14.08–22.78 ◦ C.
various Reynolds numbers. The simulation results showed that the SAH Shetty et al. [23] employed an artificial neural network (ANN) to
with angled fins under the absorber plate significantly improved heat forecast the SAH performance with a circular perforated absorber and
transfer efficiency. Using fins with a 45◦ slant angle and 20 mm pitch at cross-flow design. It was determined that ANN could correctly forecast
Re of value 20,000, a maximum thermo-hydraulic performance the SAH performance. An experimental study on the performance of a
parameter of 1.916 is obtained. Heat transfer and airflow friction were SAH with a novel created absorber plate of transverse fins with lateral
studied experimentally in SAH whose absorber is fitted by gaps and center holes was introduced by Hassan and AboElfadl [1].
multi-V-shaped fins on the front face and delta shape grooves on the Results showed that transverse SAH outperforms flat plate SAH in terms
back face by Promvonge et al. [14]. The measurements were taken in a of gain of energy, exit air temperature, thermal energy efficiency, Nus­
test duct with a cross-sectional area of 0.3 m width and 0.027 m height. selt number between the air and absorber, and thermal-hydraulic per­
Results revealed that the duct with the V-ribbed absorber and the formance for all studied cases. The design achieved daily thermal
delta-grooved backplate had the maximum heat transmission and efficiency of 88.5%, but it produced large pressure drop values of 880
pressure loss at rib to duct height ratios of 0.217 and 1. Pa. In the study of Shetty et al. [24], SAH with a circular perforated
Another technique for changing the design of the SAH is modifying absorber plate was numerically studied. Outcomes revealed that the air
the absorber plate as in the study of Poongavanam et al. [15], heater’s thermal energy efficiency improves with increasing Reynolds
surface-modified solar air heaters were subjected to experimental number, while the temperature of the exit airdrops. In addition,
investigation. The main conclusion drawn from the experiment was that increasing the number of vents in the absorber enhances the solar air
the Nusselt number and friction factor for the V corrugated shot blasted heater’s effectiveness. Kashyap et al. [25] investigated the performance
absorber plate is greater than that of the traditional one. Moreover, the and parametric evaluation of SAH with several V-rib patterns and
maximum thermal efficiency of the modified SAH was 58% at 0.02 kg/s. symmetric multiple gaps rib components. Results showed that secondary
In the study of Singh [16], a transverse finned solar air heater was flow vortices caused a significant increase in the rate of heat dissipation
subjected to extensive parametric optimization, including flow and and friction factor. In addition, the estimated thermo-hydraulic perfor­
geometrical factors. Based on the experimental and computational mance parameter was 4.24, which is much higher than in previous
evaluation, findings indicated that using fins in the transverse direction studies. A unique triangular SAH (TRSAH) with a slanted transparent
improved the thermohydraulic efficiency to 79%, but it increased cover was suggested by Jiang et al. [26]. The TRSAH was meant to in­
pressure drop. In addition, staggered fins provide a wavy flow pattern crease the collecting power per unit south wall covered area (CPUWA) of
within the duct, which boosts the heat transfer to the surrounding air. the SAH. The findings demonstrated that TRSAH’s CPUWA was
Using a newly developed absorber, an experimental investigation of the 100–130 W/m2 more than the FSAH’s. In addition, at high ambient
performance of a DP SAH was conducted by Abo- In the study of Sar­ temperature and irradiance with low wind speed, the TRSAH’s thermal
avanakumar et al. [17], the thermal efficiency of SAH was analytically efficiency was greater than that of the FSAH. A model using
studied of absorber plates that have arc-shaped rib roughened barriers Ansys-Fluent CFD tool was developed to study the thermal-hydraulic
including attached fins and baffles. When compared with the SAH of performance of Y-shaped rib rectangular SAH by Singh et al. [27]. The
arc-shaped rib roughened, the suggested SAH enhanced the effective and simulation results showed that the heat transfer of the Y-shaped with a
thermal efficiency by 27.1% and 28.3%, respectively. The performance gap was 1.0548 times that of the shape without a gap and 4.7557 times
of a novel type of SAH known as tubular SAH was experimentally that of a smooth channel. Tubular swirl flow SAH (SF-SAH) was exam­
examined by Hassan et al. [18]. As an alternative to the flat plate SAH, ined by El-Said et al. [28]. The SF-SAH has a semi-cylindrical absorber
an array of adjacent parallel tubes was oriented in the same direction as with a finned surface to improve its thermohydraulic performance. The
the SAH airflow. Results indicated a significant difference in the two suggested SAH was investigated with both radial and longitudinal fins.
systems’ efficiency, output power, top heat loss, and air temperature Results showed that radial fins improved the performance characteristic
favoring the TSAH. Furthermore, the TSAH was proven to be more of the SF-SAH over plain heaters and those with longitudinal fins.
efficient than the previously examined SAH designs. It achieved thermal In the research of Dogra and Bhardwaj [29], a double two-pass SAH
efficiency of 83.6% at 0.075 kg/s. Saravanan et al. [19] experimentally was subjected to a series of experiments. The absorber plate was made of
examined the impact of employing staggered multiple C shaped galvanized iron with aluminum ribs linked to it to increase air turbu­
unperforated and perforated of finned absorber plates. The experimental lence. Results showed that placing ribs on the top of the absorber plate
results were compared to both the soft absorber plate and the earlier improves heat transfer and friction factor properties. Kumar et al. [30]
work in this area. As Reynolds number grows, viscous sub-layer thick­ aimed to numerically examine a curved shape counter flow DP SAH with
ness diminishes, reducing the friction factor. The SAH effective effi­ arching baffles installed in the second duct. Since the second channel’s
ciency was improved by increasing the MFRR, while the temperature fluid flow has high inertia and a curved shape, it tends to travel away

