LAGOS CITY POLYTECHNIC

LECTURE NOTE
COURSE TITLE: ELECTRONICS 1

COURSE CODE: EEC 124

LECTURER: ENGR. A. OJO-WILLIAMS

LECTURE 1.0

TOPIC: THE CONCEPT OF THERMIONIC EMISSION

Thermionic emission definition

The process by which free electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal when external heat
energy is applied is called thermionic emission.

Thermionic emission occurs in metals that are heated to a very high temperature. In other
words, thermionic emission occurs, when large amount of external energy in the form of heat is
supplied to the free electrons in the metals.
When a small amount of heat energy is applied to the
metal, the valence electrons gain enough energy and
break the bonding with the parent atom. The valence
electron, which breaks the bonding with the parent
atom, becomes free. This electron, which breaks the
bonding with the parent atom, is called the free
electron.
The free electrons in the metal have some kinetic
energy. However, they do not have enough energy to
escape from the metal. The attractive force of the
atomic nuclei opposes the free electrons, which try to
escape from the metal.
Free electrons in the metal have less energy compared
to the free electrons in vacuum. Hence, free electrons
require extra energy from the outside source in order
Figure 1.1: Electron Emission
to jump into the vacuum.
(For metal under high temperature)
Metals under high temperature

When heat energy applied to the metal is increased to

a higher value, the free electrons gain

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enough energy and overcome the attractive force of the atomic nucleus, which holds the free
electrons in the metal. The free electrons, which overcome the attractive force of the nuclei,
break the bonding with the metal and jumps into the vacuum.
The free electrons, which are escaped from the surface of a metal when heat energy is supplied,
are called thermions. Thermionic emission process plays a major role in the operation of
electronic devices.

Work function of the metal:

The amount of external heat energy required to remove the free electron from the metal is called
work function or threshold energy. The work function of metals is measured in electron volts
(eV).
Metals that have low work function will require less amount of heat energy to cause the free
electrons to escape from the metal. Hence, the metals with low work function emit large number
of free electrons at high temperature.
On the other hand, metals that have high work function will require more amount of heat energy
to cause the free electrons to escape from the metal. Hence, the metals with high work function
emit less number of free electrons at high temperature.
Thus, the emission of free electrons from the metal is inversely proportional to the work
function of a metal.

The classical example of thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from a hot cathode
into a vacuum (also known as thermal electron emission or the Edison effect) in a vacuum
tube. The hot cathode can be a metal filament, a coated metal filament, or a separate structure of
metal or carbides or borides of transition metals. Vacuum emission from metals tends to become
significant only for temperatures over 1,000 K (730 °C; 1,340 °F).

Some Basic Terms:

Diode valve : This is the basic form of thermionic valve / vacuum tube device. It consists of a
cathode, anode (and of course the heater or filament). Current can only pass through the diode in
one way - electrons flowing from the cathode to the anode - in this way it acts as a rectifier or
diode.

Triode valve: The triode valve has a third electrode added. Called the grid, it is able to control
the flow of electrons

Tetrode: The tetrode has an fourth electrode added. Called a screen grid, it is normally held at a
high potential but lower than that of the anode

Pentode: The pentode had a fifth electrode added. Called the suppressor grid, it was held at a
low potential to suppress secondary emission

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Applications of thermionic emission

The components, which are made by the process of thermionic emission are used in the
electronic devices such as cathode ray tube, radio etc.

Figures 1.2 (Triode), 1.3 (Tetrode) and 1.4 (Pentode)

ASSIGNMENT 1

(a)State five other applications of thermionic emission in various industries?

(b) Explain what happens to metals under a very high temperature

(c) How does the emission of electron relate to the work function of the metal

QUIZ 1

What do you understand by the following terms:

i. Thermionic emission
ii. Thermions
iii. Work function

___________________________________________________________________________-

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LECTURE 2.0

TOPIC: SIMPLE CONCEPTS OF ENERGY LEVEL IN MATERIALS

Energy levels (also called electron shells) are fixed distances from the nucleus of
an atom where electrons may be found. Electrons are tiny, negatively charged particles in
an atom that move around the positive nucleus at the center. Energy levels are a little like the
steps of a staircase.

Figures 2.1a and 2,1b

According to the model of atom proposed by Bohr in 1913, an atom is composed of a number of
electrons moving in circular or elliptical orbits around a relatively heavy nucleus of protons and
neutrons.

Electrons in atoms and molecules can change (make transitions in) energy levels by emitting or
absorbing a photon (of electromagnetic radiation), whose energy must be exactly equal to the
energy difference between the two levels. Electrons can also be completely removed from a
chemical species such as an atom, molecule, or ion. Complete removal of an electron from an
atom can be a form of ionization, which is effectively moving the electron out to an orbital with
an infinite principal quantum number, in effect so far away so as to have practically no more
effect on the remaining atom (ion). For various types of atoms, there are 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

To summarize the above, it may be repeated that :

i. conduction electrons are found in and freely flow in the conduction band ;
ii. holes exist in and flow in the valence band ;
iii. conduction electrons move almost twice as fast as the holes.

Valence and Conduction Bands

The outermost electrons of an atom i.e. those in the shell furthermost from the nucleus are called
valence electrons and have the highest energy* or least binding energy. It is these electrons
which are most affected when a number of atoms are brought very close together as during the

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formation of a solid. The states of lower-energy electrons orbiting in shells nearer to the nucleus
are little, if at all, affected by this atomic proximity.
The band of energy occupied by the valence electrons is called the valence band and is,
obviously, the highest occupied band. It may be completely filled or partially filled with
electrons but never empty.
The next higher permitted energy band is called the conduction band and may either be empty
or partially filled with electrons. In fact, it may be defined as the lowest unfilled energy band.
In conduction band, electrons can move freely and hence are known as conduction electrons.
The gap between these two bands is known as the forbidden energy gap.
It may be noted that the covalent force of the crystal lattice have their source in the valence band.
If a valence electron happens to absorb enough energy, it jumps across the forbidden energy gap
and enters the conduction band. An electron in the conduction band can jump to an adjacent
conduction band more readily than it can jump back to the valence band from where it had come
earlier. However, if a conduction electron happens to radiate too much energy, it will suddenly
reappear in the valence band once again.
When an electron is ejected from the valence band, a covalent bond is broken and a positively
charged hole is left behind. This hole can travel to an adjacent atom by acquiring an electron
from adjacent atom.

