Raspberry Pi

An Easy Guide to Programming, Developing, and Setup of

Raspberry PI Projects for Beginners

ALEXIS
RODRÍGUEZ
Copyright © 2020 Alexis Rodríguez
All rights reserved .
It is not legal to reproduce, duplicate, or transmit any part of this document by
either electronic means or in printed format. Recording of this publication is strictly
prohibited
Disclaimer
The information in this book is based on personal experience and anecdotal
evidence. Although the author has made every attempt to achieve an accuracy of
the information gathered in this book, they make no representation or warranties
concerning the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book. Your
circumstances may not be suited to some illustrations in this book.
The author disclaims any liability arising directly or indirectly from the use of this
book. Readers are encouraged to seek accounting, legal, or professional help
when required.
This guide is for informational purposes only, and the author does not accept any
responsibilities for any liabilities resulting from the use of this information. While
every attempt has been made to verify the information provided here, the author
cannot assume any responsibility for errors, inaccuracies, or omission.
 Contents
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE
UNDERSTANDING RASPBERRY PI
Different Models of Raspberry PI
The General Features and Provisions of Raspberry PI
The General Provisions of Raspberry Pi
The Specifications of the Hardware of Raspberry Pi
The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The Ethernet Port
The Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
General Purpose Input & Output (GPIO) Pins
Raspberry Pi Memory
The Universal Asynchronous Receiver / Transmitter (UART)
Display Monitors or TV
Power Source Cable or Connector
The Board of Raspberry Pi Model A
The Features of the Board of Model A Raspberry Pi
The Board of Model B Raspberry Pi
The Features of the Board of Model B Raspberry Pi
Functionalities of Raspberry PI
Detailed Explanations of these Projects
Other Projects you can do using Raspberry Pi
All the Tools Required to Setup Raspberry PI
Internet Connection
Installing Raspberry PI
Installing Raspbian on a Raspberry Pi
What is NOOBS?
NOOBS Installation Manager
Raspberry Pi Installer
CHAPTER TWO
BASIC PROGRAMS IN PYTHON
Basic Python Programs
Python Programs for Functions
Python Programs for Numbers
Python Programs for Array
Python Programs for Circular Linked List
Python Programs for Doubly Linked List
Python for Native Data Type Programs
Python Programs for Conditions and Loops
The Versions of Python and their Release Dates
How to Run Python
Requirements for Running Python Programs on a Raspberry Pi
Details about Python Libraries
Running Python Programs Using Terminal
Running Python Programs through IDE
Running Python Program Using Thonny
Executing Python Script with Python Shell
Reasons for Using Loops in Python
Benefits of Using Python Loops
Different Loop Statements in Python Programs
Features of IDLE
Types of Python IDEs
Microsoft Visual Studio IDE
Numbers and Variables
Types of Numerical Variables
Floating-Point Values
How to Declare Variables and Assign Values
How to Reference Objects in Python
How to Create Object Identity in Python
How to Determine the Names of Variables
How to Create Multiple Assignments
Assigning a Single Factor to Multiple Variables
Assigning Multiple Factors to Multiple Variables
How to Install the Application Initially
 How to Improve Error Handling Using Try and Except Method
CHAPTER THREE
WHAT ARE DICTIONARIES, LISTS, AND STRINGS?
How to Create Dictionaries
How to Access the Values of Dictionaries
How to Add Dictionary Values
How to Delete Elements using del keyword
Understanding the String Theory
How to Create String in Python
How to Index and Split Strings
How to Reassign Strings
How to Delete Strings
What are String Operators?
String Formatting in Python using Escape Sequence
String Functions in Python
What are the lists and their functions?
Built-in Functions in Python Lists
What are Multiple Assignments and Multiple Return Values?
Using Multiple Assignments with a List
Using Multiple Assignments with a String
Uses of Multiple Assignments in Python
Multiple Return Values
Defining and Identifying Function Keys in Python
Types of Number Conversions in Python
Using Python Decimal
Lists and Dictionaries
CHAPTER FOUR
UNDERSTANDING CLASSES, METHODS, AND MODULES
What is a Module?
What are the modules in Raspberry PI?
The Specifications of a Computer Module
Libraries in Python
Features of Matplotlib
 Features of Requests Library
Features of Theano Library
Features of Pillow Library
Features of Keras Library
Features of Fire Library
Features of NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit)
Features of Arrow Library
Features of FlashText Library
What is object orientation?
CHAPTER FIVE
HOW TO USE FILES AND INTERNET WITH RASPBERRY PI
Using Files and Internet on Raspberry Pi
What are the files in Raspberry PI?
Step-By-Step Method of Accessing a File in a Raspberry Pi
How to manage the file system
How to Create Files
Deleting Files
How to Copy Files
How to Show the Content of a File
Reading and Writing Files
Ways to Write Values
What are the differences between the Internet and Pickling?#
CHAPTER SIX
HANDLING GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES IN RASPBERRY
GUIs on Raspberry Pi
What is Tkinter Module in Python
The Approach on How to Use Tkinter
How do Hello World and Temperature Converter operate in GUI
Understanding Listbox and Spinbox
The Parameters for Using Listbox
The Methods of Listbox Objects
CHAPTER SEVEN
HARDWARE INTERFACES IN RASPBERRY
 Pin Connections in GPI
.....................................................................................................................
Prototyping Boards in Raspberry
Features of Prototyping Boards in Raspberry Pi
CHAPTER EIGHT
LEAD FADER AND PROTOTYPING PROJECTS
Requirements for Lead Fader Projects
How to Assemble the Hardware
Running the Software
Requirements for Prototyping Project
How to Assemble Prototyping Hardware
What are in Phase Two of the Prototyping Project?
CHAPTER NINE
PROJECTS IN RASPBERRY PI
How to Construct a Weather Station
How to Craft a Security System
CHAPTER TEN
HOW TO PROGRAM GAMES
Step-by-step Process of Games Programming in Raspberry PI
Types of Games in Raspberry PI
What are the coordinates?
How to follow the Mouse
CHAPTER ELEVEN
WHAT IS RASPBERRY PI ROBOT?
Requirements for Raspberry PI Robot
Connect your System to the Power Source
How to Handle Autonomous Rover
How to Assemble the Hardware
CONCLUSION
 INTRODUCTION

Are you interested in this new small device that has taken center
stage of the IT industry? Raspberry PI made a debut on February
24th, 2012. Unfortunately, the website of the supplying firm crashed.
However, new models of Raspberry PI 2, have been released and
are in circulation.
This computer device has a Linux operating system and designed
with a High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) video output. You
can connect a computer monitor or television into it. But the monitor
must have a DVI connector with HDMI to DVI adapters connected to
the system before it can function correctly. Your Raspberry PI may
not work if your monitor has only a VGA connector.
This device is a global phenomenon. It is useful for various activities
such as a regulator for smart home appliances and a media center.
Additionally, the Raspberry Pi could serve as a desktop workstation.
Now, beginners can code or decode python programming language.
In the same vein, experienced programmers that are not conversant
with Raspberry PI can learn various ways of using the features and
functionalities of the software for different businesses.
You can begin to write programs for your device using the renowned
Python programming language. You can learn the essentials of
graphical user interfaces. Understanding the pygame module will
assist you in building fun and exciting games.
Raspberry PI Foundation recommended using Raspbian Wheezy
distribution. The book contains a perfect representation of this
phenomenon for better understanding. It is good to note that the
original Raspbian operating system was developed and designed by
Peter Green and Mike Thompson.
In this book, you will learn the ABC of Raspberry Pi and the
requirements of setting it up. You will also learn basic programs in
Python. Other things that can help you navigate and use the
Raspbian include a comprehensive knowledge of string theory, lists,
and dictionaries.
How to use files and the internet are necessary information every
newbie in the field needs to enjoy this technology. Mastering the
operations of GUIs and other hardware interfaces in Raspberry are
proficient skills for success in software programming.
Let's dive inside the book for you to see and know more!
 CHAPTER ONE

UNDERSTANDING RASPBERRY PI

Raspberry Pi Device
Raspberry Pi functions as a desktop computer designed to access
the internet and play games. It can help you to build spreadsheets
and word-processing documents. Additionally, the Raspbian can
help you play high-definition videos.
This device can help beginners and experienced software engineers
to learn computing skills and programming languages such as
Python and Scratch. A Pi is an affordable computer device as small
as a credit card that you can plug into a television or computer
monitor. It also functions with a mouse and standard keyboard.
The system is a multipurpose machine used for building digital
projects. The varieties of projects it can handle include building
weather stations, and recording and playing music. Also, it comes
with infra-red cameras for tweeting birdhouses.
It is designed as a prototype of a computer that enables children to
learn to program. They will also know how to operate a computer
device.
Raspberry Pi is a trademark from Raspberry Pi Foundation. This
charity organization is registered and located in the United Kingdom.
The registration number is 1129409 . It was founded with the
purpose of furthering the academic courses of children and adults
interested in acquiring technical skills in the field of computer science
and other subjects in that field. Another target market for this product
is the literate masses in developing countries, who may avail
themselves of the opportunity of learning
programming.

Different Models of Raspberry PI

There are two models of Raspberry Pi; the first model (A) and the
second model (B). The differentiating factor is its USB port. Model A
has a port that can consume less power, excluding the Ethernet port.
But the B model, including the Ethernet port, can use up more
energy. The model B is developed in China.
Raspberry Pi is designed as open-source technologies with
multimedia web and communication features. The Pi board launched
this computer module in 2014 and integrated into a module the
board of model B Raspberry Pi. With this, you can use it as an
embedded system making the device useful.

The General Features and Provisions of

Raspberry PI
Raspberry Pi exists in different generations, such as the Pi, P2, P3,
and P4. These generations cost like the first models. But vary in the
hardware and some features, which reveal upgrades in the Raspbian
technology.
These latest technologies incorporate a board with a built-in
Bluetooth feature. They are enabled by a Quad-Core Broadcom
BCM283764bit ARMv8 processor. The P2 operates with 900 MHz,
while P3 functions at 1.2 GHz. All these models have four USB ports
with a naked board that can be extended, including an upgraded
power system.
The Raspbian is a well-designed British-made computer device that
is a bestseller on the market today, according to Eben Upton,
founder of the Raspberry Pi. With this system, you can access more
opportunities for the IoT, and accomplish more fantastic projects
faster.
The new model of this device is designed with a built-in wireless
connection. It was featuring a hub with standard internet connectivity.
Various gadgets can be interconnected to the device with flexible
operational costs. Also, it works with a power source of 2.5 amp. You
do not need another cable to power more complex USB devices.

The General Provisions of Raspberry Pi

1. It has Bluetooth of 4.1.

2. The video outputs include PAL and NTSC (composite
video) using 3.5 mm jack and HDMI.
3. Four USB ports.
4. A CPU with Quad-core 64-bit ARM Cortex A53 reached
at 1.2 GHz.
5. The device weighs 1.6 oz (45g).
6. The power source is 5 volts with GPIO header or
MicroUSB.
7. The size of the Raspberry Pi is 85.60 mm × 56.5 mm.
8. The memory has 1 GB LPDDR-900 SDRAM with Linux
Operating System. That is 900 megahertz (MHz).
 9. Raspbian has a network of 10/100 Mbps Ethernet and
802.IIn Wireless LAN.
10.
The GPU has a 400 megahertz (MHz) Video
core IV multimedia.
11.
The peripherals 17 GPIO with specific
functions and HAT ID bus.
12.
Other specifications include a USB mouse,
USB WiFi adaptor.

The Specifications of the Hardware of Raspberry

Pi

Specifications of a Raspberry Pi
This microcomputer is an educational tool with hardware having the
following specifications: GPIO pins, power source connector, central
processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), Xbee socket,
GPU, and UART.
Raspberry Pi has mass storage using an SD flash memory card. You
PC boots into Microsoft windows through the hard disk while an SD
memory card helps the Raspbian to boot. Other specifications of the
hardware include a US standard keyboard, video cable, power
supply cable, monitor, and a microSD card having Linux operating
system.
Other optional specifications you may need include device case,
model A or model B, WiFI adaptor, internet connectivity, USB mouse,
and powered USB hub. Use a LAN cable for internet connectivity to
the B model.
Detailed explanations of all the specs include

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU works serves as the brain and hub of your system. It
performs instructions in the computer using logical and mathematical
functions. Raspberry Pi uses the ARM11 series processor
functioning in the capacity of Samsung Galaxy.

The Ethernet Port

This port is designed for accessing the internet by plugging your
home router. It is the gateway for interacting with other devices.

The Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

You can speed up calculating image functions using the GPU. This is
a single chip on the board of your Raspberry Pi, and the GPU
supports OpenGL. It is also built using a Broadcom video-core IV.

General Purpose Input & Output (GPIO) Pins

You can associate and interact with other electronic boards using the
GPIO pins. Depending on the way you programmed your Raspberry
Pi, these pins can receive and process input and output commands.
It can function with digital GPIO pins too. Other electronic units are
connected to the Raspbian through these pins. For instance, you
can transmit digital data by connecting the general-purpose input &
output pins to the temperature sensor.

Raspberry Pi Memory
If you compare Raspberry Pi to other computer devices, it is a
miniature PC. Other standard computers have RAM measured in
gigabytes, but the RAM of a Raspbian contains a minimum of 256
MB while the maximum Ram is 512 MB.