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H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

from the absorber plate, reducing thermal efficiency dramatically. To modifying the SAH design. The ordinary tubular SAH (OTSAH) absorber
address this shortcoming, new design parameters in the form of arched is composed of a flat stack of tubes as shown in Fig. 1a. The tubes are
baffles are attached to the second duct. The results reveal that arched equal in length and adjacent to each other’s where the inlet air to the
baffles are found to accelerate flow toward the absorber and aid in SAH passes through them, gaining the absorbed solar energy. Therefore,
creating massive secondary vortices In the work of Kumar et al. [31]a the contact area between the air and the absorber is π times (3.141
unique design of curved counter flow double-pass SAH (DP SAH) was times) the contact area of FSAH.
presented. Results showed that curved counterflow DP SAHs with The new SAH design as shown in Fig. 1a and b has the same flat stack
asymmetrically positioned turbulators outperform all other DP SAH of tubes where each tube of the stack is stuffed with three small diameter
designs in terms of both hydraulics and thermal performance. A SAH tubes where the air flows through them and between them and the outer
with a corrugated absorber and integrated exterior reflector was con­ tube. The small diameter tubes’ centers form nabla shape, therefore, the
structed, and its thermo-hydraulic performance was experimentally new SAH is expressed as (∇TSAH). The contact area between the airflow
investigated in the work of El-Said et al. [32]. Outcomes were compared and the new absorber is 3.75 times that of the OTSAH and 12.4 times
to the traditionally designed SAH without a reflector at various airflow that of the FSAH. Energy and exergy assessment of the ∇TSAH is
rates and tilting angles. Compared to a standard SAH, the SAH with an investigated experimentally against OTSAH under different MFRAs at SP
exterior reflector enhances the performance metrics. The maximum and DP conditions. The outlet air temperature, top energy loss, energy
achieved thermos-hydraulic efficiency was 34%. gain, exergy and energy efficiencies, pressure drop, etc. of the ∇TSAH
In the most recent periods, increasing interest has been gone to the and OTSAH are presented, investigated, and compared. Moreover, the
analysis of exergy for the assessment and enhancement of the energy efficiency of the two SAHs (∇TSAH and OTSAH) is compared with
systems [33]. Analysis of exergy offers a qualitative view of the energy FSAH. The experiments are performed at hot weather conditions of
performance. It provides more important information that may not be Assiut city, Egypt (latitude angle 27◦ and longitude angle 31◦ ).
achieved by the analysis of energy which provides only an energy
quantitative view [34]. It is a useful tool to discover the SAH perfor­ 2. Experimental setup
mance’s actual and theoretical limits to optimize the design [35]. The
thermal energy performance of the SAH absorber plate integrated with To examine the new SAH design, two identical SAHs except the
dual-function copper tubes was studied by Muthukumaran and Senthil absorber plate are constructed as displayed in Fig. 2a and b which
[36]. The copper tubes act as an expanded absorber surface and a heat represent the front view, and side view of the SAH. Many previous
storage material. The designs of the absorber consist of spirally coiled studies on SAHs suggested an aspect ratio (length to width) of 2 [40–44].
and straight tubes with consistent spacing, filled with two types of en­ The air gap between the absorber and the glass cover is studied also and
ergy storage materials. The thermal characteristics based on the exergy it is suggested to be 0.03 m–0.04 m [45]. Therefore, the aspect ratio and
and energy efficiencies of the modified SAH setups were compared to the air gap height are considered in this design.
those of a traditional Heater with a single absorber and no energy Each SAH consists of a wooden frame having inner dimensions of
storage. Findings showed that DP SAH with a spiral tube filled with 0.75 × 1.5 m and a glass cover having the same dimensions (thermal
paraffin wax outperforms the straight tube and traditional SAHs in an conductivity of 1.0 W/m.K and emissivity of 0.88 [46] as shown in
energetic and energetic performance. The exergy and energy efficiencies Fig. 3a. The glass cover thickness is 0.003 m as it is the smallest safe
of the spiral coil filled with paraffin wax were 1.11% and 29.86%, thickness for handling, installing, and operating of the SAH. The wooden
respectively, at 0.0076 kg/s. The maximum temperature rise of the air frame thickness is 0.1 m for good insulation and rigid structure. The
was about 21 ◦ C. Thus, SAHs that had integrated thermal storage within wooden frame is fixed on a wooden base of 0.03 m and a glass wool
them could store heat during off-peak hours and maintain a consistent insulation layer of 0.015 m (thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/m.K [46] is
temperature. From the exergy and energy point of view, Abo-Elfadl et al. inserted between the absorber and the wooden base.
[37] examined the performance of SAH using a novel built tubular The material and diameters of the absorber tubes are selected to meet
absorber consisting of adjacent parallel tubes (TSAH). The findings the following parameters: (a) The tubes’ material has high thermal
showed that employing SP TSAH over SP flat plate SAH at 0.025 kg/s conductivity. (b) The outer tube permits three inner tubes, forming a
increases the thermal and exergy efficiencies by 133 and 330%, nabla shape, to be inserted inside it, and get in contact with its inner
respectively. Furthermore, it was found that increasing the air MFRA surface as shown in Fig. 1b. Regarding these parameters, the available
results in a considerable enhancement in the thermal energy efficiency, tubes in the local market were aluminum tubes (thermal conductivity of
but it decreases the exergy efficiency. Hassan et al. [38] assessed the 237 W/m.K [46] having inner diameters of one inch (0.025 m) and 3/8
energetic and exergitic performance of SAHs having corrugated and inch (0.0095 m). The outer diameter of the small tubes is 0.0115 m.
corrugated-perforated absorbers. Results showed that the corrugated Each absorber of the OTSAH and ∇TSAH contains 28 tubes, each of
and corrugated-perforated SAHs had maximum daily energy efficiencies 1.5 m in length and 0.025 in diameter to match the SAH length and
of 70.58% and 71.85%, and exergy efficiencies of 0.94% and 0.98%, width as shown in Fig. 3b and c. Each tube of the ∇TSAH absorber
respectively. In the work of El-Said et al. [28] for Tubular swirl flow SAH contains three small diameter tubes, therefore, the total number of small
(SF-SAH), it was possible to achieve maximum thermohydraulic and tubes is 84. Each three small tubes are arranged to each other’s to form a
thermal efficiencies values of 72.40% and 76.79%, respectively ac­ nabla shape and welded together, then they are pressed inside the 0.025
cording to Nusselt number of 223.64. SF-SAH maximum effectiveness m diameter tube. The small tubes contact each other’s through three
and exergy efficiency were 0.6 and 1.3%, respectively. Unglazed vertical lines and contact the outer tube at three lines also, as shown in Fig. 1a
SAH performance was numerically and experimentally examined by and b. The incident solar radiation falls on the absorber and is converted
Khanlari et al. [39]. The absorber has nano-embedded coating. They to thermal energy which is distributed by conduction on the four tubes
suggested several vertical SAH structures, including baffled, hollow, and as shown in Fig. 1b. Calculating the contact area between the absorber
perforated baffle systems. The results showed that the SAH with perfo­ and airflow for the two designs discloses that the OTSAH absorber has a
rated baffles provided the best performance characteristics. The exergy contact area of 3.3 m2 in SP and 4.95 m2 in DP, while the ∇TSAH
efficiency increased by about 9.25–10.58% with a nano-embedded absorber has a contact surface area of 12.4 m2 in SP and 14.05 m2 in DP.
coated absorber. According to the previous contact area values, the ∇TSAH contact area
From the previously discussed literature survey, many experimental is 3.75 and 2.84 times the OTSAH in SP and DP, respectively. As a result,
and theoretical studies have been produced on improving the SAH the new design has a considerably large contact area between the
performance and efficiency by modifying its design. However, the effi­ absorber and airflow, which increases the transferred energy to the air,
ciency of the SAH still can be improved using the simplest technique by particularly at low air speeds where the heat transfer coefficient is low as