Figure 2.2: Energy Band Diagram

*

ASSIGNMENT 2

1. Explain the following terms

(a) Photons (b) Ionization (c) Electrons (d) Fermi level (e) Energy Band
2. Differentiate between valance band and conduction band

QUIZ 2

1. List the first twenty elements

2. Categorize them to metals and non-metals and sketch their internal
structure showing their energy levels and valency

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LECTURE 3.0

TOPIC: SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Types of materials: (Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors)

Materials may be classified as conductors, semiconductors or insulators. The classification

depends on the value of resistivity of the material. Good conductors are usually metals and have
resistivities in the order of 10-7 to 10-8 Ωm, Semiconductors have resistivities in the order of
10-3 to 3 * 103 Ωm and the resistivities of insulators are in the order of 104 to 1014 Ωm.
.
The electrical conduction properties of different elements and compounds can be explained in
terms of the electrons having energies in the valence and conduction bands. The electrons lying
in the lower energy bands, which are normally filled, play no part in the conduction process.

Examples

Conductors:
Aluminium, Brass, Copper, Steel

Semiconductors:
Silicon, Germanium

Insulators:
Glass, Mica, PVC , Rubber (pure)

In general, over a limited range of temperatures, the resistance of a conductor increases with
temperature increase, the resistance of insulators remains approximately constant with variation
of temperature and the resistance of semiconductor materials decreases as the temperature
increases.

PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTOR
1. The resistivity of semiconductor is less than that of an insulator but more than that of a
conductor
2. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e. the resistance of the
semiconductor increases with decrease in temperature and vice versa
3. When a suitable metallic material (e.g. arsenic, gallium, antimony etc) is added to the
semiconductor, its current conducting properties change appreciably

Silicon and germanium

The most important semiconductors used in the electronics industry are silicon and germanium.
As the temperature of these materials is raised above room temperature, the resistivity is reduced
and ultimately a point is reached where they effectively become conductors. For this reason,

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silicon should not operate at a working temperature in excess of 150°C to 200°C, depending on
its purity, and germanium should not operate at a working temperature in excess of 75°C to
90°C, depending on its purity. As the temperature of a semiconductor is reduced below normal
room temperature, the resistivity increases until, at very low temperatures the semiconductor
becomes an insulator.
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also widely used in high-speed devices but so far, it has been
difficult to form large-diameter boules of this material, limiting the wafer diameter to sizes
significantly smaller than silicon wafers thus making mass production of GaAs devices
significantly more expensive than silicon.
Other less common materials are also in use or under investigation.
Silicon carbide (SiC) has found some application as the raw material for blue light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) and is being investigated for use in semiconductor devices that could withstand
very high operating temperatures and environments with the presence of significant levels
of ionizing radiation. IMPATT diodes have also been fabricated from SiC.
Various indium compounds (indium arsenide, indium antimonide, and indium phosphide) are
also being used in LEDs and solid state laser diodes. Selenium sulfide is being studied in the
manufacture of photovoltaic solar cells.
The most common use for organic semiconductors is Organic light-emitting diodes

n-type and p-type materials

Adding extremely small amounts of impurities to pure semiconductors in a controlled manner is
called doping. Antimony, arsenic and phosphorus (group 5 elements) are called n-type
impurities and form an n-type material when any of these impurities are added to silicon or
germanium. The amount of impurity added usually varies from 1 part impurity in 105 parts
semiconductor material to 1 part impurity to 108 parts semiconductor material, depending on the
resistivity required. Indium, aluminium and boron (group 3 elements) are called p-type
impurities and form a p-type material when any of these impurities are added to a
semiconductor.

In semiconductor materials, there are very few charge carriers per unit volume free to conduct.
This is because the ‘four electron structure’ in the outer shell of the atoms (called valency
electrons), form strong covalent bonds with neighbouring atoms, resulting in a tetrahedral
structure with the electrons held fairly rigidly in place. A two-dimensional diagram depicting this
is shown for germanium

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 Figures : 3.1a(germanium crystal) and 3.1b (p-type, showing hole)

Arsenic, antimony and phosphorus have five valency electrons and when a semiconductor is
doped with one of these substances, some impurity atoms are incorporated in the tetrahedral
structure. The ‘fifth’ valency electron is not rigidly bonded and is free to conduct, the impurity
atom donating a charge carrier. A two-dimensional diagram depicting this is shown in figure 3.2
in which a arsenic atom has replaced one of the germanium atoms. The resulting material is
called n-type material, and contains free electrons.
Indium, aluminium and boron have three valency electrons and when a semiconductor is doped
with one of these substances, some of the semiconductor atoms are replaced by impurity atoms.
One of the four bonds associated with the semiconductor material is deficient by one electron
and this deficiency is called a hole. Holes give rise to conduction when a potential difference
exists across the semiconductor material due to movement of electrons from one hole to another,
as shown in figure 3.1
In this figure, an electron moves from A to B, giving the appearance that the hole moves from B
to A. Then electron C moves to A, giving the appearance that the hole moves to C, and so on.
The resulting material is p-type material containing holes.

Figures : 3.2a(p-type) and 3.2b (n-type)

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ASSIGNMENT 3:

a. State the characteristics of insulators, semiconductors and conductors with examples

b. State five properties of semiconductors
c. Mention the most commonly used semiconductors and state the reasons why they are
commonly used?

QUIZ 3:

a. Explain the term “doping”

b. Differentiate between free electrons and holes
c. Show with the aid of 2-D diagrams how semiconductors are doped with n-type and p-
type materials with explanations

LECTURE 4.0

The p-n junction

A p-n junction is a piece of semiconductor material in which part of the material is p-type and
part is n-type. In order to examine the charge situation, assume that separate blocks of p-type and
n-type materials are pushed together. Also assume that a hole is a positive charge carrier and that
an electron is a negative charge carrier. At the junction, the donated electrons in the n-type
material, called majority carriers, diffuse into the p-type material (diffusion is from an area of
high density to an area of lower density) and the acceptor holes in the p-type material diffuse into
the n-type material as shown by the arrows in Figure 11.5. Because the n-type material has lost
electrons, it acquires a positive potential with respect to the p-type material and thus tends to
prevent further movement of electrons. The p-type material has gained electrons and becomes
negatively charged with respect to the n-type material and hence tends to retain holes. Thus after
a short while, the movement of electrons and holes stops due to the potential difference across
the junction, called the contact potential. The area in the region of the junction becomes
depleted of holes and electrons due to electron-hole recombinations, and is called a depletion
layer.