The Universal Asynchronous Receiver /

Transmitter (UART)
The UART is a serial input and output port used for transferring
serial data like a text. Programmers use it for debugging and
converting codes.

Display Monitors or TV
Raspberry Pi board uses two monitors or television for displaying
digital data. These include HDMI and Composite displays. Use a
low-cost adaptor with an HDMI male cable to connect several LCD
and HD TV monitors.
The versions of HDMI supported by your Raspberry Pi are 1.3 and
1.4 using 1.4 cables too. These can help the functions of the video
and audio settings of Raspberry Pi. However, it does not support the
HDMI l/p adapter. The composite video functions are used for
connecting old televisions.
In this case, connecting the device to a display unit using a
composite video connection can make the audio system functional.
Connect the 3.5 mm jack socket and send it to your television. This
is possible using a cable that is adjustable for 3.5 mm to double the
RCA connection.

Power Source Cable or Connector

You can power your microcomputer using an external power source.
This is a small switch beside the shield.
XBee Socket
This feature in the board of a Raspberry pi is used for wireless
communication.

The Board of Raspberry Pi Model A

The board of model A is designed as a Broadcom (BCM2835) SOC

board. This model is made with an ARM1176JZF-Score CPU. It has
an SD card of 256 MB RAM with 700 megahertz (MHz).
The USB 2.0 ports features external data connectivity, which is an
optional tool in the system. The board is powered through a micro-
USB adapter. This adapter carries a minimum power range of 2 W.
You can also speed up image calculations features using the
graphics, which is a special chip in the system. It is a built-in
structure with Broadcom video-core IV cable. This feature is relevant
for running a video or game through the Raspberry Pi.

The Features of the Board of Model A Raspberry

Pi

The board of model A Raspberry Pi has unique features such as:

i. The dimensions of its board are 8.6 cm × 5.4 cm × 1.5

cm.
ii. There is a slot for SD, SDIO, and MMC cards.
iii. The SD card RAM is 256 MB.
iv. The video output is composite featuring RCA (NTSC and
PAL), and HDMI with cables versions 1.3 and 1.4.
v. It comes with an audio output, a 3.5 mm jack, and HDMI.
vi. Its board functions with an operating system called Linux.
 vii. It has a full HD multimedia processor with Broadcom
BCM2835 SoC.
viii. The 2.0 USB connector is single.
ix. The board has a dual-core video-core IV multimedia
coprocessor.

The Board of Model B Raspberry Pi

The model B of Raspberry Pi features a board with Broadcom
BCM2835 SOC. The board is designed with an SD-RAM of 512 MB
and 700 MHz. The CPU core is ARM1176JZF-S. The boars of USB
2.0 port utilize outside data connectivity features.
You can only connect with other system through the web in model B
using the Ethernet in Raspberry Pi. This system is powered with a
micro USB adapter. The minimum range of power needed is 2.5 W.
The graphics feature a specialized chip. This is used for speeding up
the image calculations. Running a game or video using your system
is possible, as it has a built-in Broadcom video-core IV cable. This
can help you for streaming a video and playing games.

The Features of the Board of Model B Raspberry

Pi
i. It features an HDMI audio output with a 33.5 mm jack.
ii. The system functions with a Linux operating system.
iii. The SD card has a RAM with a memory of 512 MB.
iv. The dimensions are 8.6 cm × 5.4 cm × 1.7 cm.
v. It functions with a dual-core video-core IV multimedia
coprocessor.
vi. Its video output functions with a composite RCA (PAL &
NTSC). This includes an HDMI with versions 1.3 and 1.4
cables.
vii. The 2.0 USB connector is single.
viii. The board has 10/100 Ethernet RJ45 jack.
ix. The Broadcom (BCM2835) SoC has a full high-definition
multimedia processor.
 x. The board storage has SDIO, SD, and MMC slots.

Functionalities of Raspberry PI

Raspberry Pi can be applied in various computerized projects such

as controlling robots, internet Radio, carputer, media streaming,
Arcade machine, home automation, and a tablet computer. Other
projects include cosmic equipment, coffee, and hunting for
meteorites.

Detailed Explanations of these Projects

A. Using Raspberry Pi for controlling the Velocity of a

DC motor

This project is aimed at using a your Pi device for controlling

the speed of DC motor.
The equipment you need includes a model of Raspberry Pi,
DC motor, LED, capacitors, resistors, and computer monitor
or TV. Others are transformer, wiring pi or PHP program,
voltage regulator, motor driver IC, and diode.
How it Works
You can regulate the velocity of a DC motor using your
Raspberry Pi. The voltage applied for the terminals of a DC
motor is comparative to its speed. If there is a varied voltage
across the terminals of a motor, the rate will also vary
consequently.
This is the reason for this project. You can operate the motor
at different speeds by connecting it to a keyboard. If you
press the key, the system starts functioning immediately.
If you want to handle this project, you can program the PWM
to cause an output. The output is initiated using wiring pi or
 PHP. This feature is based on the duty cycle that can cause a
change in the average current and voltage of the system.
When this happens, it causes the velocity of the DC engine to
change.
At this stage, you should interface a motor driver IC to the
board. This step will cause the board to receive the signals of
PWM. THis will also send the required opposite polarity (O/P)
to the DC motor. The overturn polarization between the two
magnetic fields causes the DC engine to function.

B. Controlling the auto power of street lights using a

Raspberry Pi

The purpose of this task is for students to know the ways of

controlling the auto power of street lights.
The items needed for this project are diodes, resistors, LEDs,
computer monitor or television, and crystal. Other equipment
includes MOSFET, transformers, wiring Pi or PHP program,
capacitors, and white LEDs.
How it works
The reason for choosing LED lights is to use them as street
lights, and they consume less energy. LED lights have longer
life span if compared to other lights. The PWM signals are
developed and used for regulating the intensity of lights
through a Raspberry Pi. This feature causes a MOSFET to
regulate the lights making them attain a desired operational
level.
This will cause the strength of LED lights to change steadily
from dusk to dawn. You will notice this occurrence more
during peak period when there will be full intensity. After
some time, the heat of the light will gradually reduce. You can
achieve a variable voltage across the LEDs using MOSFET
switching through pulse width modulation.

Other Projects you can do using Raspberry Pi

These include

Touch screen tablet.

Synced music and Christmas lights.
Lego Raspberry Pi enclosure.
Programmable sequential switching.
Controlling Drones

Drones Controlled by Raspberry Pi

Solar street lights.

Wearable computerized devices powered by Raspberry
Pi.
Autonomous robot arm control through Bluetooth control
using Raspberry Pi.
 Robots controlled by Raspberry Pi

Business computerization using Zigbee with Raspberry

Pi.

All the Tools Required to Setup Raspberry PI

Tools for Raspberry Setup
All the tools you require to set up your Raspberry Pi technology
include Raspberry Pi model, DC motor, SD card, connectivity or
display cables, Mouse, power supply, and keyboard. Other optional
tools and equipment needed are 3.5 mm jack earphones or
headphones and internet connectivity using a WiFi adapter or
Ethernet cable.
Keyboard
Use a standard keyboard or a regular keyboard to input data in your
microcomputer.
Mouse
A conventional mouse is also used to input information into the
system.
SD Card
An SD card for Raspberry Pi
You should get an 8 GB class of 4 SD cards for your Raspbian. This
is already installed with NOOBS. Most times, you can buy an SD
card already installed with NOOBS. Another way to get NOOBS is by
downloading it for free.
If you have the foremost Raspberry Pi Model A or Raspberry Pi
Model B, you need a full-size SD card. However, the new models of
Raspberry Pi model A+ and Raspberry Pi model B+ are designed to
use micro SD cards. Other models include model B of Raspberry Pi
2, model B of Raspberry Pi 3, and Raspberry Pi Zero, all function
with micro SD cards.

Internet Connection
Use a WiFi adapter or Ethernet cable to connect your device to the
internet. With this, you can download software or update an existing
one.
Power supply
The optimal power supply required by your Raspberry Pi is at least 5
volts. Apply a 5-volt micro USB power supply to power your device. If
you use a power output with a lower voltage, the device will function
funnily.
Earphones of Headphones
Your microcomputer functions with earphones or headphones using
a 3.5 mm jack.
HDMI / DVI Monitor or Television
A Raspberry Pi functions with a television or HDMI monitor or DVI
monitor as a display unit. If you want more explicit pictures and high-
quality images, use a monitor with HDMI input. If you are using older
devices, use other connections. An original Ethernet cable is ideal
for internet access to the system. Raspberry Pi 3 comes with a
integrated wireless LAN.

Installing Raspberry PI
Installing Raspbian on your device is easy by following simple
guidelines. A Raspberry Pi functions with an operating system called
a Raspbian. This originates from the Linux distribution Debian. All
Raspberry Pi's hardware functions with the Linux operating system.
The Raspbian is a multipurpose and professional operating system
that makes your Raspberry Pi device to work well as a computer. It
features a browser, command buttons, and several other programs.
A Raspberry Pi can function as a home computer since it is a low-
cost device with attributes of a PC. It serves as a springboard
enabling you to perform other tasks and projects seamlessly. You
can use it as wireless access points or play exciting video games.

Installing Raspbian on a Raspberry Pi

Installing Raspbian is a natural process. You will use a microSD card
and write the disc image after downloading the Raspbian. Get an 8
GB microSD card, a PC with an opening for SD cards, a mouse,
keyboard, power, and a Raspberry Pi, as stated above.
What is NOOBS?

NOOBS Installation Manager

NOOBS is an installation manager for operating systems. It is
another option for installing Raspbian on your Pi device. Some SD
cards are pre-loaded with NOOBs making it easier to install
Raspbian to your Raspberry. If it is not pre-installed, you can
download NOOBS to your SD card before using it to download
Raspberry Pi.

Method 1
Download Raspbian OS
Raspberry Pi Installer

The first method for installing Raspberry Pi is downloading the

Raspbian disc image. This is the current version of the operating
software in a Raspberry Pi. You can download the Raspbian disc
image using a PC or Mac computer.
This process may take some time with the traditional download
feature. You can also use the torrent, although this could take up to
an hour to download to your system. But wait for it.

Method 2
Unzip the Compressed File
After downloading, the next step is to unzip the File. It exists with the
ZIP64 format. However, this depends on how the built-in features in
your system are. If they are updated and current, you can use any
program to unzip the File.
Some programs for unzipping files in a Raspberry Pi include

a. Unzip for persons using the Linux operating system.

b. The Unarchiver for Mac users.
c. 7-Zip for programmers using windows software.

Method 3
Use a MicroSD Card and Write the Disc Image

MicroSD Card

Put your microSD card into your system and write the disc image to
it. This may demand some programs such as:

i. Etcher for those using the Linux OS in their devices.

This program is recommended by the Raspberry Pi
Foundation.
ii. Win32 Disk Imager suitable for programmers using
windows operating system.
 iii. Users with Mac devices can utilize the program
already installed in the system for writing the disc
image.
It could take different processes to write the disc image to the card
on those devices. But the procedures are self-explanatory and easy
to understand. During the writing process, you will be requested to
choose a destination in your system, select the microSD card. For
the disc image, select the "Unzipped Raspbian file." Click on double-
check. After this, tap the icon and write the image to your microSD
card.
With this process, the disc image will be written to the card.

Method 4
Boot up Your Raspberry Pi after Inserting the microSD Card
The final stage is to insert the SD card into your device and boot
your device. Remember to plug in the power source and the
peripherals. If you have updated your device to the current edition of
Raspbian, this will display on the desktop of your Raspberry Pi.
Apply the default username and password.
Username: pi
Password: Raspberry
Afterward, you can change to your username and password.
 Change Name and Password

The Connections
As I stated earlier, a Raspberry Pi is already equipped with a
microSD card slot. Inserting an SD card into the slot is easy since it
is the primary storage space in a Raspberry Pi board. Its function is
the same as a hard disc in any computer device.
The operating system is Linux OS, which is loaded onto the SD card.
This operating system is bootable after plugging the Pi into a power
source. A Raspberry Pi supports Linux OS, Mac, ARM, and Qtonpi
operating systems.
You can select any of these operating systems for your Raspberry Pi
device. Then, you can use a disk manager application and write it to
an SD card. Other external storage systems include a USB drive or a
USB external hard drive.
Different sizes and brands of SD cards are available on the market.
However, your Raspberry Pi can contain an SD card with a
maximum storage capacity of 64 GB.
The connections that can make your Raspberry Pi functional include
a monitor or TV, Mouse, and keyboard. Various output channels are
needed for the display unit. These include composite video, DSI
video, and HDMI video. However, the DSI video output needs
specific hardware to function.
The SD card is an essential component of a Raspberry pi board.
Most times, they may sell a Raspberry Pi board with or without an
SD card. It is used for storing files, documents, and other programs
in this microcomputer.
If you purchase a Raspberry pi board without an SD card, then you
should buy a minimum of 4 GB for your device. But it can contain a
total of 8 GB. With this system; you can manage web traffic properly.
It also functions as a typical computer with a low-cost server,
although smaller in size.
 CHAPTER TWO

BASIC PROGRAMS IN PYTHON

Python is a multipurpose, high-level, and interpreted programming

language that was developed and released in 1991 by Guido van
Rossum. The design philosophy embraces code readability and
remarkable for using meaningful whitespace. The language is well-
constructed and objects oriented in its approach. It is aimed at
helping programmers to write clear and understandable codes for
large-scale projects, including small-scale tasks.
Python encourages multiple programming features, such as
functional programming and structured programming. It is garbage
collected and dynamically typed. Python has a comprehensive and
standard library. It is also described as batteries included in its
unique features.
This programming concept was create and introduced in the 1980s.
It became the follower of the ABC language. List comprehensions
and garbage collections are features of python 2.0. This program
was released in 2000 with reference counting. Also, Python 3.0 was
released in 2008. This was a review and amendment of the
language, although not backward compatible. It is good to note that
Python 2 codes cannot run on Python 3 in unmodified format.
The language of Python 2 was planned and initiated for 2015 but
discontinued in 2020. Python 2.7.18 is the last Python 2.7 to be
released. It is the last Python 2 programs that will be issued. There
shall be no improvements or security patches to be released for it.
Since Python 2 has ended, Python 3.5.x and others are supported.
Different operating systems have Python interpreters. A community
of programmers called Python Software Foundation directs and
manages resources for CPython and Python development. Python is
a free source for a reference implementation. It is developed and
maintained this group of programmers.
Varieties of basic Python programs abound on many topics such as
basic python programming, functions, types of native data, and
conditions and loops.