3
H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

performance is evaluated under SP and DP flow conditions. In SP con­

dition, the inlet port (3) is closed and the air flows from inlet port (2) to
exit through outlet port (4) through the absorber tubes. In DP condition,
the inlet port (2) is closed and the air flowing through inlet port (3)
under the glass cover and over the absorber until the gap (11), then it
reverses its direction and flows through the absorber tubes to exit at
outlet port (4).
The SAH performance is evaluated at different ranges of MFRAs in
previous papers. Most of the investigated ranges fall between 0.01 kg/s
to 0.058 kg/s [44,47–50]. The range is expanded to 0.081 kg/s (about
250 m3/h) in this study to meet the industrial drying requirements of
food and wood [51]. Therefore, the present experimental work covers
six MFRAs in the range of 0.018 kg/s to 0.081 kg/s.

2.1. Measurements

Different parameters are measured and registered through this

experimental study from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. The measurements are
accomplished across the period from 11/08/2021 to 22/08/2021. The
measurements are measured at the same locations for the two SAHs;
∇TSAH and OTSAH and recorded at the same instant. For each SAH, 10
temperatures are measured P1 to P10 for SP and DP as shown in Fig. 5a
and b, respectively using K-type thermocouples joined to a data logger
(9) of mark NI cDAQ/9172. The temperatures are recorded each 2 s on a
computer joined to the data logger. The inlet air temperature at p1 is
computed at inlet port (1) and outlet air p8 is measured at exit port (2)
from each SAH. Three temperatures p3, p4, and p5 are measured on the
SAH absorber at a line passing at the center of the absorber throughout
the absorber length with equal space between them and the given
absorber plate temperature is the average of these measurements. Be­
sides, two temperatures p9 and p10 are measured on the glass cover
surface with equal spacing between every two measuring points and the
given glass temperature is the average of these temperatures. further­
more, the temperature at the return air temperature p2 in the case of DP
SAH is measured in the return position of the air as shown in Fig. 5b
beside the surrounding temperature. The falling solar energy is
measured via a pyrometer of mark sp lite2 silicon and its output reading
is registered on the previous computer every 2 s. A fan meter having
mark MEITAVM4000MD is used to determine the air inlet velocity be­
side the pressure drop through the SAH length is determined via an
inclined U tube measuring apparatus every 15 min.