Forward and reverse bias

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When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction making the p-type material positive with
respect to the n-type material, as shown in the Figure, the p-n junction is forward biased. The
applied voltage opposes the contact potential, and, in effect, closes the depletion layer.
Holes and electrons can now cross the junction and current flows. An increase in the applied
voltage above that required to narrow the depletion layer (about 0.2V for germanium and 0.6V
for silicon), results in a rapid rise in the current flow. Graphs depicting the current-voltage
relationship for forward biased p-n junctions, for both germanium and silicon, called the
forward characteristics, are shown

Figure : Forward bias

When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction making the p-type material negative with
respect to the n-type material as in shown in Figure 11.9, the p-n junction is reverse biased. The
applied voltage is now in the same sense as the contact potential and opposes the movement
of holes and electrons due to opening up the depletion layer. Thus, in theory, no current flows.
However at normal room temperature certain electrons in the covalent bond lattice acquire
sufficient energy from the heat available to leave the lattice, generating mobile electrons and
holes. This process is called electron-hole generation by thermal excitation. The electrons in the
p-type material and holes in the n-type material caused by thermal excitation, are called
minority carriers and these will be attracted by the applied voltage. Thus, in practice, a small
current of a few microamperes for germanium and less than one microampere for silicon, at
normal room temperature, flows under reverse bias conditions.
Typical reverse characteristics are shown in Figure 11.10 for both germanium and silicon.

Figure : Reverse Bias

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Semiconductor diodes

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction
(asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally
infinite) resistance in the other. A diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode is a vacuum tube
with two electrodes, a heated cathode and a plate (anode), in which electrons can flow in only
one direction, from cathode to plate.

Figure: Symbol of a Diode

Symbol of a vacuum Tube

Figure: Picture of various types of diode

Important Terms:

I. Forward Current: it is the current flowing through a forward biased diode. Every diode
has a maximum value of forward current which it can safely carry. If this value is
exceeded, the diode may be destroyed due to excessive heat. For this reason , the
manufacturers data sheet specifies the maximum forward current that a diode can handle
safely.
II. Peak Inverse Voltage : it is the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand
without without destroying the junction. If the reverse voltage across a diode exceeds this
value, the reverse current increases sharply and breaks down the junction due to

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 excessive heat. Peak inverse voltage (PIV) is extremely important when diode is used as
a rectifier. In rectifier service, it has to be ensured that reverse voltage across the diode
does not exceed its PIV during the negative half-cycle of input a.c. voltage. As a matter
of fact, PIV consideration is generally the deciding factor in diode rectifier circuits.
III. Reverse Current or Leakage Current: it is the current that flows through a reverse
biased diode. This current is due to the minority carriers. Underr normal operating
voltages, the reverse current is quite small

A semiconductor diode, the most commonly used type today, is a crystalline piece of
semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. Semiconductor
diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of asymmetric electrical
conduction across the contact between a crystalline mineral and a metal was made by German
physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other materials
such as gallium arsenide and germanium are also used.
A new material called gallium-arsenide(GaAs) is found to combine desirable features of both
Ge and Si and is finding ever-increasing use in many new applications.
The P-N junction may be produced by any one of the
following methods :

1. grown junction 2. alloy junction 3. diffused junction 4. epitaxial growth 5. point contact
junction

Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers
(electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive
charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor. When the n-type and p-type materials are
attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occur from the n to the p side resulting in a
third region between the two where no charge carriers are present. This region is called the
depletion region (as shown above) because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons nor
holes) in it. The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type regions. The boundary
between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes place.
When a sufficiently higher electrical potential is applied to the P side (the anode) than to the N
side (the cathode), it allows electrons to flow through the depletion region from the N-type side
to the P-type side. The junction does not allow the flow of electrons in the opposite direction
when the potential is applied in reverse

Example: Calculate the current and power dissipated in (a) an ideal diode
(b) a 6 Ω resistor, if connected with the ideal diode.

Solution. The diode is an ideal one and is forward-biased. Hence, it can be

replaced by a short closed switch. The circuit current, as given by Ohm’s law, is
I = 12/6 = 2 A

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 (a) Since there is no voltage drop across the diode, power consumed by it is zero.
As we know, there is no power when either the voltage or current is zero. In the
forward direction, there is current but no voltage drop, hence power dissipated by
the ideal diode is zero. In the reverse direction, there is voltage but no current.
Hence, power dissipated by the diode is again zero.
In fact, an ideal diode never dissipates any power.

(b) power consumed by 6 Ω resistor = 22 × 6 = 24 W.

Example 2: An a.c voltage of peak value 20V is connected in series with a silicon diode and
load resistance of 500Ω. If the forward resistance of diode is 10Ω, find:
(a) Peak current through the diode
(b) Peak output voltage

Solutions:
Peak Input Voltage = 20V
Forward Resistance (rf) = 10Ω
Load Resistance (RL) = 500Ω
Potential barrier voltage (Vo) = 0.7V for silicon

The diode will conduct during the positive half-cycles of ac input voltage only. The cicuit
is shown above.
(i) The peak current through the diode will occur at the instant when the input
voltage reaches positive peak i.e. Vin = Vp = 20V
΅ Vf = Vo + (If)peak [(rf) + RL ]

Or (If)peak = Vf - Vo = 20 – 0.7
[(rf) + RL 10 + 500

= 37.8mA

(ii) Peak Output Voltage = (If)peak x RL

= 37.8mA x 500Ω
= 18.9 V

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 ASSIGNMENT 4.0:

1. Explain the following terms:

(a) Forward current (b) Leakage current (c) PIV
2. An a.c voltage of peak value 50V is connected in series with a
germanium diode and load resistance of 300Ω. If the forward resistance
of diode is 20Ω, find:
a. Peak current through the diode
b. Peak output voltage

QUIZ 4.0

1. Explain the following (a) depletion layer (b) p-n junction

2. Describe any two methods of producing p-n junction

LECTURE 5.0: Rectification through Crystal Diode:

The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and voltages from alternating currents and
voltages is called rectification. The process of converting the AC current into DC current is
called rectification. Rectification can be achieved by using a single diode or group of diodes.
These diodes which convert the AC current into DC current are called rectifiers.
Automatic switching in circuits is carried out by diodes. For methods of half-wave and full wave
rectification, see the figures below:

A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of an AC
voltage waveform to pass, blocking the other half-cycle. Half-wave rectifiers are used to convert
AC voltage to DC voltage, and only require a single diode to construct as shown in figure 5.1

Figure 5.1: Half –wave rectifier

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Full wave rectifier definition

A full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts both half cycles of the AC signal into
pulsating DC signal.