Basic Python Programs

Basic programs in Python include

i. Python program for showing calendar.

ii. Python program for converting kilometers to miles.
iii. Python program for arithmetical operations.
iv. Python program for converting Celsius to Fahrenheit.
v. Python program for swapping two variables.
vi. Python program for printing "Hello Python."
vii. Python program for solving a quadratic equation.
viii. Python program for determining the area of a triangle.
ix. Python program for generating a random number.

Python Programs for Functions

a. Python program for converting decimal to binary, octal,
hexadecimal.
b. Python program for determining HCF.
c. Python program for calculating LCM.
d. Python program for making a simple calculator.
e. Python program for displaying the calendar.
f. Python program for determining the factorial of a numeral
using recursion.
g. Python program for determining the ASCII value of a
character.
h. Python program for displaying Fibonacci series through
recursion.

Python Programs for Numbers

a. Python program for checking if the given number is
Happy Number.
 b. Python program for determining if a specific number is a
Harshad Number.
c. Python program for printing all pronic figures between 1
and 100.
d. Python program for printing all happy numerals between
1 to 100.
e. Python program for checking if the particular number is a
Disarium Number.
f. Python program for printing every disarium digit between
1 and 100.

Python Programs for Array

1. Python program for printing the sum of all elements in an
array.
2. Python program for printing the smallest element in an
array.
3. Python program for printing the factors of an array
present on odd positions.
4. Python program for printing the number of factors present
in an array.
5. Python program for printing the biggest factor in an array.
6. Python program for printing the elements of an array
present in an even position.
7. Python program for printing the factors of an array in
reverse order.
8. Python program for printing the duplicate factors of an
array.
9. Python program for printing the elements of an array.
10.
Python program for sorting the digits of an
array in descending order.
11.
Python program for rotating the strings of an
array to the right-side.
12.
 Python program for sorting the numbers of an
array in ascending order.
13.
Python program for copying all elements of
one array into another array.
14.
Python program for rotating the elements of
an array to the left-side.
15.
Python program for calculating the frequency
of each element in the array.

Python Programs for Circular Linked List

i. Python program for removing a node from the starting of
the circular linked list.
ii. Python program for deleting a node from the end of the
circular linked list.
iii. Python program for erasing a number from the center of
the circular linked list.
iv. Python program for tracing the minimum and maximum
value node from a circular linked list.
v. Python program for creating a rounded linked list of N
nodes and counting the number of nodes.
vi. Python program for creating and displaying a circular
linked list.
vii. Python program for creating a rounded linked list of n
nodes and displaying it in reverse order.
viii. Python program for organizing the factors of the circular
linked list.
ix. Python program for removing duplicate elements from a
circular linked list.
x. Python program for searching a figure in a circular linked
list.
xi. Python program for inserting a fresh node in the center of
the circular linked list.
 xii. Python program for inserting a current node at the
finishing of the circular linked list.
xiii. Python program for inserting a current node at the
starting of the circular linked list.

Python Programs for Doubly Linked List

1. Python program for inserting a current node at the
starting of the doubly linked list.
2. Python program for inserting a new node in the center of
a doubly linked list.
3. Python program for inserting a new node at the finishing
of a doubly linked list.
4. Python program for deleting a current node from the
starting of the doubly linked list.
5. Python program for deleting a new node from the center
of the doubly linked list.
6. Python program for deleting a new node from the end of
the doubly linked list.
7. Python program for converting a specific binary tree to a
doubly-linked list.
8. Python program for determining the minimum and
maximum value node from a doubly linked list.
9. Python program for creating a doubly-linked list from a
ternary list.
10.
Python program for creating a doubly-linked
list of n nodes by counting the frequency of nodes.
11.
Python program for creating and displaying
an extra linked list.
12.
Python program for creating a doubly-linked
list of n nodes and displaying them in reverse order.
13.
Python program for searching an element in a
doubly-linked list.
 14.
Python program for removing duplicate
elements from a doubly linked list.
15.
Python program for rotating extra linked list
by N nodes.

Python for Native Data Type Programs

Python program for transposing a matrix.
Python program for removing punctuation from a string.
Python program for adding two matrices.
Python program for sorting words in alphabetical order.
Python programs for multiplying two matrices.

Python Programs for Conditions and Loops

Python program for checking leap year.
Python program for checking Armstrong's number.
Python program for determining Armstrong's figures in an
interval.
Python program for calculating the total of natural
numbers.
Python program for checking prime numbers.
Python program for checking whether a figure is positive,
negative, or zero.
Python program for if a number is odd or even.
Python program for printing the Fibonacci sequence.
Python program for displaying a multiplication table.
Python program for calculating the factorial of a number.
Python program for printing all prime numerals in an
interval.

The Versions of Python and their Release Dates

S/ The Versions of Python Release Dates
N
1. Python 1.0 January 1994
2. Python 1.5 December 31st , 1997
3. Python 1.5.2 April 1999
4. Python 1.6 September 5th , 2000
5. Python 2.0 October 16th , 2000
6. Python 2.0.1 June 22nd , 2001
7. Python 2.1 April 17th , 2001
8. Python 2.2 December 21st , 2001
9. Python 2.3 July 29th, 2003
10 Python 2.4 November 30th , 2004
.
11. Python 2.5 September 19th , 2006
12 Python 2.6 October 1st , 2008
.
13 Python 2.7 July 3rd , 2010
.
14 Python 3.0 December 3rd , 2008
.
15 Python 3.1 June 27th , 2009
.
16 Python 3.2 February 20th , 2011
.
17 Python 3.3 September 29th , 2012
.
18 Python 3.4 March 16th , 2014
.
19 Python 3.5 September 13th , 2015
.
20 Python 3.6 December 23rd , 2016
 .
21 Python 3.7 June 27th , 2018
.
22 Python 3.8 October 14th, 2019
.

Current Versions of Python Programs, which are final releases of the

versions and their release dates include
S/ The Versions of Python Release Date
N
1. Python 2.4.6 December 19th , 2008
2. Python 2.5.6 May 26th , 2011
3. Python 2.6.9 October 29th , 2013
4. Python 2.7.10 May 23rd , 2015
5. Python 2.7.13 December 17th , 2016
6 Python 3.5.3 January 17th , 2017
7. Python 3.6.10 December 18th , 2019
8. Python 3.8.2 February 24th , 2020
..

How to Run Python

Python is a great and valuable language for your Pi device. Installing
and running it on the hardware together with GPIO pins are smooth
processes. The Raspbian can accommodate python programs.

Requirements for Running Python Programs on a

Raspberry Pi
The requirements for running python programs on your device
include
 a. HDMI monitor or TV.
b. Raspberry Pi device.
c. Mouse and keyboard.
d. Raspbian Operating System on an SD card.

Details about Python Libraries

A python program may need external libraries before it can work on
a Raspbian. Therefore, you need to install extra libraries using PIP,
which can only install libraries for programs in the terminal window.
PIP is a package or module manager for Python. A good reason for
this is that Python IDE programs come with a local copy of Python.
Using the terminal window for running programs is recommended
since it functions with external libraries installed using the preferred
installer program (PIP). However, PIP is built-in by default into
python packages with versions 3.4 or later versions.
Python programs are installed through a terminal, IDE, or Thonny.

Running Python Programs Using Terminal

Python programs are also run using a terminal window. But you
should understand the way to the program before opening the
terminal. You can locate the program following this method:
Go to Documents > Python > Main.py.
After this, open the window and apply the cd command. This can
help you to change the working directory to another directory
containing Python program such as:
cd Documents/Python
Suppose you want to check whether your Python program is in the
catalog. You can use the command dir. This will also list all files and
folders within that directory. If the application is not contained in the
archives, you must go back and find where the program is located in
the catalog.
Now, let us use the Python command and execute this Python
program. It will run the Python file stated after the command. For
example:
Python yourfilename.py
Another method is to check if your File has spaces such as:

Python your File name.py

Running Python Programs through IDE

The Operating System of your Raspberry Pi comes with several
IDEs useful for programming. One of the IDEs in your Raspbian is
the original Python IDE. You can open this by opening the Raspbian
logo. Then, scroll to Programming and click on Python 3 (IDLE)
After loading the IDE, click on File > Open. If the File opens,
navigate to the Python program. Then, Run the program. Simply tap
Run button and click Run Module. Another way is to go to the
keyboard and press F5.

Running Python Program Using Thonny

Another necessary Python IDE with several features is Thonny. With

this debugger, you can watch variables and step through codes. It
could also be applied for running Python programs by following
these methods:
Navigate to the logo of Raspbian and click it. Scroll down to find
Programming and tap on Thonny Python IDE.
After this process, click on the File menu. Locate and click the Open
button and scroll to the program. If the program has downloaded,
tap on the Run button to Run the present file.
Python Shell
This interprets languages in Python and used for executing the code
serially. Python shell is also called Python Interactive Shell for
executing one Python command and getting results.
Python shell gets a command from the user. If the programmer types
the prompt, the program will execute it and display the result.
If you are using windows, open the Python shell by typing Python .
Then, press Enter.
After this, you will see three symbols of Greater than (>>>). Enter a
single statement, and the result will appear if you enter an
expression like 5 + 3, and press Enter. The result will show on
another line below it.

Executing Python Script with Python Shell

Python shell is applied for executing a single statement. However,
running multiple statements requires you to create a Python file
using the extension .py. Then, write Python scripts in various
statements.
Another way to handle this is by using Notepad and a statement
such as:
lookatPythonScript.py
print – "Look at Python Script."
print – "Receive Python lessons from the Teacher."

You can save this as myPythonScript.py . Then, navigate the

command button and scroll to the folder to save this File. This
process can help you to apply the Python lookatPythonScript.py
command.
Python Shell could be applied for executing Python languages and
commands.

Loops
In any programming language, the flow of programs is sequential by
default. In most cases, you can alter the sequence of programs. But,
executing a particular code could be done repeatedly.
Programming languages offer several types of loops that can repeat
some specific codes many times.

Reasons for Using Loops in Python

One of the reasons for using loops is that it helps in simplifying
complex problems. Python loops enable you to alter or modify the
sequence of programs. With this, instead of rewriting a particular
code uncountable time, you can repeat it predetermined or fixed
number of times.
In this case, for printing a number ten times, no need to apply the
print statement ten times. Simply print inside a loop. The loop can
run up to ten repetitions or iterations.

Benefits of Using Python Loops

Using loops in Python programs come with various benefits such as:

Loops help a programmer to reuse codes.

If you are using python loops, you don't have to rewrite a
specific code uncountable times.
Python loops enable a user to traverse over the elements
of data structures such as linked lists or array.

Different Loop Statements in Python Programs

S/ Python Loop Description of Codes

N Statement
1. Post tested loop or Until a specific order is reached, the
Do-while loop. do-while loop continues. In a
programming language, it is called a
post-tested loop. This statement is
applied when you can perform the
 function at least once. Also, it is used
for menu-driven programs.
2. Pre-tested loop or Without knowing the number of
While loop repetitions or iterations in advance,
you can apply the while loop for that
scenario. In the while loop, a block of
expressions are executed until the
specified condition is satisfied in that
loop. This type of loop is called the
pre-tested loop.
3. Per-tested loop or A per-tested loop is applied for
For loop executing some part of the circle until
the specific condition is met. This is
also called 'for a loop.' This loop
statement is the right choice where
the number of repetitions or iterations
is determined in advance.

IDLE and Editor

In Python language, IDLE or IDE means Integrated Development
Environment. Also, you can refer to it as Python IDLE editor.
Beginners use this tool in programming until they acquire more
experience. Professional programmers use Komodo or Eclipse,
which are more reliable and better programs than IDLE.
Python IDLE is a GUI for developing Python programs. During
Python installations, the GUI could be installed automatically. In a
straightforward GUI environment, it helps you for running,
debugging, and editing Python programs. IDE automates the
process of compiling, editing, and testing in an SLDC.
IDLE can build its windows using the standard library's Tkinter GUI
toolkit. It is a multipurpose software that can run on several platforms
such as Mac, Linux, Windows Operating System, and more.