2.2. Error analysis and uncertainty

The uncertainty of measuring apparatus and experimental errors are

taken into account in this work. Besides, calibration is accomplished for
the thermocouples. The analysis of the uncertainty is performed to agree
with the guides supplied by the essentials analysis of errors by Taylor
Fig. 1a. The absorber of FSAH, OTSAH and ∇TSAH. ∇ tubes arrangement
[52]. For the used apparatuses and devices, the uncertainties of the
of ∇TSAH.
measured values are demonstrated in Table 1. To diminish the errors in
the measurements, all essential recommended precautions are consid­
will be seen later. In addition, from the absorbers’ geometries, the hy­
ered. The thermocouple junctions that are linked to the absorber and
draulic diameters of the flow passages of ∇TSAH and OTSAH are 6.64
glass cover surfaces are covered by insulation material to prevent the
mm (0.00664 m) and 25 mm (0.025 m), respectively.
airflow and ambient conditions effect on its signals.
The two absorbers are installed in the two designed SAHs as shown in
The uncertainty of the studied output parameters as MFRA, energy
Fig. 2a and b. Fig. 4 represents the layout of the SAHs. The SAH has a
gain rate, energy top loss rate, and energy efficiency is determined ac­
wooden frame (1) and two inlet ports (2) and (3) and one outlet port (4).
cording to the input parameters’ errors and uncertainties. By partially
The inlet and outlet ports’ diameters are 0.1 m. Every SAH has one glass
differentiating the mentioned output parameters (l) relative to the input
cover (5). Air flows through the SAH from the inlet port to the exit pipe
parameters of their equations (x and y), the uncertainty (δl) can be
(6) under the effect of the blower (7). The absorber (8) is installed under
calculated as follows) [52,53]:
the glass cover by 0.04 m. Each SAH is installed on a metallic holder (10)
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
having an inclination angle of 27◦ which is Assiut latitude angle. The ( )2
∂l
( )2
∂l
inclination angle that equals the latitude angle achieves maximum δl = δ2x + δ2y (1)
∂x ∂y
received solar radiation through the year [45]. The SAHs are positioned
to the south to receive maximum solar radiation [45]. The SAHs’ Applying this equation to the MFRA, energy rain rate, energy top loss
rate, energy efficiency, and exergy efficiency, the uncertainty values are

4
H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

Fig. 2. Images of the experimental setup.

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram and images of ∇TSAH and OTSAH absorbers.

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H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

Fig. 4. Layout of the experimental setup.

3.1. Thermal efficiency

The energy gain rate Qout by the SAH in watts is calculated by

Ref. [54]:

Q̇out = ṁ cp (Tout − Tin ) (2)

where, Tout and Tin are the exit and inlet air temperatures in K, respec­
tively, Cp is the air specific heat in J/kg.k, and ṁ is the MFRA in kg/s.
The thermal energy rate gain QO from the top surface of the absorber
in DP condition is computed by Refs. [54,55]:

Q̇o = ṁCp (Tu − Tin ) (3)

Where Tu is the U-turn temperature (T2 in Fig. 5b) in K. The input

thermal energy rate Qin to the SAH in W is computed by:

Q̇in = IAc (4)

where I is the solar radiation intensity in W/m2 and Ac is absorber

surface area in m2 (1.5*0.75 m2). The SAH thermal energy efficiency η is
given by Refs. [9,56]:

Q̇out
η= (5)
Q̇in
The MFRA is determined by:
Fig. 5. Measuring points of temperatures.
ṁ = ρVAc (6)

Where V is the average air velocity at the port in m/s. The top energy
Table 1
Measuring devices uncertainty. rate loss Qtop in W is determined by Refs. [57,58]:
( )( )
Instrument Uncertainty Qtop = Ac hw + Ac hr,o Tg − Ta (7)
Temperature measuring device ±0.1 ◦ C
Solar intensity measuring (Pyranometer) 0.5% Where Tg is the glass cover average temperature in K, hw is the wind heat
MEITAV velocity measurements ±0.1 m/s transfer coefficient in W/m2. K, and hr,o is the outside coefficient of ra­
Thermocouples ±0.4 ◦ C diation heat transfer in W/m2. K, At the SAH top surface, the wind heat
transfer coefficient is estimated from Ref. [59]:
1.1%, 4.1%, 4.3%, 3.8%, and 2.83% respectively. hw = 5.7 + 3.8Vw (8)

3. Performance index Where Vw is the wind speed in m/s. The radiation heat transfer coeffi­
cient hr,o at the top surface of the glass cover is estimated by Refs. [57,
In this part, the main equations to estimate the SAH performance 58]:
parameters, such as energy, exergy, and thermohydraulic efficiencies ( )( )( )
are presented. σεg Tg + Ts Tg2 + Ts2 Tg − Ts
hr,o = (9)
Tg − Ta

where, εg is the used glass emissivity, σ is Stefan Boltzmann constant in

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H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

W/m2. K4, and Ts is the sky temperature in K.

pumping power (ṁa Δp/ρ)
Pblower = = (23)
efficiency ηblower ηmotor
3.2. Exergy
where ηblower = 0.8 and ηmotor = 0.85 [65,66]
The SAH general mass balance could be stated as follows [60]:
∑ ∑ 4. Results and discussions
ṁin = ṁout (10)