As shown in the figure below, the full wave rectifier converts both positive and negative half
cycles of the input AC signal into output pulsating DC signal.

The full wave rectifier is further classified into two types: center tapped full wave rectifier and
full wave bridge rectifier

Figure 5.2 Full-wave center-tapped

Figure 5.3 Full-wave bridge rectifier

240V

50Hz

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Characteristics of full wave rectifier

Ripple factor
The ripple factor is used to measure the amount of ripples present in the output DC signal. A
high ripple factor indicates a high pulsating DC signal while a low ripple factor indicates a low
pulsating DC signal.

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to the pure DC voltage

The ripple factor is given by

Finally, we get
γ = 0.48
Rectifier efficiency
Rectifier efficiency indicates how efficiently the rectifier converts AC into DC. A high
percentage of rectifier efficiency indicates a good rectifier while a low percentage of rectifier
efficiency indicates an inefficient rectifier.
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the AC input power.
It can be mathematically written as

η = output PDC / input PAC

The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%.

The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is twice that of the half wave rectifier. So the full
wave rectifier is more efficient than a half wave rectifier

Peak inverse voltage (PIV)

Peak inverse voltage or peak reverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand in

the reverse bias condition. If the applied voltage is greater than the peak inverse voltage, the
diode will be permanently destroyed.

The peak inverse voltage (PIV) = 2Vsmax

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DC output current
At the output load resistor RL, both the diode D1 and diode D2 currents flow in the same
direction. So the output current is the sum of D1 and D2 currents.
The current produced by D1 is Imax / π and the current produced by D2 is Imax / π.

So the output current IDC = 2Imax / π

Where,
Imax = maximum DC load current

DC output voltage

The DC output voltage appeared at the load resistor RL is given as

VDC = 2Vmax /π
Where,
Vmax = maximum secondary voltage

Root mean square (RMS) value of load current IRMS

The root mean square (RMS) value of load current in a full wave rectifier is

Root mean square (RMS) value of the output load voltage VRMS

The root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage in a full wave rectifier is

Form factor
Form factor is the ratio of RMS value of current to the DC output current
It can be mathematically written as
F.F = RMS value of current / DC output current
The form factor of a full wave rectifier is
F.F = 1.11

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Advantages of full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer

High rectifier efficiency

Full wave rectifier has high rectifier efficiency than the half wave rectifier. That means the full
wave rectifier converts AC to DC more efficiently than the half wave rectifier.

Low power loss

In a half wave rectifier, only half cycle (positive or negative half cycle) is allowed and the
remaining half cycle is blocked. As a result, more than half of the voltage is wasted. But in full
wave rectifier, both half cycles (positive and negative half cycles) are allowed at the same time.
So no signal is wasted in a full wave rectifier.

Low ripples

The output DC signal in full wave rectifier has fewer ripples than the half wave rectifier.

Disadvantages of full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer

High cost

The center tapped transformers are expensive and occupy a large space.

ASSIGNMENT 5:

1. The applied input a.c. power to a half-wave rectifier is 100 watts. The
d.c output power obtained is 40 watts.
(i) What is the rectification efficiency?
(ii) What happens to remaining 50 watts?
2. Differentiate between fuul wave and half wave rectifier

QUIZ 5:

1. State and explain any three characteristics of full-wave rectifier?

2. Define rectification?
3. Sketch the schematic diagram of a full wave bridge rectifier

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 LECTURE 6.0 FILTER CIRCUITS

Generally, a rectifier is required to produce pure d.c supply for using at various places in the
electronic circuits. However, the output of a rectifier has pulsating character i.e. it contains a.c.
and d.c components. The a.c components is undesirable and must be kept away from the load.
Pulsating DC voltage is a DC voltage whose value changes between 0 and a maximum positive
value V_max(say). It is most commonly found as output of rectifier, half-wave or full-wave.
Only its value changes, not the polarity. In case of Pulsating DC current, only value of current
changes between 0 and I_max, not the direction of current. As the ripples are removed by filters,
it approaches futher and further to smooth, constant DC

Figure 6.1: Waveforms

A filter circuit is a device to remove the A.C

components of the rectified output, but allows the D.C components to reach the load. A filter
circuit is in general a combination of inductor (L) and Capacitor (C) called LC filter circuit. A
capacitor allows A.C only and inductor allows D.C only to pass. There are two categories of
filter, which are:

 Active Filter
 Passive Filter
Active Filters
Filter Circuit which consists of active components like Transistors and Op-amps in addition to
Resistors and Capacitors is called Active Filter.
Passive Filters
Filter circuit which consists of passive components such as Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors is
called as Passive Filter (e,g. Capacitor filter, choke input filter and capacitor input filter).
The operating frequency range of the filter banks on the components used to build the circuit.
Hence the filter can be further categorized based on the operating frequency of a particular
circuit. They are:
 Low Pass Filter
 High Pass Filter
 Band Pass Filter
 Band Stop Filter

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 All Pass Filter

Figures 6.2 and 6.3: Types of Filter circuits

VOLTAGE STABILIZATION

A rectifier with an appropriate filter serves as a good sources of d,c output. However, the major
disadvantage of such a power supply is that the output voltage changes with the variations in the
input voltage or load. Thus if the input voltage increases, the d,c output voltage of the rectifier
also increases. Similarly, if the load current increases, the output voltage falls due to the voltage
drop in the rectifying element, filter chokes, transformer windings etc. in many electronic
applications, it is desired that the output voltage remain constant regardless of the variations in
the input voltage or load. In other to ensure this, a voltage stabilizing device, called voltage
stabilizer is used. Several stabilizing circuits have been designed but Zener diode will be
discussed here.