Features of IDLE
 a. It functions as an integrated bugger.
b. IDLE helps in syntax colorization and command history.
c. This feature supports multiple windows.
d. Relevant for unindent or auto-indent for Python codes.
e. Word auto-completion process.
In Microsoft word, such as windows 7 or windows 8, Python IDLE
functions effectively. You could see it at the Start Button Menu in
Windows 7, as an Entry. In Windows 8, go to the Start Menu and
type IDLE. This can help you for running it in the system.
Immediately, it will show the details of the OS and Python version in
the device.
The code should be written after this prompt >>> on your windows.
After pressing on the Enter button, the program will be executed.
One-line commands are executed using shell windows. But, this is
not applied for writing full-fledged programs.
Python IDLE has a built-in text editor. It is useful for writing and
saving your codes. Editors begin to function if you click on File >
New File. This command opens a window for typing your code.
But saving this code in a box file before running it is ideal. Simply
click on File, then Save. However, ensure that the data has a .py
extension.
Running the code requires you tap on the Run button. This will take
you to the Run Module . You can simply press F5. The result of this
program will be printed on the window bearing IDLE. The result will
show below the Restart line.

Types of Python IDEs

Different types of Python IDEs that could be used in software
development are Atom, Thonny, Eric, Rodeo, Spyder, PyCharm,
Wing, Microsoft Visual Studio, Jupyter Notebook, and PyDev.

Atom IDE
Atom IDE was built by GitHub as an open-source cross-platform.
This framework uses an electron that enhances cross-platform
desktop applications. The platform functions with Node.js and
Chromium, which are presently known as Hackable Text Editor.
The Features of this Integrated Development Environment include
i. Viewing outputs on Atom doesn’t require opening another window.
ii. Atom features built-in support for viewing and editing Markdown
files using a plugin called Markdown Preview Plus .

Thonny IDE
Learning or teaching programming languages demands you to use
Thonny IDE. Tartu University built this software. It is useful for
highlighting syntax errors and supporting code completion
processes.
Some of the features of this IDE include

a. Useful auto code completion and highlighting errors.

b. It serves as a simple debugger.

Eric IDE
Eric IDE is a program developed by Python as an editor. It is
valuable for professional programmers and amateurs.
The features of this software include

a. Task management support with built-in bugger.

b. They are used as source code folding, editors, and
configurable window layout.
c. Eric is used for version control and advanced project
management.

Rodeo IDE
Retrieving data and information from various sources is possible
using Rodeo Integrated Development Environment. It is regarded as
an ideal IDE for programs. This software is used for the auto-
completion of codes and supports cross-platform functionalities.
The features of this program include

1. Syntax highlighting, auto code completion, and visual file

navigation.
2. Enhances your skills for plotting, interacting, inspecting,
and comparing data.

Spyder IDE
Spyder is ideal for data science with an open-source and highly
recognizable in the IDE market. It means the Scientific Python
Development Environment (Spyder). This program accepts and
functions on all relevant platforms such as MacOS X, Windows, and
Linux Operating System.
Spyder IDE offers various functionalities such as document viewer,
integrated console, localized code editor, and variable explorer.
Other scientific modules, such as SciPy, NumPy, etc. are supported
by this IDE.
The various features of this program include:

1. Secure integration with the IPython console.

2. Functions correctly in automatic code completion mode
and multi-language editor.
3. It offers a better auto code completion with syntax
highlighting features.

PyCharm IDE
PyCharm was built by the Jet Brains as software for Python with a
cross-platform for Integrated Development Environment (IDE). This
IDE is available in a free version and paid (PRO) version, and it is
the most widely used open-source program. It helps developers and
programmers take care of regular tasks.
PyCharm is a full-fledged IDE with fast error checking and
correction, database accessibility, auto code completion, quick
project navigation, and remote development support.
The features of this program include

1. It helps in highlighting errors.

2. Enhances Python web development frameworks such as
Javascript, Angular JS, etc.
3. PyCharm functions as a powerful debugger.
4. It is valuable for smart code navigation.

Wing IDE
Wing IDE is packed with decent and necessary development support
features. This cross-platform offer free edition for beginners,
although it has a Pro version that has 30 days trial. This will enable
learners and experienced programmers to try it out.
This IDE program offers services such as debugging, auto-
completion, syntax highlighting, and indents.
The main features of the Wing IDE is that

1. The wing is customizable with extensions.

2. This IDE enhances remote development and test-driven
development together with the unit test.

Microsoft Visual Studio IDE

Now, you can develop and debug the latest cloud or web projects
using Microsoft Visual Studio. It is an open-source code editor with a
marketplace for extensions.
The features include
 1. Valuable for coding programs in Visual studio.
2. It could be found in a free and PRO versions.

Jupyter Notebook IDE

In the Data Science industry, Jupyter Notebook is a frequently used
IPython notebook editor. You can use it for crafting and operating
notebook documents. This web resource is developed on the server-
client structure since Python is an interpreted language.
Some of the features of this IDE include

1. Jupyter Notebook is necessary and suitable for beginners

in data science.
2. It is useful for markdowns.
3. This IDE is valuable for creating and editing codes.

PyDev IDE
PyDev IDE is an outside plugin for Eclipse and a commonly used
program in Python. If you have experience in Java, it is usually a
natural choice for Python developers with this background. Most
programmers know it as a Python interpreter.
In the years 2003 and 2004, Aleksander Totic is renowned for his
contribution to the Mosaic browser. He also worked on the Pydev
project during this period. It is an integration of Django, auto code
completion, block indents, and smart indents.
The features of this IDE include

1. PyDev supports black formatter, Mypy, and virtual

environments.
2. It has reliable parameters such as debugging, code
average functionalities, code analysis, and refactoring.
3. It is suitable Unit test integration, PyLint integration, and
remote debugger.
Numbers and Variables

Numbers and variables in Python refer to numerical variables.

Python Numbers
In Python, digits are stored as floating-point values, integers, and
complex numbers. This also depends on the requirements of the
program. There are two types, which are floating-point values and
integer.

Python Variables
A variable refers to the position of memory in the system and as an
identifier used for holding values. Python is an inferred language and
doesn't need specifying types of variables.
Variables are groups of letters and digits (numbers). However, they
start with a note or an underscore. In writing variables, you can use
lower case letters for names of variables such as John and john are
two separate variables.

Types of Numerical Variables

Two kinds of numerical variables are available.

Integers
Integers are numerical values consisting of whole numbers such as
1, 2, 3, 10, 20, 100, 2000, 50,000, 1000000, 10,000,000, etc. You
apply this variable in Python by writing any whole number, as shown
above.
Examples
The expression x = 2 means that the integer number 2 will be stored
in the variable x. X is the variable, and 2 is the number, hence the
tag' numerical variables'. If you are using 64-bit systems, you can
store whole numbers between the values of 4000338912344092341
and 4000338912344092340 in an integer variable Python platform.

Floating-Point Values
Floating-point values are Python numbers with decimal points. Any
number written with a decimal part is identified as a floating-point
value.
Therefore, a term like x = 6.5 means that the floating-point value
(6.5) is stored in the variable x. Moreover, vast numbers could be
stored in this way, such as 3.2250738585072015 × 10308 to 2.
7976931348623157 × 10308.
Integer numbers could be converted to floating numbers using the
float number functionality. For example,
X=6
Print (x)
Print ( float (x) )

If this expression is executed, the code can produce an output such

as:
>>>
5
5.0
>>>
However, you can convert a floating-point value to an integer number
by using the integer-number functionality. Look at what will happen
by dividing two integer numbers:
>>> x = 5
>>> y = 2
>>> z = x / y
 >>> print (z
)
2.5
>>>
In the expression above, numerical (numbers) are defined as
integers (whole numbers). The result of this operation was a floating-
point number. It is a Python 3.x feature – Python 2.x that would
operate integer division and return the result of 2.
Variables Used for Identifier Naming
Variables are applied for identifier naming. Programmers use it for
identifying literals in the program. Here are various ways to name an
identifier in an expression.

a. There should be no whitespace and special characters in

an identifier name. Examples of such characters include
#, ^, %, =, !, &, etc.
b. In Python, identifier names are case sensitive. That
means my book' and 'MyBook' is not the same
expression.
c. Valid identifiers in a statement include n_9, _n, a123, and
so on.
d. Invalid identifiers in a statement include n 9, n%4, 1a,
and so on.
e. The names of an identifier must be similar to the
keywords expressed in the language.
f. The variable must begin with characters such as an
underscore ( _ ) or an alphabet.
g. In a Python statement, every letter except the first
character could be an alphabet of an upper case such as
A, B, C, D, …, or a lower case such as a, b, c, d, …. It
could also be a digit such as 1, 2, 3, 4, … or an
underscore ( _ ).

How to Declare Variables and Assign Values

You don't have to declare variables before applying them in the
program. Python enables you to form a variable at the right time
when they are needed in an expression.
Variables are defined and declared immediately and automatically by
assigning a value them. Use the sign (=), 'equals' in a statement to
declare a variable. This mark assigns rates to variables.

How to Reference Objects in Python

As a programmer, you need to understand how to reference objects
in Python. This defines the way Python interpreter functions as you
declare a variable. The way you handle variables is different from
other programming languages.
Experience programmers understand that Python features as a
highly object-oriented programming language. Therefore, all data
items belong to a particular type of class. For example:
Print ("James")

Output:
James
An integer is created by the Python object and highlights it to the
console. I created a string object in the above print statement.
Another way to determine this is using the built-in type ( )
functionality . For example:
Type ("James")

Output:
< class ‘str’
>
In Python programs, variables are classified as symbolic names
functioning as pointers or references to objects in a statement. The
variables are used to assign names to objects. For example:
b = 20

b 20
Therefore, "b" in the above image represents "20", which is an
integer object. I can also assign the integer value (20) to a new
variable, such as "c." The expression will become
b = 20
c=b

b 20 c
In this expression, the variable b is referring to a specific object that
c is pointing. The reason is that Python doesn’t build separate
objects for variables. It is what you put in that will be represented.
But assigning a new value to c means that both variables will refer to
different objects. For example:
b = 20
c = 30
In this expression,
b 20
c 30
Python software is designed to manage memories properly.
Therefore, assigning similar variables to two different values is
possible.

How to Create Object Identity in Python

Every created object in Python is unique and identifiable. Therefore,
no two objects will be represented by the same identifier. There is a
built-in identifier functionality Id ( ) function that could be used to
identify the object identifier.
Look at this example:
b = 20
c=b
print (id(b))
print (id(c))
# Reassigned variable b
b = 500
print (id(b))

Output:
14073498291168
14073498291168
2822056960944
I assigned the c = b, b, and c are pointing to the same object. If we
examined according to the id ( ) functionality, it returned the same
number. I assigned b to 500, and it referred to the new object
identifier.

How to Determine the Names of Variables

I have explained the ways to ascertain valid and invalid variables.
Variable names can come in various lengths. They could have lower
case characters (a, b, c, etc.) and upper case characters such as (A,
B, C, etc.). Other elements in the names of variables include
underscore ( _ ) and digits (1, 2, 3, etc.).
Find below examples of valid variable names:
 name = “Devansh”
age = 25
marks = 90.50
print(name)
print(age)
print(marks)

Output:
Devans
h
25
90.5

Consider other valid variable names such as

name = “A”
Name = “B”
name = “C”
NAME = “D”
n-a-m-e = “E”
_name = “F”
name_ = “G”
_name_ = “H”
Na56me = “I”
print (name, Name, naMe, NAME, n-a-m-e, NAME, n_a_m_e,
name_, _name, na56me)
Output:
ABCDEDEFGFI
In the previous example, I have categorized some variable names,
such as _name_. NAME, _name, name, etc. These codes may
confuse if a beginner tries to read them. Therefore, they are not
recommended except the programmer defines and describes them
accurately to make them more readable and understandable.
However, you can create multi-word keywords using the following
methods:

a. Snake Case

Categorizing your keywords using the snake case method

ensures that the words are marked separately by the
underscore ( _ ) sign. For example, name_of_learner,
name_of_the-developer, etc.

b. Camel Case

In this method, each abbreviation or word in the center of a

statement begins with a capital letter. There is no whitespace
among the words. Examples of codes in a camel case
include nameOfLearner, valueOfVariable, etc.

c. Pascal Case

In this method, the first word begins with a capital letter. An

example is NameOfLearner.

How to Create Multiple Assignments

In Python programs, you can assign multiple variables value in one
statement. It is regarded as multiple assignments.
These could be expressed in two ways, such as assigning a single
value to multiple variables and conveying multiple values to multiple
variables.
Here are few examples:

Assigning a Single Factor to Multiple Variables

a=b=c=30
print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

Output:
30
30
30

Assigning Multiple Factors to Multiple Variables

x,y,z=20,25,30
print x
print y
print z

Output:
20
25
30
In Python programs, values are assigned in the order and manner
the variables occur in a statement.
Some fundamentals, a beginner, should take note of in Python
include comments and tokens with their different types in programs.
Tokens are reserved words, punctuation marks, and other
expressions in words. The smallest unit of letters in a particular
program is called tokens.
Examples of tokens in programming language include identifiers,
literals, operators, and keywords.