The experimental measurements are investigated over 12 successive

Where ṁin and ṁout is the inlet and outlet AMFR in kg/s, respectively.
days from 11/08/2021 to 22/08/2021 by changing the MFRA from
The SAH general exergy balance could be stated as follows [60,61]:
∑ ∑ ∑ 0.018 kg/s to 0.081 kg/s with an increment of 0.009 kg/s. The experi­
˙ in −
Ex ˙ out =
Ex ˙ dest
Ex (11) ments are performed under the hot climate conditions of Assiut city,
Egypt of stable climate conditions and clear sky days, especially in
where, Ex ˙ in , Ex
˙ out , and Ex
˙ dest are the rate of exergy inlet, outlet, and August. Fig. 6 reveals the change of the solar energy throughout the
destruction in W/K measuring days which clearly demonstrates the maximum variant of the
or [60]. solar intensity between the different days of about 50 W/m2 while the
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ maximum intensity of more than 1000 W/m2. This figure illustrates the
Ex˙ heat − ˙ work +
Ex ˙ mass,in −
Ex ˙ mass,out =
Ex ˙ dest
Ex (12) increase of the solar intensity from morning until nearly noon and then it
declines with time.
Using previous equations then, the overall exergy balance in a rate
form could be expressed as follows [60]:
∑( ) ∑ ∑ 4.1. Temperature
Ta
1− Q̇s − Ẇ + ṁin ψ in − ˙ dest
ṁout ψ out = Ex (13)
Ts
The evolution of the temperature rises (SAH component temperature
minus inlet air temperature, which is the ambient temperature) of outlet
Where [62]:
air (ΔTout), absorber plate (ΔTabs), and glass cover ((ΔTgc) for the
ψ in = (hin − ha ) − Te (sin − sa ) (14) ∇TSAH and OTSAH are illustrated in Fig. 7. The results of the conditions
of (SP, 0.018 kg/s), (DP, 0.018 kg/s), (SP, 0.081 kg/s), and (DP, 0.081
ψ out = (hout − ha ) − Te (sout − sa ) (15) kg/s) are shown in Fig. 7a, b, 7c, and 7d, respectively. In addition, the
By substituting equation (14) and equation (15) into equation (13), solar intensity variations are superimposed on these figures for the days
then [63,64]: of measurements. The rises evolutions of the components’ temperatures
( ) indicate obviously that the temperatures have a similar tendency evo­
1−
Ta ˙ dest
Q̇s − ṁ[(hout − hin ) − Ta (sout − sout )] = Ex (16) lution as the solar energy. For all investigated cases of OTSAH, the
Ts absorber plate has the maximum temperature rise while the glass has the
minimum and ΔTout lies in between. This signifies that the exit air
Qs is the absorbed solar energy by the solar heater and it is calculated
via the next equation [60]: temperature is lower than the average absorber temperature, However,
for lower MFRA and DP, the outlet air temperature of ∇TSAH is superior
Q̇s = I(τα)Ac (17) to that of the absorber plate. This temperature difference demonstrates
the higher performance of ∇TSAH as will be shown later, and its
Where τ and α are the transmissivity and emissivity of the glass cover, availability to transfer most of the absorbed heat to the flowing air. This
they are 0.92 and 0.88, respectively [46]. The variants in the entropy is attributed to the greater contact surface area between the flowing air
and enthalpy of the SAH air are provided by Ref. [60]: and the absorber of this ∇TSAH, especially for DP. Moreover, the
∇TSAH has a higher ΔTout compared to the OTSAH for all studied
Δh = hout − hin = Cp (Tout − Tin ) (18)
MFRAs at SP and DP conditions. As expected, increasing the MFRA re­
Tout pout duces the outlet air temperature, but it reduces the absorber and glass
Δs = sout − sin = Cp ln − R ln (19) cover temperatures. Lowering the glass cover temperature reduces the
Tin pin
energy losses to the surroundings which increase the SAH performance
By substituting equations (17)–(19) into equation (16), the results as will be shown next. For example, the maximum absorber temperature
could be arranged as followings [60]: rise at 0.018 kg/s, is 49 ◦ C and 48.1 ◦ C for ∇TSAH and 42.5 ◦ C and 44 ◦ C
( )
Ta Tout pout ˙ dest
1− I(τα)Ac + ṁCp Ta ln − ṁCp (Tout − Tin ) − ṁRTa ln = Ex
Ts Tin pin
(20)
The SAH exergy efficiency is evaluated as follows [60]:
˙ out ṁ[hout − hin − Ta (sout − sin )]
Ex
ηII = = ( ) (21)
Ex˙ in 1 − TTas Q̇s

3.3. Thermo-hydraulic efficiency (THE)

the is computed by [65,66].

output power − blower power ṁcp ΔT − Pblower
ηthy = = (22)
input power IA

Where Pblower is the blower power consumption that pumps the airflow
and it could be computed as follows [16,17,67]: Fig. 6. Variation of solar intensity for different measuring days.

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H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

Fig. 7. Temperatures variations of ∇TSAH and OTSAH.

for OTSAH for SP and DP, respectively. At 0.081 kg/s, these results are
22.3 ◦ C and 18.3 ◦ C for ∇TSAH and 17.3 ◦ C and 16.3 ◦ C for OTSAH for
SP and DP, respectively. However, the maximum increment of output air
temperature at 0.018 kg/s, is 33.6 ◦ C and 36.7 ◦ C for OTSAH and 48.8 ◦ C
and 50.2 ◦ C for ∇TSAH at SP and DP, respectively. At 0.081 kg/s, these
results are 12.2 ◦ C and 12.96 ◦ C for OTSAH and 13.8 ◦ C and 14 ◦ C for
∇TSAH at SP and DP, respectively. These results demonstrate that the
∇TSAH achieved higher increments of airflow temperature than the
OTSAH at all studied cases.