Zener Diode

A zener diode is used for voltage reference purposes or for voltage stabilization.
A Zener diode is a particular type of diode that, unlike a normal one, allows current to flow not
only from its anode to its cathode, but also in the reverse direction, when the so-called "Zener
voltage" is reached. Zener diodes have a highly doped p-n junction. Normal diodes will
also break down with a reverse voltage but the voltage and sharpness of the knee are not as well
defined as for a Zener diode. Also normal diodes are not designed to operate in the breakdown
region, but Zener diodes can reliably operate in this region.
The device was named after Clarence Melvin Zener, who discovered the Zener effect. Zener
reverse breakdown is due to electron quantum tunnelling caused by a high strength electric
field. However, many diodes described as "Zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 20

breakdown. Both breakdown types are used in Zener diodes with the Zener effect
predominating under 5.6 V and avalanche breakdown above.
Zener diodes are widely used in electronic equipment of all kinds and are one of the basic
building blocks of electronic circuits. They are used to generate low power stabilized supply rails
from a higher voltage and to provide reference voltages for circuits, especially stabilized power
supplies. They are also used to protect circuits from over-voltage, especially electrostatic
discharge (ESD

Figure 6.4: Symbol of a Zener Diode Figure 6.5: Graphical Picture of a Zener Diode

Figure 6.6 Current-voltage characteristic of a Zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 17 volts.
Notice the change of voltage scale between the forward biased (positive) direction and the
reverse biased (negative) direction.

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 21

 Figure 6.7: Graphical form

The Zener diode specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a specific voltage. Its
characteristics are otherwise very similar to common diodes. In breakdown the voltage across
the Zener diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus making it useful as a
shunt voltage regulator

Example 6.1:
For the circuit shown:
Find the maximum and minimum value of zener diode current, given that the variable
voltage ranges are 80v-120v, with zener voltage of 50v, input resistance of 5kΩ and
output resistance of 10kΩ

Solution:
(i) Maximum Zener current: The sener diode will conduct maximum current when
the input voltage is maximum i.e. 120V. Under such conditions:

Voltage across 5kΩ = 120v – 50v = 70v

Current through 5kΩ,
I = 70v = 14mA
5kΩ

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 22

 Load Current IL = 50v = 5mA
10kΩ

Applying Kirchhoff;s first law

I = IL + Iz

Zener Current Iz = I - IL = 14mA - 5mA

= 9mA

(ii) Minimum Zener Current . The zener diode will conduct minimum current when
the input voltage is at minimum i.e. 80v
Under such conditions :
Voltage across 5kΩ = 80v - 50v = 30v
Current through 5kΩ, I = 30v
5kΩ = 6mA

Load Current IL = 5mA

Zener Current Iz = I - IL = 6mA - 5mA
= 1mA

Thyristor Switch
A thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating P- and N-type
materials. It acts exclusively as a bistable switch, conducting when the gate receives a current
trigger, and continuing to conduct until the voltage across the device is reversed biased, or until
the voltage is removed

Figures 6.8a, 6.8b : Symbol and picture of thyristor

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Figures 6.9a and 6.9b Schematic symbols of a thyristor

Thyristors are high-speed solid-state devices which can be used to control motors, heaters and
lamps. The amount of power delivered to a load can be controlled using a thyristor, which is a
semi-conductor device

Figure 6.10 : Thyristor firing circuit

This simple “on-off” thyristor firing circuit uses the thyristor as a switch to control a lamp, but it
could also be used as an on-off control circuit for a motor, heater or some other such DC load.
The thyristor is forward biased and is triggered into conduction by briefly closing the normally-
open “ON” push button, S1 which connects the Gate terminal to the DC supply via the Gate
resistor, RG thus allowing current to flow into the Gate. If the value of RG is set too high with
respect to the supply voltage, the thyristor may not trigger.

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 24

 ASSIGNMENT 6:

1. For the circuit shown in example 6.1 above:

Find the maximum and minimum value of zener diode current, given
that the variable voltage ranges are 60v-100v, with zener voltage of
40v, input resistance of 5kΩ and output resistance of 15kΩ
2. Sketch and explain any two types passive filters

QUIZ 6

1. State four applications of thyristor switch

2. Explain the following terms:
(a) pulsating dc
(b) breakdown region
(c) filter circuit

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LECTURE 7.0: TRANSISTORS
There are basically two types of transistors, the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and the Field
Effect Transistor (FET).

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISITORS

A bipolar transistor - properly known as a bipolar junction transistor or BJT - is a

versatile discrete semiconductor device. Discrete semiconductors are designed primarily to
perform one function as a single semiconductor, as opposed to having to build multiple
semiconductor components into an integrated circuit on a printed circuit board (PCB). Bipolar
junction transistors are solid state, three-pin (base, collector and emitter) components,
constructed from three layers of silicon. There are two main types of BJT transistor, namely
PNP (positive-negative-positive) and NPN (negative-positive-negative). As with all transistors,
the basic function of a BJT is typically to amplify power.
Bipolar junction transistors are ‘current operated devices’, meaning a much smaller base
current causes a larger current to flow from emitter to collector. Whereas transformers can
amplify either current or voltage, transistors can amplify both current and voltage. In its raw
configuration, a BJT will naturally amplify current, but when integrated into a circuit it can
easily be made to amplify voltage - and so a bipolar transistor is thus frequently used as a method
of signal amplification across a broad spectrum of circuits, systems and product types.
Transistors are used in a great many different types of electrical and electronic applications;
indeed, they’re often seen as one of the fundamental building blocks of modern circuitry.
When used as discrete components or in smaller quantities, bipolar transistor devices can be used
to amplify signals on circuits, or to create simple electronic logic switches. Transistors can also
be combined into much larger quantities and arrays, providing a far more powerful and flexible
range of functions for use in modern computing and other complex electronics processes.
A bipolar junction transistor comprises three terminals, or pins, known respectively as a base,
a collector, and an emitter. As with any transistor, the core working concept of a BJT is that a
small amount of current flowing between the base and collector pins causes a larger current to
flow between the collector and emitter pins.
The BJT can be driven into ‘cutoff’ (off) and ‘saturation’ (on) modes, as well as its standard
‘active’ (amplification) mode.