Simulating Dice

An Example of a Simulating Dice

This section is meant for beginners in Python to teach them how to
make a common dice roll simulator. You will also learn how to repeat
dice rolls. With this lesson, you will learn the methods of setting the
lowest and highest values of the dice.
Here are some critical steps to follow in handling a simulating dice.
Print or Output Random Figures from 1 and 6
It is good, to begin with, a central program to output an arbitrary
integer from one and six. This is for a simple dice roll. This could be
done using the casual integrated library in Python. With this, you can
also produce a casual variable using the radint () feature in the
library.
There is a random import code at the start of the program to use and
import the random library. You cannot use this collection without
importing it. Therefore, import this library from the program before
proceeding.
Next is to set the minimum and maximum values of the casual figure
from one and six. The lowest and highest values will be stored using
these variables. You can modify these values if you add on to the
codes.
Generating random variables is easy using the radint () functionality
in the library. The smallest and largest values become the
parameters that the radint () method uses in generating values
randomly. It will then produce a casual figure between the smallest
and largest values.

How to Install the Application Initially

Now, whenever you run the program, the code will print out a
random variable from one to six. That means if you operate the
application five times, the output could appear like this:
5
3
6
1
1
However, don't forget that every runtime is a casual output. If you run
the code, the output will be different. Before running the program,
ensure that you store the letters as dice_roll.py . Then, go to the
terminal and use this command: python3 dice_roll.py. This will help
you to install the software in the programming area.
Whenever you install the program, hit the up arrow, and enter the
terminal. If you're going to get the output, as shown above, you have
to operate the program up to five times.

Request for a Second Dice Roll from the User

You can get the user's input through the input () function. At this
stage, the user will be asked this: "Want to spin the dice again?" The
expected answer here is 'yes.' If not, it should be 'no.'
The user's input will be stored in a variable. This answer helps you to
get support for his information, which will be 'y' or yes. If you want
other variations of the data, you can get more help to do that.
A while loop runs while the assessment of a variable is true. This
variable will be called again by the users of the program. You begin
by fixing the value of back to true. With this, you can have a while
loop having the setting again.
You can publish a random dice roll to the monitor inside the while
loop. Now, you can request another dice roll from the user. This
helps you in altering the value of again to ‘Not true’ if the
programmer won’t reiterate a dice roll.
You can even evaluate if the input is 'y' or 'yes' using an 'if
statement.' If this expression is true, then 'again' must be True. If it is
not valid, you should change 'again' to False .
Remember, the code for this program is dice_roll.py
Running the Program a Second Time
With this command: python3 dice_roll.py, you will operate the
game a second time. Immediately, a hit and miss dice roll will be
given to you. You will be asked if you desire to roll the dice secondly.
If you enter 'y,' you will get a second dice roll. But if you enter 'No' or
another text, instead of 'y' or 'yes,' the program quits or ends.
Request for Minimum and Maximum Dice Values
Requesting for the lowest and highest values of dice is a way to
improve the program. A die comes with many sides. Even some dice
could have 120 sides. Simulating a dice roll using a die having many
sides, you can type the smallest and biggest digit for the die.
Some dies can have a low number like1. But you can ask for the
smallest and biggest values to generalize the program. At the
starting of the code, you can request for an input from the user.
Then, you can convert the data to an integer before proceeding.
What Happens when an invalid input is typed? When a user enters
an invalid input, which is not a number. The program quits or ends.
Then, a Traceback error will appear.
For instance, someone types in a text such as 'hi' instead of typing
the minimum value. The input function cannot convert the word 'hi' to
an integer. It will only throw an error and quit the program.
Improve your Dealing with an Input
Doing a second dice roll helps you to improve the input. You only
need to add the input 'y' or 'yes,' which is the acceptable word. This
data could be converted to a lower case before checking the input.
Then, you will have 'YES,' 'Y,' or Yes, which are valid in the program.
In case you don't want to change the again variable, use the break
or continue commands. This enables you to continue into the second
iteration or break the loop.
When the user handles a second dice roll, you can go to the second
iterating loop using the continue command. If the programmer or
user doesn't want to roll a second dice, the break command is
executed. This will cause the program to end as it will come out of
the loop.
How to Improve Error Handling Using Try and
Except Method

At the starting of the program, the user can enter an invalid minimum
or maximum value. This will cause the application to display an error
and quit.
The error could be handled using this method. You can output an
'input invalid program that will revert to default program.' Then, you
should set the lowest and highest values to a default of 1 and 6.
The player will be requested to enter a low and high value inside the
try block. A display of error in any of these values will not execute
the block of code. There will be a print statement from the except
block of code. This will come as a customized error message that
can help you to set the smallest and biggest values of the dice to
default values of one and six.
This feature can help you to improve the error handling of the code
slightly. You can add more support for handling errors with these
blocks of code.
There are many ways of doing the dice simulator. It depends on the
type you choose and your experience as a programmer. But you can
add up a few things to enhance your experience. Adding more
support for input and using a GUI can boost your expertise in
handling the dice simulator in Python.
 CHAPTER THREE

WHAT ARE DICTIONARIES, LISTS, AND STRINGS?

There are some built-in structures in Python. These include dictionaries, lists, strings,
and other structures.
Dictionaries
Dictionaries in Python are used for storing data in a key-value pair format. They are the
data type that can simulate real-life data arrangement in Python. In this case, some
peculiar values exist for some specific keys. This data structure is mutable. But
dictionaries are expressed as values and element keys.
Values
In Python, values are expressed as lists, integers, tuples, etc.
Element Keys
Element keys are defined as single element keys.
A dictionary is the collection of key-value pairs, which can be any Python object. But
the keys are immutable Python objects such as strings, tuples, and numbers.

How to Create Dictionaries

You can create dictionaries using key-value pairs that are enclosed with curly brackets
such as these {}. Each key in the dictionary is separated from the figures using a colon
(:).
Here is the syntax to define the dictionary below:
Dict = {“Name”: “John”, “Age”: 30
In this expression, you will see the dictionary Dict; the keys Name and Age are the
strings known as immutable objects.
Create a dictionary and print its content. Look at this example:
Employee = {"Name": "Thompson", "Age", 40, "salary": 35000, "Company":
"GOOGLE"}
print(type(Employee))
print("printing Employee data … ")
print(Employee)

Output
<class 'dict'>
Printing Employee data ….
 {‘Name’ : ‘Thompson’, ‘Age’ : 40, ‘salary’ : 35000, ‘Company’ : ‘GOOGLE’}
Python offers built-in function dict( ) method. This feature is used for creating a
dictionary. The curly braces {} with no value or object are used for generating an blank
dictionary.
# Creating an empty Dictionary
Dict = {}
print(“Empty Dictionary: “)
print(Dict)

# Creating a Dictionary
# with dict() method
Dict = dict({1: ‘Java’, 2: ‘T’, 3:’Point’})
print(“\nCreate Dictionary by using dict(): “)
print(Dict)

# Creating a Dictionary
# with each item as a Pair
Dict = ([(1, ‘Devansh’), (2, ‘Sharma’)])
print("\nDictionary with each item as a pair: ")
print(Dict)

Output:
Empty Dictionary:
{}
Create Dictionary by using dict( ):
{1: ‘Java’ 2: ‘T’, 3: ‘Point’}
Dictionary with each item as a pair:
{1: 'Devansh', 2: 'Sharma'}

How to Access the Values of Dictionaries

Earlier in this chapter, we have discussed the way to access lists and tuples using
indexing features. But you can access the values in the dictionary using keys because
these keys are peculiar in the dictionary of Python programs.
The values of a glossary are accessed through the following steps.
 Employee = {“Name”: “James”, “Age”: 25. “salary”:28000,”Company”:”GOOGLE”}
print(type(Employee))
print(“printing Employee data ….”)
print(“Name : %s” %Employee[“Name”])
print(“Age : %d” %Employee[“Age”])
print(“Salary : %d” %Employee[“salary”])
print(“Company : %s” %Employee[“Company”])

Output:
<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ….
Name : James
Age : 25
Salary : 28000
Company : GOOGLE
In Python, you will find an alternative method of using the get( ) method for accessing
dictionary values. The result you would get is similar to the output by the indexing.

How to Add Dictionary Values

As I said earlier, the dictionary is a mutable data type. You can update its values using
the specific keys. The values are updated together with key Dict[key] = value .
Existing values can be updated using the update ( ) method.
This feature enables you to update the key-values present in a dictionary. It helps to
update the new keys added in the dictionary.
Here is an example of how to update dictionary values.
# Creating an Empty Dictionary
Dict = {}
print(“Empty Dictionary: “)
print(Dict)

#How to Add Elements to Dictionary Serially

Dict[0] = ‘Paul’
Dict [2] = ‘John’
Dict [3] = ‘Richard’
 print(“\nDictionary after adding 3 elements: “)
print(Dict)

#How to Add Set of Values

# with a single key
# The [‘Emp_ages’] = 20, 33, 24
print(“\nDictionary after adding 3 elements: “)
print(Dict)

# Updating existing Key's Value

Dict[3] = ‘JavaTpoint’
print(“\nUpdated key value: “)
print(Dict)

Output:
Empty Dictionary:
{}
Dictionary after adding 3 elements:
{0: ‘Paul’, 2: ‘John’, 3: ‘Richard’}
Dictionary after adding 3 elements:
{0: ‘Paul’, 2: ‘John’, 3: ‘Richard’, ‘Emp_ages’ : (20, 33, 24)}
Updated key value:
{0: ‘Paul’, 2: ‘John’, 3: ‘JavaTpoint’, ‘Emp_ages’ : (20, 33, 24)}

How to Delete Elements using del keyword

You can quickly delete the items of the dictionary using a del keyword, such as in this
example.
Employee = {"Name": "James", "Age": 25, "salary":35000," Company":"
GOOGLE"}
print(type(Employee))
print("printing Employee data ….")
print(Employee)
 print(Deleting some of the employee data")
del Employee["Name"]
del Employee["Company"]
print("printing the modified information ")
print(Employee)
print("Deleting the dictionary: Employee");
del Employee
print("Lets try to print it again ");
print(Employee)

Output:
<class ‘dict’> …..
Printing Employee data ….
{‘Name’ : ‘James’, ‘Age’ : 25, ‘salary’ : 25000, ‘Company’ : ‘GOOGLE’}
Deleting some of the employee data
printing the modified information
{‘Age’ : 25, ‘salary’ : 25000}
Deleting the dictionary: Employee
Let's try to print it again
NameError: name 'Employee' is not defined
An error is in the above print statement because the Employee dictionary that was
requested for printing has been deleted.
Another method is through the pop ( ) method. This method accepts the key as an
argument. It also removes the related value as in the example below:
# Creating a Dictionary
Dict = {1: ‘JavaTpoint’, 2: ‘Paul’, 3: ‘Thompson’}
# Deleting a key
# using pop( ) method
Pop_ele = Dict.pop(3)
Print(Dict)

Output:
 {1: 'JavaTpoint', 2: 'Paul’}

In Python, there are built-in methods such as popitem( ) methods and clear ( ) methods
for removing factors from the glossary.
Popitem methods remove arbitrary elements from a dictionary. Also, the clear( ) feature
removes all elements from the whole Python dictionary.
How to Iterate Dictionary
You can use a loop for iterating a dictionary. Look at the example
# Using for loop to print all the keys of a dictionary.
Employee = {“Name”,: “James”, “Age”: 29, “salary”: 25000, “Company”:
“GOOGLE”

Output:
Name
Age
Salary
Company

The Properties or Features of Dictionary Keys

In Python dictionaries, multiple values cannot be stored for the same keys. In situations
where multiple values are assigned to a single key, the value that is assigned last to
such key becomes the value of such key. For example:
Employee = {“Name”:”James”, “Age”:30, “salary”:35000. "Company":" GOOGLE","
Name":" James"}
For x,y in Empoyee.items ( ):
print(x,y)

Output
Name James
Age 30
Salary 35000
Company GOOGLE
The second method is a situation where the keys are not mutable objects. Strings,
tuples, and numbers could form the key. However, lists are considered as mutable
objects and not useful as the keys in the dictionary. For example:
Employee = {“Name”: “John”, “Age”: 29, “salary” 35000, “Company”:”GOOGLE”,
[100,201,301]:”Department ID”}
For x,y in Employee.items ( ):
Print(x,y)

Output
Traceback - recent call last:
File “dictionary.py”, line 1, in
Employee = {“Name”: “James” , “Age”: 30, “salary”:25000, “Company”: “GOOGLE”,
[100,201,301]:”Department ID”}
TypeError: unhashable type: ‘list’

Looking at the methods and functions of the built-in dictionary in Python programs
include

The Methods of Built-in Dictionary

a. dict.copy( ) – this helps in returning a shallow copy of the dictionary.

b. dict.get(key, default = "None" - used for getting the specified value for
the passed key.
c. dic.clear( ) – used for deleting all the items of the dictionary.
d. dict.fromkeys(iterable, value = None, /) – this is used for creating a new
dictionary from the iterable, making the values equal to value.
e. dict.keys( ) – used for returning all the keys of the dictionary.
f. dict.items( ) – this method returns all the key-value pairs as a tuple.
g. dict.has_key(key) – if the glossary has the specified key, this method
returns true.
h. dict.values( ) – this method returns all the values of the dictionary.
i. dict.update(dict2) – useful for updating the dictionary by adding key-
value pair of dict2 to the dictionary.
j. dict.setdefault(key,default = "None") – this feature sets the key to the
default figure if the specified key is not in the dictionary.
k. index( )
l. len( )
m. count( )
n. pop( )
o. popItem( )
Functions of Built-in Dictionary
 a. len(dict) – this functionality is used for estimating the length of the
dictionary.
b. type(variable) – used for printing the type of the passed variable.
c. cmp(dict 1, dict2) – this is used for comparing items of both the
dictionary and returns true, especially if the first dictionary values are
greater than the second dictionary. Otherwise, the output will return false.
d. str(dict) – this feature converts the dictionary into a printable sequence
representation.