4.2. Useful energy gain

In this work, the output energy rate and daily accumulated energy
gains by the output air are presented. Fig. 8a and b shows the output
energy rate variations with time for SP and DP, respectively. Fig. 8
shows that the variations of the output energy rate possess a similar
tendency as the SAH temperature and solar intensity. Moreover, the
output energy rate of ∇TSAH is higher than that of OTSAH for all studies
cases which is referred to the large increment of surface area as stated
before, (3.75 and 2.84 times that of OTSAH, for SP and DP, respectively).
Also, the output energy rates of the DP SAHs are more than that of SP
SAHs for two reasons: (i) Leaving the trapped air over the absorber’s
upper surface, transfers heat by convection to the glass cover (see
Fig. 5a), which increases its temperature and hence, the losses from it.
Therefore, withdrawing this air to pass through the absorber tube will
benefit from its energy and reduce the losses to the glass cover. (i) the
increment of the contact area due to the participation of the absorber’s
upper surface in the heat transfer process to the airflow (see the arrows
of airflow in Fig. 5b).
Besides, the output energy rate increases with increasing the MFRA.
This increment can be explained as follows, increasing the MFRA in­
creases the air velocity and Reynolds number through the absorber
tubes, which increases the heat transfer coefficient (there is a directly
proportional relation between the heat transfer coefficient and Reynolds
number). Therefore, the transferred energy from the absorber to the Fig. 8. Output energy rate variation with time.
airflow increases, which reduces the absorber temperature. As a result of
that, the highest instant energy rate occurs at 0.081 kg/s in ∇TSAH for
DP condition, and the lowest occurs at 0.018 kg/s in OTSAH for SP
condition. Fig. 8 demonstrates that the ∇TSAH achieves the highest

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H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

instant output energy rates of 1070 J/s and 1048 J/s at MFRA of 0.081
kg/s for SP and DP, respectively.
The daily energy gain variation with the MFRA is shown in Fig. 9 for
all studied cases. Fig. 9 demonstrates that the ∇TSAH has higher output
energy than the OTSAH for all MRFAs at SP and DP conditions. The
findings imply that the daily output energy of SP ∇TSAH at 0.018 kg/s
has a value of 18,880 kJ, achieving an increment percentage of 47.4%,
relative to SP OTSAH at the same MFRA, which attains 12,813 kJ. The
DP ∇TSAH achieves an increment percentage of 41.2%, in the daily
output energy, relative to DP OTSAH at the same previous MFRA. These
two percentages reveal the considerable impact of the ∇TSAH design at
low MFRAs. At 0.081 kg/s, the previous percentages are 15.5% and
9.4%, for SP and DP, respectively, which confirms the superiority of the
∇TSAH at high MFRAs.

4.3. Top energy loss

One of the principal parameters that regulates the SAH performance,

and its efficiency is the loss of heat from its top surface which represents
the larger portion of the SAH energy losses. Fig. 10a and b shows the
evolution of the instant top heat loss rate of the studied ∇TSAH and
OTSAH at different MAFAs, and at SP and DP, respectively. The results
indicate that the top losses have nearly the same trend of glass cover
temperature, where it rises with the rising of its temperature as expected
Moreover, the top energy loss decreases with the increase of MFRA
because of the decrement in the absorber temperature as discussed in
section 3.2. The decrement in the absorber temperature reduces the
transferred energies by convection and radiation to the glass cover,
which reduces the glass temperature. Referring to equations (7) and (9),
the top losses (radiation and convection to the surroundings) depends
mainly on the temperature of the glass cover, which is decreased,
therefore, the top losses are decreased. In addition, the top energy losses
of ∇TSAH are smaller than that of OTSAH for all studied cases because
of its lower glass cover temperature as indicated previously. The find­
ings also show that the DP condition produces lower energy loss than the
SP condition, as the glass cover temperature of the DP condition is
smaller than the SP condition, due to the participation of the absorber’s Fig. 10. Top energy rate loss variation with time.
upper surface in the energy gain, as explained previously. For example,
the maximum energy lost rates at SP condition are 480.2, 376.7, and ∇TSAH has smaller losses than the OTSAH. Moreover, the daily top loss
289.3 W for OTSAH, and 226.3, 180.9, and 150.2 W for ∇TSAH, at decreases sensibly in DP conditions relative to SP for OTSAH. Moreover,
MFRAs of 0.018, 0.036, and 0.081 kg/s, respectively. These losses’ the losses decrements in DP ∇TSAH compared to SP ∇TSAH are smaller
values for DP conditions are 431.9, 366.2, and 234.3 W for OTSAH, and than that of the corresponding decrements of the OTSAH. This may re­
229.6, 208, and 142.8 W for ∇TSAH, at the same MFRAs, respectively. turn to the efficient energy gain process in SP ∇TSAH which achieves a
Fig. 11a shows the variation of the daily energy top losses with the considerable decrement in the absorber temperature, and hence the
MFRA, while Fig. 11b represents the daily energy top losses as a percent glass cover temperature. Therefore, using the DP condition in the
of the total incident solar energy on the SAH. It is apparent that the top ∇TSAH does not make another considerable decrement in absorber and
energy loss decreases with increasing the MFRA as explained, and the glass cover temperatures. From Fig. 11a and 1b, at 0.018 kg/s, the SP
∇TSAH has a top loss of 5802 kJ with a percentage of 21.3% of the total
input energy, while the corresponding values of the SP OTSAH are
11,620 kJ and 42.8%. In DP conditions, the top loss of ∇TSAH is 5116 kJ
with a percentage of 18.3% of the total input energy, while the corre­
sponding values of OTSAH are 10,295 kJ and 36.8%. The losses’ values
and percentages decrease with increasing MFRA, and the percentages
are 14.3% and 25% at SP for ∇TSAH and OTSAH, respectively. These
percentages are 12.4% and 20.8% at DP for ∇TSAH and OTSAH,
respectively.