 ‘Active’ mode
o In this mode, the transistor can function as an amplifier for the current flowing
from base pin to collector, and proportionally increase that current flow from the
collector pin to the emitter
o This is among the most versatile and powerful modes a transistor can operate in,
and is arguably the most common application for transistors used in circuits

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  ‘On’ or saturation mode
o In this mode, the transistor effectively acts as a short circuit between the collector
and the emitter, with current flow between the two essentially unrestricted (the
transistor operates as a closed or complete circuit)
 ‘Off’ or cutoff mode
o In this mode, which is the opposite of saturation, the transistor essentially
resembles a broken or open circuit; no collector current is allowed to flow, and so
there is no emitter current output
As stated in the bullet points above, when driven into either cutoff or saturation modes, the BJT
effectively functions more like a binary (on/off) circuit switch. In addition to amplification, this
is another of the most powerful and versatile uses of transistors, as we’ll discuss in the following
section

How a BJT works as a switch

Controlling the flow of power from one part of an electronic circuit to another is one of the key
functions a transistor exists to fulfill - and, in this role, the transistor is effectively acting as an
electronic switch rather than an amplifier per se. When pushed into either saturation or cutoff
modes, a BJT essentially replicates the binary on/off functionality of a regular circuit switch, and
can thus be used to create logic gates.

Figures 7.1a, 7.1b and 7.1c:

(a) Mechanical switch (b) NPN transistor switch (c) PNP transistor switch

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 27

Transistor Configurations: circuit configurations
Transistor circuits use one of three transistor configurations: common base, common collector
(emitter follower) and common emitter - one is selected during the electronic circuit design
process.

Each of the different transistor topologies has the inputs and outputs applied to different points,
with one terminal common to both input and output.

In addition to selecting the right circuit configuration or topology in the electronic circuit design
stage, to provide the required basic performance, additional electronic components are placed
around the transistor: typically resistors and capacitors, and the values are calculated to give the
exact performance needed

Common base transistor configuration

This transistor configuration provides a low input impedance while offering a high output
impedance. Although the voltage is high, the current gain is low and the overall power gain is
also low when compared to the other transistor configurations available. The other salient feature
of this configuration is that the input and output are in phase.

This transistor configuration is probably the least used, but it does provide advantages that the
base which is common to input and output is grounded and this has advantages in reducing
unwanted feedback between output and input for various RF circuit design applications. This
occurs because the base, which is the electrode physically between the emitter and collector is
grounded, thereby providing a barrier between the two.

As a result, the common base configuration tends to be used for RF amplifiers where the
increased isolation between input and output gives a greater level of stability and reduces the
likelihood of unwanted oscillation. As anyone involved in RF design will attest, this is a very
useful attribute.

Also the low input impedance can often able this to provide a good match to 50Ω, a useful
attribute for many RF design scenarios.

Common collector (emitter follower)

The common collector circuit configuration is possibly more widely known as the emitter
follower because the emitter voltage follows that of the base, although lower in voltage by an
amount equal tot he turn on voltage of the base emitter junction.

The common collector, emitter follower offers a high input impedance and a low output
impedance. The voltage gain is unity, although current gain is high. The input and output signals
are in phase.

In view of these characteristics, the emitter follower configuration is widely used as a buffer
circuit providing a high input impedance to prevent loading of the previous stage, and a low
output impedance to drive following stages.

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Common emitter transistor configuration

This transistor configuration is probably the most widely used. The circuit provides a medium
input and output impedance levels. Both current and voltage gain can be described as medium,
but the output is the inverse of the input, i.e. 180° phase change. This provides a good overall
performance and as such it is often the most widely used configuration.

INPUT Characteristics of CE

In a Common Emitter configuration of a Junction Transistor, the emitter is

the common terminal. Input is between the base and emitter. The output is between the
collector and emitter. Input characteristics are the variation of base current (IB) with the base-
emitter voltage (VBE).

The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current (IB)
and input voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE)

Figure 7.2

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Output Characteristics
In a Common Emitter configuration of a Junction Transistor, the emitter is
the common terminal. Input is between the base and emitter. The output is between the
collector and emitter. ... Output characteristics are the variation of collector current (IC) with
the collector-emitter voltage (VCE).

Figure 7.3

Transistor Biasing

Whatever form of transistor confirmation is chosen in the electronic circuit design stage,
additional components will be needed around the transistor: resistors to set the bias points and
capacitors to provide the coupling and decoupling.

In this circuit of the common emitter amplifier, the basic configuration sets the basic circuit
conditions of medium input impedance, medium output impedance, reasonable voltage gain and
the like. The additional electronic components are then calculated to give the required operating
conditions beyond this.

Each of the electronic components needs to be calculated during the electronic circuit design
stage to give the required performance.

Although the common emitter will probably be seen most often with electronic components like
resistors and capacitors, when used for RF circuit design, components like inductors, and
transformers may also be incorporated into the circuit. The same is true for the other transistor
circuit configurations as well.

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 30

 Figure 7.4: Biasing circuits of CE

Thermal runaway:

When a transistor is used as an amplifier it is necessary to ensure that it does not overheat.
Overheating can arise from causes outside of the transistor itself, such as the proximity of
radiators or hot resistors, or within the transistor as the result of dissipation by the passage of
current through it. Power dissipated within the transistor, which is given approximately by the
product ICVCE, is wasted power; it contributes nothing to the signal
output power and merely raises the temperature of the transistor. Such overheating can lead to
very undesirable results. The increase in the temperature of a transistor will give rise to the
production of hole electron pairs, hence an increase in leakage current represented by the
additional minority carriers. In turn, this leakage current leads to an increase in collector current
and this increases the product ICVCE. The whole effect thus becomes self-perpetuating and
results in thermal runaway. This rapidly leads to the destruction of the transistor.