Understanding the String Theory

Python strings are popular data types. This is a collection of characters surrounded by
single quotes, double quotes, and even triple quotes. A computer device does not
understand these characters. However, manipulated character, which is a combination
of the 0's and 1's, are stored internally.
These characters are encoded in the Unicode character or ASCII. This feature makes
Python strings to be regarded as a collection of Unicode characters.
Strings are formed by the series of letters in the quotes or enclosing the character. You
can create strings using triple quotes, single quotes, or even double-quotes.
Let us check this example using syntax to create a string.
Str = “Hi Python !”
In this example, the type of variable string used is Python script.
Print(type(str), it will print a string (str).

Strings are handled as a sequence of characters. In other words, Python doesn't agree
with the letter data-type. Therefore, one letter represented as 'p' can be handled like
the string of the first length.

How to Create String in Python

Strings are created by putting the letters in double quotes or single quotes. There are
also triple quotes used for representing strings. However, you can use triple quotes for
docstrings or multiline strings. For example
#Using one quotation marks
String1 = ‘Hello Python’
print(string1)
#Using double quotation marks
String2 = “Hello Python”
print (string2)
 #Using triple quotation marks
String3 = "" ' Triple quotation marks are used for representing docstrings or
multiline strings"'
Print(str3)

Output:
Hello Python
Hello Python
Triple quotation marks are generally used to represent docstrings or multiline
strings.

How to Index and Split Strings

In Python language, as in other languages, the indexing of Python strings begin from 0.
That means the string "HELLO" is indexed as shown below.
Str = "HELLO"

HE L L O
0 1 2 3 4

str[0] = ‘H’
str[1] = ‘E’
str[2] = ‘L’
str[3] = ‘L’
str[4] = ‘O’
Now, you can also check this example below.
Str = “HELLO”
print(str[0])
print(str[1])
print(str[2])
print(str[3])
print(str[4])
# this is returning the indexError because 6th index doesn’t exist
print(str[6])
Output:
H
E
L
L
O
IndexError: string index is out of normal range

As shown in the example above, the individual characters of the string can be
accessed using the slice operator [ ]. Meanwhile, the substring could be obtained using
the colon operator (: ) in Python.
Look at this example:
Str = "HELLO"

HE L L O
0 1 2 3 4

str[0] = ‘H’ str[:] = ‘HELLO’

str[1] = ‘E’ str[0:] = ‘HELLO’
str[2] = ‘L’ str[:5] = ‘HELLO’
str[3] = ‘L’ str[:3] = ‘HEL’
str[4] = ‘O’ str[0:2] = ‘HE’
str[1:4] = ‘ELL’

In these examples, you can see that the higher series given in the slice operator is
exclusive at all times. That is if str (string) = 'HELLO' is given. Then, str [1:3] will have
str - string[1] = ‘E’ and str[2] = ‘L’ with nothing else attached.
Check this example
# Given String
Str = “JAVAPOINT”
# Begin 0th index to the end
print(str[0:])
 # Begins 1th index to the 4th index
Print(str[1:5])
# Begins 2nd Index to the 3rd index
Print(str[2:4])
# Begins 0th index to 2nd index
Print(str[:3])
# Begins 4th index to 6th index
print(str[4:7])

Output:
JAVATPOIN
T
AVAT
VA
JAV
TPO

Negative cutting in the sequence begins from the rightmost character. This is indicated
as -1while the second rightmost character is shown as -2, and it continues in that order.
Look at this figure below.
Str = "HELLO"
HE L L O
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Str[-1] = ‘O’ str[-3:-1] = ‘LL’
Str[-2] = ‘L’ str[-4:-1] = ‘ELL’
Str[-3] = ‘L’ str[-5:-3] = ‘HE’
Str[-4] = ‘E’ str[-4:] = ‘ELLO’
Str[-5] = ‘H’ str[::-1] = ‘OLLEH’

Look at this example

Str = ‘JAVATPOINT’
print(str[-1])
 print(str[-3])
print(str[-2:])
print(str[-4: -1])
print(str[-7:-2])
# Reversing the given
string
print(str[::-1])
print(str[-12])

Output:
T
I
NT
OIN
ATPOI
TNIOPTAVAJ
IndexError: string index out of range

How to Reassign Strings

You can reassign strings by renewing the contents and placing them in a new one.
Assigning items is not supported by string objects. Strings are immutable and cannot
be swapped. The content of strings is replaceable by new strings.
See this example:
Str = "HELLO"
Str[0] = “h”
Print(str)

Output:
Traceback - recent call last
File "10.py", line 2, in <module>
Str - String[0] = “h”;
TypeError: 'str' or ‘string’ object doesn’t hold up item assignment
In this sample, the (str) string can be transferred completely to a new content. Look at
this second example:
str = "HELLO"
print(str)
str = “hello
print(str)

Output:
HELLO
Hello

How to Delete Strings

As I said earlier, strings maintain their immutable features in Python. Therefore, you
cannot erase or take away the characters from the string. But you can delete the entire
string using the del keyword.
str = “JAVATPOINT
del str[1]

Output:
TypeError: 'str' object doesn't support the deletion of item

Now, to delete an entire string, look at this example.

str1= “JAVATPOINT”
del str1
print(str1)

Output:
NameError: name ‘str1’ is not defined

What are String Operators?

Several string operators exist in Python programs such as:
 1. Range Slice operator [ :] – this is used for accessing characters from a
specified range.
2. Slice operator [ ] – used for accessing the substrings of a particular string.
3. Concatenation operator + - this is used for joining the strings given on
either side of the operator.
4. Membership operator (not in ) – used for reversing in. When a specified
substring is not present in a specified string, the operator returns true.
5. Repetition operator = - used for concatenating numerous copies of similar
string.
6. String formatting operator % - used to format strings. It also uses format
specifiers applied in C programmings such as %f and %d. These
specifiers are used for mapping values in Python.
7. Raw string specifier (r/R ) – for specifying raw strings used in situations
where we should print the real signifiance of escape letters such as
“C://python.” Before you can classify any string as unprocessed string, the
letter should be followed by the particular string.
8. Another membership operator (in ) – this operator returns true if an
individual substring is available in a particular string.
Check out these operators in the following examples:
str = “Hello”
str1 = “world”
print(str=3) # prints HelloHelloHello
print(str+str1)# prints Hello world
print(str[4]) #prints o
print(str[2:4]); # prints II
print(‘w’ in str) # prints negative or false as w is not available in str
print(‘wo’ not in str1) # prints false as wo is available in string1 or Str1
print(r’C://python37’) # prints C://python37 as it is written

Output:
HelloHelloHello
Hello world
O
II
False
False
 C://python37
The string str :
Hello

String Formatting in Python using Escape Sequence

If we need to write a text such as, He said, “Hello, where are you going?” This
expression could be written in single or double-quotes. This will raise the SyntaxError
in both quotes.
Let us check out this example.
str = “He said, “Hello where are you going?””
print(str)

Output:
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

This error could be handled using the triple quotes, although Python has an escape
sequence. The escape sequence is represented with a backslash (/). If this is followed
by a unique character, it is interpreted differently. In other words, the single quotes in
the string must be escaped, and this pattern can happen in double-quotes.
For example
# using triple quotes
print(“””He said, “Who are you?”””
# How to escape single quotes
print(‘He said, “What\’s happening?””)
# How to escape double quotes
print(“He said, \”What’s happening?\””

Output:
He said, “Who are you?”
He said, “What’s happening?”
He said, “What’s happening?”
Here is a list of escape sequence in Python
S/ Escape Description Examples
N Sequence
1. \’ Single Quotes Print(‘\’’)
Output: ‘
2. \a ASCII Bell Print(“\a”)
3. \\” Double Quotes Print(“\””)
Output: “
4. \\ Backlash Print(“\\”)
Output: \
5. \b ASCII Print(“Hello \b World”)
Backspace (BS) Output: Hello World
6. \newline This ignores the print(“Python1 \ Python2 \ Python3”)
line Output: Python1 Python2 Python3
7. \r ASCII Carriege print(“Hello \r World!”)
Return (CR) Output: World!
8. \n ASCII Linefeed print(“Hello\n World!”)
Output: Hello, World!
9. \f ASCII Formfeed print(“Hello \f World!”)
Hello World!
10. \xHH Character or print(“\x48\x5\x6c\6c\x6f”)
letter with hex Output: Hello
value
11. \v ASCII Vertical print(“Hello \v World!”)
Tab Output: Hello, World!
12. \t ASCII Horizontal print(“Hello \t World!”)
Tab Output: Hello, World!
13. \ooo The character or print(“\110\145\154\154\157”)
letter with octal Output: Hello
value

String Functions in Python

There are several built-in functions used for handling strings in Python. These include
1. center(width, fillchar) – It returns a space padded string with the original
string. This is centered with an equal numbers on the right and left spaces.
2. casefold( ) – returns a version of string ideal for case-less comparisons.
3. count(string,begin, end) – this counts the frequency of times a substring
occurred in a string between starting and concluding index.
4. encode( ) – it encodes String using the codec entered for encoding. The
default encoding is ‘utf-8’.
5. expandtabs(tabsize = 8) – this defines tabs in sequence to numerous spaces.
Here, the default space value is 8.
6. Endswith(suffix,begin=0,end=len(string)) – it restores a Boolean value if the
sequence terminates with a given suffix existing between starting and
finishing.
7. format(value) – this feature restores a configured edition of string using the
passed value.
8. isalnum( ) – this restores true if the letters in the string are alphanumeric. That
means it contains alphabets and numbers with at least one character. If not,
the expression will return false.
9. Index(substring, beginindex, endindex) - this throws an exception if the
string is not found. It functions as find( ) method.
10. Isalpha( ) – this function restores true if all the letters are alphabets
with at least one character. If not, the expression returns false.
11. capitalize( ) – this function capitalizes the first letter of the string. It is
deprecated in Python3
12. decode(encoding = ‘UTF8’ errors = ‘strict’) – for decoding the string
using codec listed or indexed for encoding purposes.
13. isdecimal( ) – this feature restores true if all the letters of the string
are decimals.
14. isnumeric( ) – if the sequence has only figures as characters, it
returns true.
15. isuper( ) – if the letters of a string are in the upper case, it returns
false. If not, the string is false.
16. Isprintable( ) - if all the letters of a sequence are printable or the
series are empty, it returns true. If not, it returns false.
17. istitle ( ) – when the first letter of a string is in upper case and the
other characters are in lower case. It is a titled string. But if the sequence is
titled correctly, it returns true. If not, it is false.
18. isdigit( ) – this functionality restores true if all the cases are digits with
at least one number. If it is not so, the statement returns false.
19. Islower( ) – if the letters in a string are in lower case, it returns true. If
it is not so, the string is false.
20. isidentifier( ) – when the sequence is the valid identifier, this
statement returns true.
21. Isspace( ) – if the letters of a string are whitespace, the string returns
true. If not, it is false.
22. join(seq) – this function merges the representation of sequence of a
specific string.
23. len(string) – the feature restores the length of a string.
24. lower( ) – this alters all the letters of a string to lower case.
25. partition( ) – locates the separator (sep) in the string and restores the
initial part that is the separator and part. When this separator is not seen in
the sequence, it returns Strings with double empty strings.
 26. istrip( ) – removes all the significant whitespaces of a string. It can
also remove a particular letter from leading in a string.
27. replace(old,new[,count]) – replaces the old sequence of characters
with the new sequence. In this case, maximum characters are returned when
the maximum is specified.
28. rindex(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) – this works in a similar way to find.
However, it traverses the string in a backward direction.
29. rstrip( ) – removes all trailing whitespaces of a string. It stops a given
letter from trailing.
30. title( ) – converts the string into a title-case such as meEruT will
become Meerut.
31. Upper( ) – this feature transforms all the letters of a string to upper
case.
32. zfill(width) – this returns original string padded with zeros on the left
to a sum of width characters. This is intended for numbers and retains any
given sign that is less than zero.
33. translate(table,deletechars = “) – this translates the string according
to the translation table passed in the function.
34. swapcase( ) – inverts the case of all letters in a sequence.
35. rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit = -1) – this functions as split( ). However, it
can process the string from backward direction and returns the list of words in
the string. When the separator is not given, the string will split according to
the whitespace found in the sequence.
36. splitlines(num=string.count(‘\n’)) – returns the list of sequences at
each line with newline removed.
37. startswith(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) – restores a Boolean value if the
string begins with given string from the beginning to ending.

What are the lists and their functions?