4.4. Efficiency

The SAH energy efficiency measures its real performance which it

represents a measure of the opportunity to enhance SAH performance at
the same time. However, the exergy efficiency provides a true mea­
surement of how almost actual performance approaches the ideal and
defines more clearly than energy efficiency the causes of the losses.
Fig. 9. Daily output energy variations with mass flow rate of air.

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H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

Fig. 11. Variant of top energy loss with MFRA (a) daily top loss and (b) Top
loss percent.
Fig. 12. Thermal efficiency variation with time.

4.4.1. Energy efficiency

The change with time of the energy efficiency for SP flow and DP
flow of studied SAHs is illustrated in Fig. 12a and b, respectively.
Moreover, the daily energy efficiency is demonstrated in Fig. 13 against
the MFRA. The outcomes prove that the energy efficiency rises with
rising the solar radiation from 8:00 to about 12:00 due to the increase of
the absorber temperature as shown in Fig. 7, which increases the heat
transfer process to the airflow. The efficiency decreases from 12:00 to
17:00 due to the decrease in the absorber temperature. In Fig. 13, the
daily energy efficiency increases with increasing the MFRA for the two
SAHs at SP and DP conditions due to the increase of the air velocity and
Reynolds number, which increase the heat transfer coefficient as stated
before.
Furthermore, the DP condition has higher instant and daily effi­
ciencies than SP for all studied causes due to the participation of the
absorber’s upper surface as discussed previously. The instant energy
efficiency of ∇TSAH exceeds 90% at DP and MFRA of 0.081 kg/s, which
reflects the higher performance of this design. This is because of the Fig. 13. Daily thermal energy efficiency variation with MFRA.
larger surface area of the designed absorbed plate that enables the air to
absorb almost most of the incident solar energy. These outcomes show
OTSAH are 47.2–74.76 for SP, and 51.3%–81.2% for DP through the
that the instant energy efficiency in descending order is as follows:
studied range of MFRA. This means that rising the MFRA by about 4.5
0.081 kg/s DP_∇TSAH, 0.081 kg/s SP_∇TSAH, 0.036 kg/s DP_∇TSAH,
times, rises the energy efficiency by 23.8% for ∇TSAH and by 58.3% for
0.036 kg/s SP_∇TSAH, 0.081 kg/s DP_OTSAH, 0.081 kg/s SP_OTSAH,
OTSAH.
0.018 kg/s DP_∇TSAH, 0.018 kg/s SP_∇TSAH, 0.036 kg/s DP_OTSAH,
0.036 kg/s SP_OTSAH, 0.018 kg/s DP_OTSAH, and 0.018 kg/s SP_OT­
4.4.2. Exergy efficiency
SAH. The daily energy efficiency of ∇TSAH changes from 69.6 to 81.86
The evolution with time of the exergy efficiency for the various
for SP, and from 72.3% to 89.5% for DP. The corresponding values of

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H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

Fig. 15. Daily exergy efficiency variation with MFRA.

Fig. 16. Daily thermohydraulic efficiency variation with MFRA.

Fig. 14. Exergy efficiency variation with time.

all studied cases is explained in Fig. 16. The findings of the figures reveal
that THE of ∇TSAH is more than that of OTSAH because of its greater
investigated cases at different MFRA is displayed in Fig. 14a and b for SP output energy. Also, the of DP is more than that of SP for all studied cases
flow and DP flow cases, respectively. The exergy efficiency increases due to the greater output energy. Fig. 15 indicates that the daily THE for
with the increase of the outlet air temperature relative to the inlet air DP ∇TSAH changes from 72.2% to 82.2% through the MFRA range of
temperature as Shawn in equation (21). It is obvious that the maximum 0.018–0.081 kg/s. The corresponding THE for OTSAH is 51.14%–
exergy efficiency has approximately the same trend (Tout − Tin ) in Fig. 7 77.12%, for the same MFRA range. Moreover, it is noted that for DP
Moreover, the exergy efficiency of ∇TSAH is superior to that of OTSAH ∇TSAH, THE decreases after rising the MFRA more than 0.054 kg/s. The
for all investigated MFRAs. Moreover, the exergy efficiency of DP is reason for this decrement is the increase in pumping power (the
more than that of SP, as the DP has more air temperature differences consumed power by the blower to withdraw the air) due to the large
(Tout − Tin ) for all studied MFRAs. The results show that the maximum values of pressure drop (see Fig. 18a, the red line values). Therefore, for
instant exergy efficiency at 0.018 kg/s is about 6%, and 6.8%, for MFRA greater than 0.054 kg/s, the pumping power reduces the net out
∇TSAH and is about 3.2%, and 3.2% for OTSAH in the case of DP and SP, power value in the Numerator of equation (22), which decreases the.
respectively. However, the exergy efficiency decreases with increasing
the MFRA despite the increase of the enthalpy change ṁ(hout − hin ) 4.4.4. Comparison with flat plate SAH
through the range of 0.018 kg/s to 0.081 kg/s. This is because the en­ A comparison of the present studied SAHs systems on the daily en­
tropy change ṁTa (sout − sin ) increment is more in the same MFRA range, ergy and exergy efficiencies with flat plate SAH (FSAH) having the same
reducing the difference with the enthalpy change in equation (21). dimensions, materials, flow rates, etc., is demonstrated in Fig. 17a and b,
The variation of the daily exergy efficiency with MFRA is illustrated respectively. The FSAH was studied previously in Refs. [18,68]. The
in Fig. 15. The figure illustrates clearly that the daily exergy efficiency figures’ results show that ∇TSAH has higher energy and exergy effi­
reduces with rising MFRA as discussed. Moreover, the exergy efficiency ciencies than the OTSAH, and the latter has higher efficiencies than the
of ∇TSAH is greater than that of OTSAH due to the large absorber area FSAH, for all studied MFRAs at SP and DP conditions. As an example,
effect. The outcomes imply that the daily exergy efficiency for DP SAH from Fig. 17a, at DP and 0.072 kg/s the daily energy efficiency values
changes from 4.84% to 1.7% for ∇TSAH and from 2.63% to 1.44% for are 88.4%, 77.3%, and 72%, for ∇TSAH, OTSAH, and FSAH, respec­
OTSAH through the MFRA change of 0.018–0.081 kg/s, respectively. tively. These values at DP and 0.027 kg/s, are 78.9%, 61.6%, and 46%
for ∇TSAH, OTSAH, and FSAH, respectively. This means that for DP and
4.4.3. Thermohydraulic efficiency 0.072 kg/s, using ∇TSAH increases the energy efficiency by 14.3% and
The daily thermohydraulic efficiency (THE) evolution with MFRA for 22.8% compared to OTSAH and FSAH, respectively. At DP and 0.027