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 31

 ASSIGNMENT 7:

1. Explain how thermal runaway might be prevented in a transistor?.

2. Describe the three operating modes of BJT

QUIZ 7:

1. Explain the following terms:

(a) Thermal runaway (b) Biasing (c) Emitter follower
2. Differentiate between input and output characteristics of a CE
configuration

LECTURE 8.0

Field-effect transistor (FET)

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor which uses an electric field to control the
flow of current. FETs are devices with three terminals: source, gate, and drain. FETs control the
flow of current by the application of a voltage to the gate, which in turn alters
the conductivity between the drain and source.
FETs are also known as unipolar transistors since they involve single-carrier-type operation.
That is, FETs use electrons or holes as charge carriers in their operation, but not both. Many
different types of field effect transistors exist. Field effect transistors generally display very high
input impedance at low frequencies. The most widely used field-effect transistor is
the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor).

The field-effect transistor is also used as a controlled switch in high-voltage and high-frequency
power circuits. The three terminals, drain, gate, and source, in an n-channel device bear the
same relationship as the collector, base, and emitter in an NPN bipolar transistor. That is, a
positive signal from gate to source causes the device to conduct a positive drain current.

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Figures 8.1a and 8.1b : Field-Effect Transistors

The advantages of power field-effect transistors over bipolar transistors are:

1. Field-effect transistors have faster switching speeds with reduced delay, rise, storage, and
fall times.
2. Devices are voltage controlled rather than current controlled and can be driven from
logic-level signals.
3. The second-breakdown failure mechanism of bipolar transistors is absent in field-effect
transistors.
4. Field-effect transistors, because of the conduction voltage drop versus temperature
characteristic, tend to share current when operated directly in parallel.
5. The device does not block reverse voltage but has a “built-in” rectifier that has a current
rating equivalent to the drain current rating.

A disadvantage of present field-effect transistors is the higher conduction voltage drop when
compared with a bipolar transistor of the same current rating. The value of “on” resistance is a
function of the drain-source voltage rating of the device. Higher-voltage devices have higher on
resistances and therefore lower drain currents for the same temperature rise. The voltage drop
can be comparable with the voltage drop of a Darlington transistor.

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At present, the voltage and current ratings of field-effect transistors are not as high as those
available in bipolar transistors. Field-effect transistors have replaced some bipolar transistors in
switching power supplies at generally higher operating frequencies, typically over 50 kHz.
Field-effect transistors (FETs) or thin-film transistor (TFTs) have gained considerable attention
over the last few years because of their steadily increasing performance level and amenability for
several different applications. TFTs are a wider class of gated devices that do not necessarily
involve the field-effect mechanism. Their wide range of applications includes, digital display,
electronic paper, radiofrequency identification, humidity control, pH measurement, detection of
chemical and biologic species, monitoring of cell’s growth, and drug delivery. Furthermore, they
can also facilitate cell signaling and tissue regeneration.
The use of organic bioelectronics holds much promise as a platform to create novel investigation
tools to study biochemical interactions and detect and transduce signals transmitted by biologic
systems, such as, tissues and neuronal cells. Organic electrochemical transistors, whose
operation mechanism is based on electrochemical doping of organic semiconductor (OSC), have
attracted particular interest for chemical and biosensing applications due to the possibility of
implementing biocompatible and water-stable OSCs.

Figures 8.2a and 8.2b: Schematic Symbol of JFET

FETs are widely used as input amplifiers in oscilloscopes, electronic voltmeters and other
measuring and testing equipment because of their high input impedance. As a FET chip occupies
very small space as compared to BJT chip, FETs are widely used in ICs.
o Field effects transistors (FETs) are used in mixer circuits to control low inter modulation
distortions.
o FETs are used in low frequency amplifiers due to its small coupling capacitors.
o It is a voltage controlled device due to this it is used in operational amplifier as voltage
variable resistors.
o It is commonly used as input amplifiers in devices i.e. voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and other
measuring devices, due to their high input Impedance.
o It is also used in radio frequency amplifiers for FM devices.
o It is used for mixer operation of FM and TV receiver.
o It is used in large scale integration (LSI) and computer memories because of its small size

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 34

 ASSIGNMENT 8:

1. What type of transistor is FET?

2. Differentiate between FET and BJT

QUIZ 8:

1. State five applications of FET

2. What are the advantages of FET over BJT

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 35

LECTURE 9.0 Single Stage Transistor Amplifier
When in an amplifier circuit only one transistor is used for amplifying a weak signal, the circuit
is known as single stage amplifier.

However, a practical amplifier consists of a number of single stage amplifiers and hence a
complex circuit. Therefore, such a complex circuit can be conveniently split into several single
stages and can be effectively analysed.

Figure 9.1 The above fig. shows a single stage transistor amplifier.

When a weak a.c. signal is applied to the base of the transistor, a small base current starts
flowing in the input circuit.

Due to transistor action, a much larger (β times the base current) a.c. current flows through the
the load Rc in the output circuit.

Since the value of load resistance Rc is very high, a large voltage will drop across it.

Thus, a weak signal applied in the base circuit appears in amplified form in the collector circuit.
In this way the transistor acts as an amplifier.

A practical single stage transistor amplifier circuit is shown in fig. below.

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 36

To achieve faithful amplification in a transistor amplifier, we must use proper associated
circuitry with the transistor

(i) Biasing Circuit

The resistances R1 , R2 and RE provide biasing and stabilisation.

The biasing circuit must establish a proper operating point otherwise a part of the negative half
cycle of the signal may be cut off in the output and you will get faithful amplification.

(ii) Input Capacitor (Cin)

An electrolytic capacitor of value 10 μF is used to couple the signal to the base of the transistor.

Otherwise, the signal source resistance will come across R2 and thus can change the bias.

iii) Emitter Bypass Capacitor (CE)

An emitter bypass capacitor of value 100 μF is used in parallel with RE to provide a low
reactance path to the amplified a.c. signal.
If this capacitor is not connected in the output circuit then the amplified a.c. signal will flow
through RE and cause a voltage drop across it, thereby reducing the output voltage

(iv) Coupling Capacitor (CC)

The coupling capacitor of value 10 μF is used to couple one stage of amplification to the next
stage.