A python list is used for storing the sequence of different types of data. Lists are
mutable in Python. That means the elements can be modified after it is created. There
are six different types of data used for storing sequences. However, lists are accessible
and reliable types of data in Python.
Therefore, a list is a collection of items or values of various types. These items are
separated with a comma but enclosed with [ ] square brackets.
This definition could be explained further, as shown below:
L1 = [“James”, 102, “USA]
L2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
I can print L1, L2, and L3 using type( ) functionality to make it a list. This will become
print(type(L1))
 print(type(L2))

Output:
<class ‘list’>
<class ‘list’>

Features of Lists

a. Lists are mutable types of data.

b. It can store the number of various elements or characters in a sequence.
c. Factors in a list can be accessed by index.
d. Lists appear in an ordered form.
Let us analyze the statement in (d) above that lists are ordered.
a = [1,2,”Peter”,4.50,”Ricky”,5,6]
b = [1,2,5,”Peter”,4.50,”Ricky”,6]
a = =b

Output:
False

List1 and list2 contain the same elements. However, the second list altered the index
point of the fifth element. This process breaks and abuses the order of lists. Therefore,
in comparison, both lists return the false.
In Python, lists uphold the sequence of elements for a lifetime making it the
prearranged and structured assortment of objects.
a = [1, 2, “Paul”,4.50,”Richard”,5,6]
b = [1, 2, “Paul”, 4.50,Richard”,5.6]
a==b

Output:
True

A detailed analysis of the list example

 emp = [“James”, 102, “USA”]
Dep1 = [“CS”,10]
Dep2 = [“IT”,11]
HOD_CS = [10,Mr. Henry”]
HOD_IT = [11, “Mr. Benson”]
print(“printing employee data ….”]
print(“Name : %s, ID: %d, Country: %s”% (emp[0],emp[1],emp[2]))
print(“printing departments…”)
print(“Department 1:\nName: %s, ID: %d\nDepartment 2:\nName: %s, ID: %s”%
(Dep1[0],Dep2[1],Dep2[0],Dep2[1]))
print(“HOD Details ….”)
print(“CS HOD Name: %s, Id: %d”%(HOD_IT[1],HOD_IT[0]))
print(type(emp),type(Dep1),type(Dep2),type(HOD_CS),type(HOD_IT))

Output:
printing employee data …
Name : James, ID: 10, Country: USA
Printing departments …
Department 1:
Name: CS, ID: 11
Department :
Name: IT, ID: 11
HOD Details ….
CS HOD Name: Mr. Henry, Id: 10
IT HOD Name: Mr. Benson, Id: 11
<class ‘list’> <class list’> <class list> <class ‘list’> <class ‘list’>
The above example consists of lists of employees and departments with other
corresponding information. You may go through the table above for a better
understanding.

Built-in Functions in Python Lists

Python lists come with several built-in functions such as:

 a. len(list) – used for determining the length of the list. Examples include L1
such as [1,2,3,4,5,6,,8] print(len(L1))8
b. max(list) – for returning the maximum element in a list. For example L1 =
[12,34,26,48,72]print(max(L1)) 72.
c. list(seq) = this function converts any sequence to the list. For example,

str = “Joseph”
s = list(str)
print(type(s))
<class list>

d. cmp(list1,list2) – for comparing all the factors of both lists but cannot work
in Python3.
e. min(list) – restores the lowest element of a list sequence. For example L1
= [12,34,266,48,72]print(max(L1))72

Here are some more examples of Python lists.

1. Removing a duplicate element in the Python list sequence.

List1 = [1,2,2,3,55,98,65,65,13,29]
# Declare an empty list that will store unique values.
List2 = [ ]
For i in list1:
if i not in list2:
list2.apend(i)
print(list2)

Output:
[1, 2, 3, 55, 98, 65, 13, 29]

What are Multiple Assignments and Multiple Return Values?

Multiple assignments enable a person to assign multiple variables simultaneously in

one line of code. This feature becomes easy after an initial attempt, but you should
learn about it. However, recalling multiple assignments when you need them, most
could be very difficult.
Multiple assignments mean the same thing as iterable unpacking and tuple unpacking.
These three expressions could be used together in Python programming, but they say
the same thing.
Look at an example of multiple assignments in Python:
 >>> x, y = 10, 20

In this sample, x is set to 10 while y is set to 20 . At a lower level, we have created

tuples of 10 and 20. We can circle over the tuple and take each item from the looping
and transferring them to the variables x and y serially.
This is clearly expressed in this syntax:
>>> x, y = 10, 20

In Python, parenthesis are applied as optional features in tuples and optional in

multiple assignments. This functions with a tuple-like syntax.
Therefore, in these expressions below all the figures are equivalent.
>>> x, y = 10, 20
>>> x, y = (10, 20)
>>> (x, y) = 10, 20
>>> (x, y) = (10, 20)

Multiple assignments are also known as tuple unpacking, as they are commonly used
with tuples. However, multiple tasks could be used with any iterable and not just tuples.

Using Multiple Assignments with a List

>>> x, y = [10, 20]

>>> x
10
>>> y
2o

Using Multiple Assignments with a String

>>> x, y = ‘hi’
>>> x
‘hi’
 >>> y
‘i’

As I explained before, objects that can be looped over are unpacked with multiple
assignments or tuple unpacking.
Let’s consider another pattern for demonstrating that multiple assignments function
with variables and other items including objects.
>>> point = 10, 20, 30
>>> x, y, z = point
>>> print(x, y, z)
10 20 30
>>> (x, y, z) = (z, y, x)
>>> print (x, y, z)
30 20 10
On the last line, we swapped variable names. This is something multiple assignments
allows you to do quickly.
Multiple assignments can improve the legibility of your codes and the accuracy of such
codes. That means it can make the code more descriptive with embedded statement
about the size and shape of the iterables for unpacking.

Uses of Multiple Assignments in Python

Multiple assignments are used for replacing hardcoded slices.

It replaces hard-coded indexes.
It uses a tuple like a syntax but functions on any iterable.
Multiple assignments clarify your codes to human beings for the codes to
be readable and computer devices for improved code correctness.
Multiple assignments are used for in-depth unpacking.
It is an alternative to slicing.
It helps you to use a list like a syntax.

Multiple Return Values

In Python, a function may restore multiple numbers by returning a sequence. You can
assign the values to different variables using multiple local assignments or multiple
assignments. This occurs when the sum of figures that will be returned is known.
For example:
i1 : f = I -> (I, 1^2, 1^3);
 i2 : (x,y,z) = f 3
o2 = (3, 9, 27)
o2 : Sequence
i3 : x
o3 = 3
i4 : y
o4 = 9
i5 : z
o5 = 27

When the frequency of numbers to be returned is unknown, use a simple assignment.

i6 : s = f 4
o6 = (4, 16, 64)
o6 = Sequence
i7 : #s
o7 = 3
i8 : s_0
o8 = 4
i9 : s_1
o9 = 16
i10 : s_2
o10 = 64

Summary of Functions
In Python, functions are blocks of organized and reusable codes used for performing
single-related actions. They provide better modality for your software with a greater
level of code reusing.
Python comes with various integrated functionalities such as print ( ) functions, type ( )
functions, etc. However, define and create your tasks by customizing your software
according to the projects you have at hand. These are known as user-defined
functions.

Defining and Identifying Function Keys in Python

Function blocks start with a keyword such as def . This is trailed by the
function name including parenthesis ( ( ) ).
Every function has a code block starting with a colon ( : ), and this sign is
indented.
A function is exited using the statement return expression. This can pass
back an illustration to the caller optionally. Return statements could have
no arguments as a return None.
Place arguments or parameters within parentheses, and these could be
defined inside the brackets.
An optional statement can form the initial expression of a function. That is
the docstring or documentation string of the function.
An Example Using Syntax
def functionname( parameters ):
“function_docstring”
function_suite
return [expression]

Parameters have a positional performance by default. That means you should place
them serially as they were defined.
An Illustration is
def printme( str ):
“This prints a passed string into this function”
print str
return

You can define a function and give it a name. With this, you can specify the parameters
to be embedded in the function, and also structure the blocks of letters. If you finalize
the basic structure of a task, you can execute it by calling it from another feature. This
process is done by following the prompt from Python.

Numbers and Strings

In Python, data could be represented using objects such as numbers and strings.
These are built-in objects that you can create with external language tools known as X
extension libraries. In most cases, Python provides these objects.
Integers, complex numbers, and floating-point numbers are accepted in the programs.
These are expressed as

int for integers

floating-point numbers, and
multiple classes in Python.
The separator of floating-point numbers and integers are the absence or presence of a
decimal.
An example of a floating-point figure is 2.0, while 2 is an integer. You can represent
complex numbers using variables such as x _ yj. In this expression, x is the first or
significant part, while y is the secondary or unreal part.
Defining the values and variables in an expression is possible by using the type ( )
function. This enables you to know the class a value or variable belongs. Another
method is using the isinstance ( ) function to see if it pertains to a specific class.
For example:
e =7
print(type(f))
print(type(7.0))
g = 7 + 3k
print(g + 3)
print(isinstance(g, complex))

Output:
<class ‘int’>
<class ‘float’>
(8+3j)
True
Integers can have any length in an expression. A floating-point number is only accurate
if it has 15 decimal places. If you notice a 16th decimal place, the expression is not
correct.
These numbers have decimal numbers in base ten number system. Programmers
usually work with binary (base 2) numbers and base 16 (hexadecimal) numbers. They
can also work with base 8 (octal) numbers.
You can place a prefix before the numbers to represent numbers in Python.
Prefixes Used for Numbering Systems
S Number Prefix
/ System
N
1 Binary ‘0B’ / ‘0b’
. Numbers
2 Octal ‘0O’ / ‘0o’
. numbers
3 Hexadeci ‘0X’
. mal / 0x
numbers

Look at these examples

# Output : 107
print(0b1101011)
#Output : 253 (251 + 2)
print (0xFB + 0b10)
#Output : 13
Print(0o15)

Output:
Run the program, you will have an output such as:
107
253
13

Types of Number Conversions in Python

Numbers can be converted through coercion. This is a process of converting one

number into another. You can use operations like additions and subtractions to coerce
integers to float automatically. This operation happens successfully if one of the
operational figures is a float.
For instance:
>>> 1 + 2.0
3.0
In the statement above, I integer is coerced into 2.0 float through addition. The result
of this coercion is also a floating-point number, 3.0.
Another process is through integrated functionalities like int ( ), float ( ), and complex (
). We can use these functionalities to convert numbers between types. Also, these
functionalities can convert numbers from strings too.
Examples
>>> int(2.3)
2
>>> int(-2.8)
-2
>>> float(5)
5.0
>>> complex(‘3+5j’)
(3+5j)
The numbers are truncated, making the decimal parts to be removed if you are
converting from float to integer.

Using Python Decimal

You can make some amazing calculations using a built-in class float in Python. In
Mathematical calculations, the sum of 1.1 and 2.2 = 3.3. However, in Python there is
disagreement and discrepancy.
>>> (1.1 + 2.2) = 3.3
False

This result implies that floating-point numerals are executed in computer hardware like
binary fractions. This is the only type of figure the computer system understands:
binary numbers 0 and 1 . Therefore, it will be complicated to store decimal fractions in
your computer system.
For instance, the fraction 2/6 cannot be represented in a computer as a decimal
number. It will give us 0.33333333….. and this result is long. But the answer can be
approximated.
However, the decimal fraction 0.1 will give us an incredibly long binary fraction of
0.0001100110011001100 …But there are the highest numbers of figures that the
computer can accept and store. For this reason, we can approximate 0.1, and it cannot
be equal. It is worthy of note that this shortfall is not an error from Python but due to
limitations of the computer hardware.
>>> 1.1 + 2.2
3.300000000000003

But, you can handle this discrepancy using the module for decimals built-into Python.
Floating-point numbers have precision up to fifteen decimal places. It has a decimal
module with user-settable accuracy.
The difference between both results will show:
import decimal
print(0.1)
print(decimal.Decimal(0.1))

Output:
0.1
0.100000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625
You can use this module to perform the decimal calculations as we learned in the
school. This format maintains the significance of values.

Lists and Dictionaries

As I said earlier, lists are like arrays used in other languages. It is a homogenous tool in
Python making it significant in the program. A list contains datatypes known as
integers, objects, and strings. Lists are mutable features in Python and can be altered
after they are created.
For example
# Python program to demonstrate
# Lists

# Creating a List with

# the use of multiple values
List = [“Books”, “For”, “Books”]
print(“List containing multiple values: “)
print(List[0])
print(List[2])
 # Creating a Multi-Dimensional List
# (By Nesting a list inside a List)
List = [[‘Books’, ‘For’ ] , [‘Books’ ]]
print(“\nMulti-Dimensional List: “)
print(List)

Output:
List containing multiple values:
Books
Books

Multi-Dimensional List:
[[ ‘Books’ , ‘For’], [ ‘Books’]]

Dictionary
In Python, the dictionary is an unorganized compilation of data values for storing
values and characters like a map. Therefore, unlike different data types holding only a
one value as an element, a dictionary contains the key:value pair. This is used for
optimizing a dictionary. In a dictionary, each key-value pair is separated using a colon
(: ). But each key in Python is divided by a comma (,).
For example:
# Python program to demonstrate
# dictionary

#creating a Dictionary
# with Integer Keys
Dict = {1: ‘Books’ , 2: ‘For’ , 3: ‘Books’}
print(“Dictionary with the use of Integer Keys: “)
print(Dict)

# Creating a Dictionary
# with Mixed keys
Dict = {‘Name’ : ‘Books’ , 1: [1, 2, 3, 4]}
print(“\nDictionary with the use of Mixed Keys: “)
print(Dict)
Output:
Dictionary with the use of Integer Keys:
{1: ‘Books’ , 2: ‘For’ , 3: ‘Books’ }
{1: [1, 2, 3, 4], ‘Name’ : ‘Books’}

Variations of List and Dictionary

S/ List Dictionary
N
1. Indices of lists are integers beginning The keys of the dictionary are
from 0. organized from any data type.
2. You can create lists by placing Create a dictionary by placing
elements in [ ] separated by “, ” elements in {} as “key”:” value,” each
comma. key-value pair is separated by
commas “, .”
3. Lists sustain and support the order of The order is not maintained.
elements entered in the program.
4. Elements in lists can be accessed Elements in the dictionary are
through indices. accessed through key-values.
 CHAPTER FOUR

UNDERSTANDING CLASSES, METHODS, AND

MODULES

In python, classes are templates that can help you in creating or

customizing your objects. Variables and functions are encapsulated
as a single entity. But objects generate their variables, features, and
functionalities from classes.
Some of the ideas to note for creating classes are that classes
enable you to build a template for classifying things or objects
generally. The classes created can be worked on or customized.
Classes are objects used for producing samples of those templates
where you can apply methods and other operations. You can
organize, conceptualize, and build an organogram or hierarchy for
any organization.
Classes are used for defining procedures and relations for company,
industrial, social, and other settings. This is an online data
technology position.
Here are features to consider before using classes in Python.

a. Create or develop a class and apply it.

b. Create or design a module before moving the class and
launch to the module.
c. Go to a new program and call the module before using
the class.
After creating a class, create a module, and transfer the codes you
created in the class into it. With this, you can create a common
group of x,y synchronizations in any program.