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H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

Fig. 17. Comparison of average daily thermal efficiency of ∇TSAH, OTSAH,

and FSAH. Fig. 18. Variation of (a) pressure drop through SAH and (b) total daily net
energy gain with MFRA.
kg/s, the corresponding increments are, 28.1% and 71.5%. In Fig. 17b,
at DP and 0.072 kg/s, the daily exergy efficiency values are 1.85%, output energy at higher MFRA. Besides, for all studied MFRA, the net
1.44%, and 1.4% for ∇TSAH, OTSAH, and FSAH, respectively. These daily output energy from ∇TSAH is greater than that of OTSAH. The
values at DP and 0.027 kg/s are, 3.89%, 2.49%, and 2.2% for ∇TSAH, maximum output net energy gain is realized at MFRA of 0.072 kg/s for
OTSAH, and FSAH, respectively. This means that for DP, using ∇TSAH SP, and at 0.036 kg/s for DP for ∇TSAH.
increases the exergy efficiency at 0.072 kg/s by 28.5% and 32.14%
compared to OTSAH and FSAH, respectively. At DP and 0.027 kg/s, the 5. Conclusions
corresponding increments are, 56.2% and 76.8%.
Energy and exergy assessments of a novel designed SAH having nabla
4.5. Pressure drop shaped absorber (∇TSAH) are investigated experimentally. The
absorber consists of a row of a flat stack of tubes, each tube of the stack is
One of the factors that evaluate the SAHs performance is the pressure stuffed with three small diameter tubes forming nabla shape, The per­
drop through it. Pressure drop influence on the pumping power and formance of the ∇TSAH is compared to ordinary tubular SAH (OTSAH)
hence the net output power and the thermohydraulic efficiency. Fig. 18a at different MFRAs and at SP and DP conditions. The main outcomes of
shows the variation of the pressure drop through the studied SAHs with the study are:
MFRA. Fig. 18a shows obviously that the drop in pressure increase with
increasing the MFRA as expected. Besides, the DP condition has a higher • ∇TSAH achieves higher exit air temperature, output energy gain,
pressure drop than the SP due to the following reasons: (i) the increment thermal energy, exergy, and thermohydraulic efficiencies, and lower
of the air pass length as shown in Fig. 5b, (ii) the increment of contact energy top loss compared with OTSAH.
surface area as the absorber upper surface and the glass cover lower • The DP achieves higher output temperature, energy gain, energy
surface participate in friction, (iii) the U-turn effect at point 2 in Fig. 5b. efficiency, exergy efficiency, and thermohydraulic efficiency than
Moreover, ∇TSAH configuration has a higher pressure drop than OTSAH the SP.
because of the large contact surface area of the absorber which resists • ∇TSAH has greater energy and exergy efficiencies than that OTSAH
the airflow. and the latter has higher efficiencies than that of FSAH for all studied
Fig. 18b illustrates the net daily output energy (output energy in MFRAs at SP and DP.
Fig. 9 minus the consumed energy in the air blower due to pressure • The maximum increment of the instant exit air temperature is real­
drop). By comparing Figs. 9 and 18b, the blower consumed energy has a ized at 0.018 kg/s and DP with a value of 50.2 ◦ C and 36.7 ◦ C for
small effect on the output energy at low MFRA for SP and DP conditions. ∇TSAH and OTSAH, respectively.
However, the pressure drop value has a sensible impact on the net

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H. Hassan et al. Energy 276 (2023) 127451

• The energy and thermohydraulic efficiencies, output energy gain, [11] Hassan H, Abo-Elfadl S. Experimental study on the performance of double pass and
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respectively, while the maximum exergy efficiencies are 4.85% and through inclined fins under the absorber plate of solar air heater. Renew Energy
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• For DP and 0.027 kg/s, the daily exergy efficiency of ∇TSAH is corrugated absorber plate. Renew Energy 2018;127:213–29. https://doi.org/
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Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing - Original Draft, Writing -
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Declaration of competing interest rates. Int J Therm Sci 2022;178:107597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial prediction of a solar air heater with circular perforated absorber plate using
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Artificial Neural Network. Therm Sci Eng Prog 2021;23:100886. https://doi.org/
the work reported in this paper. 10.1016/j.tsep.2021.100886.
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Multiple-Symmetric gaps as roughness elements on Absorber-Plate: a parametric
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