If it is not used, the bias condition of the next stage will be drastically changed due to the
shunting effect of RC . This is because RC will come in parallel with the resistance R1 of the

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 37

biasing circuit of the next stage amplifier circuit and hence, alter the biasing condition of the next
stage.
Therefore, the coupling capacitor is used to isolates the d.c. of one stage from the next stage and
allows the a.c. signal only.

ASSIGNMENT 9:

1. What is an amplifier
2. Draw the circuit and explain how a triode can be used as a single stage
amplifier

QUIZ 9:

1. What is the need for biasing a transistor

2. List three different biasing arrangements in BJT and explain any one,
using diagram to support your answer

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 38

LECTURE 10.0 Integrated Circuits

An Integrated circuit (IC, microchip, or chip) is an electronic circuit made up of small

semiconductor devices and other electronic components that are manufactured on a
semiconductor material. The integration of a large number of transistors into a single chip was a
great achievement. It was only made possible after conducting a great number of experiments,
and then it was discovered that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum
tubes. The first integerated chip was designed by Jack S Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1958.
The discovery of integrated circuits was a huge breakthrough in the field of electronics due to the
fact that ICs were a lot more reliable, capable, and cheaper than discrete circuits. Also the space
occupied by the electronic components is minimized as all the components are printed as a unit
and much less material is required. Power consumption is another advantage of ICs because the
components are very small in size and are working as a unit.

Figure 10.1: Samples of some ICs

Designing

There are certain circuit design and logic techniques that are used to design an integrated circuit.
There are two categories of IC design which are:

1. Digital design
2. Analog Design

Microprocessors, memories (RAM, ROM) and FPGA’s are designed by Digital IC design
method. Digital designing ensures that the circuits are correct and the circuit density is at
maximum. The overall efficiency of the circuit is very high. On the other hand, Analog design
method is used to design oscillators, filters, line regulators, operational amplifiers and phase
locked loops. Analog designing is used where gain, power dissipation and resistance are required
to be perfect.

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Construction and Manufacturing

There are two main steps in the manufacturing process:

1. Fabrication
2. Packaging

1. Fabrication

The process of creating integrated circuits is called Fabrication. It is a sequence of chemical and
photographic steps in which the circuits are constructed on a semiconductor material known as
“wafer”. The steps are described below:

 Lithography

In this step, a layer of photo-resisting liquid is applied on the surface of semiconductor or wafer.
It is then backed and hardened.

 Etching

In etching process, unwanted material is removed from the wafer. Then the pattern of the photo-
resist is transferred to the wafer.

 Deposition

In this step, films of different materials are applied on the wafer. It is done by either “Physical
Vapor Deposition” or “Chemical Vapor Deposition”.

 Oxidation

In the oxidation process, the silicon layers on the top are converted to silicon dioxide by oxygen
or water molecules.

 Diffusion

Diffusion is carried out to anneal the lattice defects.

2. Packaging

Packaging is also called “encapsulation” or “assembly”. It is the final stage of IC manufacturing.

In the beginning, ICs were packaged in ceramic flat packs. This technique was used for some
years then the “Dual in-line package”(DIP) was introduced. With the passage of time other
techniques were introduced such as “Pin Grid Array” and “Surface mount.” Intel and AMD have
moved to “land Grid array” packages. The packaging process also has some steps that have to be
followed which are given below:

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 1. Die attaching
2. IC Bonding
3. Flip Chip
4. Quilt Packaging
5. Film Attaching
6. IC encapsulation

 Diffusion

Diffusion is carried out to anneal the lattice defects.

Integrated circuits are mostly packaged in opaque plastic or ceramic insulation. There are metal
pins in the packaging which are used to connect to the outside world.

Integrated circuits are mostly packaged in opaque plastic or ceramic insulation. There are metal
pins in the packaging which are used to connect to the outside world.

circuit, microchip, or chip, an assembly of electronic components, fabricated as a single unit, in

which miniaturized active devices (e.g., transistors and diodes) and passive devices
(e.g., capacitors and resistors) and their interconnections are built up on a thin substrate
of semiconductor material (typically silicon). The resulting circuit is thus a
small monolithic “chip,” which may be as small as a few square centimetres or only a few square
millimetres. The individual circuit components are generally microscopic in size

Classification of ICs (Integrated Circuits)

 SSI: Small scale integration. 3 – 30 gates per chip.
 MSI: Medium scale integration. 30 – 300 gates per chip.
 LSI: Large scale integration. 300 – 3,000 gates per chip.
 VLSI: Very large scale integration. More than 3,000 gates per chip.

Advantages of IC

1. The entire physical size of IC is extremely small than that of discrete circuit.
2. The weight of an IC is very less as compared entire discrete circuits.
3. It’s more reliable.
4. Because of their smaller size it has lower power consumption.
5. It can easily replace but it can hardly repair, in case of failure.
6. Because of an absence of parasitic and capacitance effect it has increased operating
speed.

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 7. Temperature differences between components of a circuit are small.
8. It has suitable for small signal operation.
9. The reduction in power consumption is achieved due to extremely small size of IC.

Dis-advantages of IC
1. Coils or indicators cannot be fabricated.
2. It can be handle only limited amount of power.
3. High grade P-N-P assembly is not possible.
4. It is difficult to be achieved low temperature coefficient.
5. The power dissipation is limited to 10 watts.
6. Low noise and high voltage operation are not easily obtained.
7. Inductors and transformers are needed connecting to exterior to the semiconductor chip as it
is not possible to fabricate inductor and transformers on the semiconductor chip surface.
8. Inductors cannot be fabricated directly.
9. Low noise and high voltage operation are not easily obtained.

ASSIGNMENT 10

1. Differentiate between the two categories of IC designs

2. Explain the followings and state their application areas:
(a) LSI (b) VLSI (c) MSI (d) AI

QUIZ 10:

1. State five advantages and disadvantages of ICs over the discrete

components
2. Differentiate between` CMOS and TTL logic families of ICs

REFERENCES:

1. Industrial Electronics: by James A. Rehg and Glen J. Sartori

2. Electrical circuit theory : by John Bird
3. A textbook of Electrical technology Volume IV –Electronics Devices
and Circuits by: B.L Theraja
4. Principle of Electronics by: V.K Mehta and Rohit Mehta
5. Internet websites (various)

LCP Lecture Note_EEC 124_Electronics 1_ by: Engr. A. Ojo-Williams Page 42