What is a Module?
A module is a file with Python statements and definitions. It is also a
Python code sourced from other programs. Modules are used for
everyday tasks, and you don’t have to enter them in every program
where you could use them.
You can call a package module using “matplotlib.plot.” Without this
module, you must state the functions of the plot in every program
where a plot graph is used.
In Python documentation, if you exit from Python interpreter and
open the software again, the definitions, which are variables and
functions, are lost. But writing a more extended program requires
you to use a text editor in preparing the data for the interpreter.
Then, run the file as input.
This process is known as scripting. Splitting long programs into
several files is recommended to maintain the application. Apply a
handy function written for several applications. In this case, you don’t
need to copy the description into all programs before working.
Python can help you arrange descriptions in a folder or file and apply
them in a script. It could also be used in a relational occasion of the
interpreter. Data organized in that manner are called modules . The
descriptions from a module are extracted into different modules or
the main module. This is a collection of variables, which you can
access in a script. They can be performed at the upper level or in the
calculator mode.
From the analysis above, you can understand that it takes class
creation and features to transfer an instance from the program into a
specific class. You can apply this function in your current program
just by working and referencing this newly created module.
Summary of what we did above:

a. We developed and start the class.

b. Created a function that moves a case of the class in four
significant directions, such as right, left, up, and down.
Here, the increments become the parameters or
arguments for functioning.
 c. In a module, creating a function for calculating the
distance between two requests of the class using the
formula for graph distance.

What are the modules in Raspberry PI?

A Raspberry Pi contains the compute module1. This device is
designed for industrial applications in a flexible form.

The Specifications of a Computer Module

The module is the backbone of your Pi device as it contains 512MB
RAM, BCM2835 processor, and a 4GB eMMC Flash device. It is
comparable and similar to the SD card in a microcomputer. All these
specs are included into a board measuring 67.6 × 30 mm. This
board fits into a standard connector such as DDR2 SODIMM. This
connector is also used in the memory of a laptop computer.
This memory is coupled straight to the processor on the board.
Other processor interfaces could be accessed through the connector
pins, and you will enjoy the flexibility of the BCM2835 SoC. In this
case, more interfaces and GPIOs are available if compared to the
Raspberry Pi making it possible to design and customize the system
in a straightforward way.

Libraries in Python

In Python programming, you can limit using codes by adopting

Python libraries and packages. These are a collection for relevant
modules and functions valuable for programming instead of codes.
You will find over one hundred thousand libraries and one hundred
and ninety packages in Python. They have been designed and
developed to make programming easy for beginners, including
Pythonistas and Pythoneers, to offer solutions to various challenges
in society.
Python libraries are useful for machine learning, including data
visualization, image, and data manipulation, and data science for
different applications. Python packages include a collection of
Python modules, and libraries are a collection of Python functions
used for performing specific tasks.
Here are some Python libraries and their features:
Matplotlib library
Matplotlib is a library that a programmer can use in writing two-
dimensional graphs and plots through Python Script. You may need
more than single axes in a version to handle scientific or
Mathematical programs.
You can also create numerous plots at a time using this library. It is
useful in manipulating several figures and characteristics.

Features of Matplotlib

a. Easy to integrate several third-party libraries with

Matplotlib software. The applications include ggplot,
seaborn, and base map for mapping and projections.
b. Features a dynamic group of people dedicated to
handling your requests professionally.
c. Matplotlib enables you to track new patches, bugs, and
features requirements on the problem of tracker page
from Github. That is the official page for handling various
problems concerning this library.
d. It can function with GUIs and diverse toolkits such as
Jupyter Notebook, IPython Shells, and Python Scripts.
e. This Python library can create quality figures suitable for
publication. These figures could be available in hardcopy
designs on various interactive platforms.

Requests Library
This is released under the Apache2.0 license and serves as a
loaded Python HTTP library. It helps to make HTTP requirements
user-friendly and responsive. This lib is made for beginners to help
them to use most features of HTTP. It is easy to configure,
customize, authorize, and inspect HTTP requests.
Features of Requests Library

a. Enjoying the benefits of HTTP proxy support. It helps

your users to locate your files and pages faster and
quickly.
b. It features thread safety, connection pooling, Unicode
response bodies, basic or digest authentication, value
cookies, and other functionalities.
c. Requests help to upload numerous documents at once.
With this, you can work in an efficient and faster
environment.
d. Requests contain several features that can enable you to
tackle custom headers, sweep parameters towards
URLs, and perform SSL certificate verifications.
e. It offers automatic decompression that helps you in
restoring and reviving compressed data into the original
format quickly.
f. This Python lib enables you to use basic Python
Dictionaries, add parameters, form data, complex
documents, and headers.

Theano Library
Theano could be used for compiling available computer programs.
Programmers also call it an optimizing compiler. This library applies
multi-dimensional arrays, making you not to about the outcome and
perfections of your projects.
It is designed for describing, analyzing, influencing, and optimizing
various Mathematical operations simultaneously.

Features of Theano Library

a. It makes computation 140 times faster and easier. It can

handle data-intensive applications.
 b. It offers various essential tools for detecting and
analyzing dangerous bugs and other issues in the
system.
c. Theano helps you to work successfully on expressions
without hassles or delays. With this, you can avoid nasty
bugs as you work with illustrations.
d. The features and functionalities are similar to Numpy’s
own. Therefore, Theano integrates numpy.ndarrys in its
system.
e. Works directly with GPUs and complete diverse
emblematic differentiation of many parts or at least one
section.
Pillow Library
Pillow library depends on the PIL code configuration. It is a division
of Python Image Library (PIL). It was transformed into a better and
more-friendly version of PIL. This is your reliable firm while working
with different types of image formats.

Features of Pillow Library

a. You will get more support from active community users
that will answer your inquiries and provide solutions.
b. This Python library helps you in creating thumbnails for
descriptions. It carries most of the important parts of your
figure.
c. Supports a group of image filters such as smooth,
smooth_more, blur, contour, sharpen, and
find_edges.
d. The ability to open and save images and influence the
image environment.
e. It supports various documents such as GIF, ICO, PCX,
PDF, BPM, EPS, PNG, JPEG, WebP, IM, and PSD.

Keras Library
Keras is suitable for beginners or programmers learning deep neural
networks. It is an open-source, profound neural network library
printed in Python. This is a user-friendly library with a better modular
structure providing proper inspection policy for detailed networks.

Features of Keras Library

a. Keras library enables you to build deep models for
smartphones such as iOS, Android, and including Java
virtual machines.
b. It features useful tools for creating different images and
texts quickly.
c. Supports recurrent and convolutional neural networks.
d. This Python library can function on PaidML, TensorFlow,
Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit including other platforms.
e. Keras contains various implementations from the neural
networks to form blocks such as levels, objectives,
optimizers, functions, and other features.

Fire Library
Fire library can generate command-line interfaces (CLIs) instantly.
This is an open-source Python library requiring less shapes of code.
It is a dominant library capable of deriving CLIs from any object in
Python. Google also applies it to creating a command line. It is
relevant for developing various experiment board paraphernalia.

Features of Fire Library

a. It features a linear output, and no docstrings are needed.
b. It comes with CLIs capable of adapting to changes you
bring to your code. This will be updated instantly, as you
change your codes.
c. Fire libraries can write and send commands
automatically, as you call Fire ( ).
d. Fire libraries are suitable for various Python objects such
as classes, lists, modules, dictionaries, and objects.
 e. It has CLIs in a complete form featuring automated help-
pages and completion of tab in an interactive system.

Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK)

This is a renowned Python NLP library. It involves a group of
language handing out libraries with several applications that
cumulatively offer a emblematic and numerical language processing
solution only for English.
This library is printed in Python language. With Natural Language
Toolkit, processing natural language using Python is now standard
and ideal.

Features of NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit)

a. It contains a picture of data science. A handbook is also
attached for guidance through the ideology of language
dispensation for NLTK.
b. Various structure methods, formation strings parsing, re-
entrance, and different pathways are featured in NLTK.
c. Features a vibrant discussion forum for analyzing issues
affecting your program and NLTK.
d. It contains more than fifty corpora and lexical properties
such as question classification, stopwords corpus,
SEMCOR, SentiWordNet, and open multilingual
WordNet, and others.
e. It allows semantic reasoning, classification, tokenization,
tagging, stemming, and parsing using text processing
libraries.
Scipy Library
This library is useful for technical as well as scientific computation.
Scipy is a complimentary Python library appropriate for machine
culture. It is also renowned for image manipulation.
Features of Scipy
 a. Scipy is a high-level library containing nump.lib.scimath as
well as NumPy. Using them from the direct source is
preferable.
b. It features a community of active members that are ready to
answer your questions and resolve your issues.
c. It has two ways of handling 1-d polynomials.

Arrow Library
This is a practical and user-friendly library in Python that functions
with times and dates. It features a smart API that supports general
schemes making it an exciting library. The library is well-suited for
beginners with a basic knowledge of coding.

Features of Arrow Library

a. Suitable for various versions of Python such as Python
2.7, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, and 3.8.
b. Capable of resolving and eliminating strings in a natural
process. Arrow is a time-sensitive library that is set to
UTC by default.
c. It converts timezones and offers timestamps as a feature.
This library could be extended for your arrow derived
kinds.
d. Arrow offers timeframes ranging from microseconds to
years. It also helps in creating a ceiling, time-spans, the
floor, and range for time frames.
e. Possible to create various input scenarios with Arrow with
the simplest creation method.
f. It generates, removes, influences, and converts times
and dates. It is needed for executing quick updates of
date-time type and plugging gaps.
FlashText Library
If you are searching for words and documents easily or replace the
same in Python programs, you need the FlashText library. It
functions with a collection of words and string. In this case, it will
identify some words as keywords and replaces from Text Data . It is
practical and suitable for programmers that are struggling wit word
replacement processes.

Features of FlashText Library

a. It is suitable for extensive inquiry if the amount of
keywords is above 500.
b. This library is not used for searching unique letters such
as -, #, *,^, etc. it is not used for pointing fraction of words
too.
c. Reserves keywords as Trie Data Structure, making it
very dynamic and efficient.
d. It uses an updated string for keyword replacement.
FlashText will return lists of the keywords to the string
while performing a search.
e. It functions as a quick library and offers different string
manipulation.

TensorFlow Library
This is a free, open-source machine learning collection in Python.
TensorFlow contains a handful of useful tools, which are easy to
learn. This library is relevant for different programs and dataflow.
Before using TensorFlow in a computer device, install Colab
Notebooks in the browser.
Features of TensorFlow
These include

a. It contains an easy to discover structural design. With this

library, you can develop your ideas into codes before
 printing or publishing your projects.
b. TensorFlow has eager execution enabling you to create
and manipulate machine learning structures. It makes
debugging more natural and better.
c. The library functions with instant productive APIs such as
Keras. It provides a quick iteration of mechanized
learning representation.
d. TensorFlow offers a solution to every machine learning
problem. It is straightforward to implement and use.
e. It can transfer your ML representations in clouds and
other devices, including on-premises in various browsers.

What is object orientation?

Object orientation is a way of solving programs through
computations using objects. The object is a component of a program
used for performing specific actions and interacting with other
elements of the program. The basic components of object-oriented
programming are objects.
An example of an object in a program is a person. Therefore,
logically, such a person must have a name. The name becomes a
property of that person who can carry out different functions such as
eating, drinking, walking, etc. these functions become the methods
of that person (objects)
In object-oriented programming (OOP), codes are organized around
objects, which can interact with each other making things happen.
Designing a program where someone is driving a car, firstly requires
you to describe the objects involved, which are a person and car.
You will now specify the methods. These are: how a person can
drive a car, how the vehicle is to be driven. After organizing the
objects, you can bring them together and create a diagram of a
vehicle being driven by a person.
Therefore, a class is a model of an object, which is an idea. The
object becomes an embodiment of that concept. A class is created
before designing an object. After creating objects, you are ready to
design something. This involves methods.
In object-oriented programming, a method is a process associated
with a class. It defines the behavior of objects created from the class.
Actions performed by objects are known as methods. The interaction
between class and method is known as binding.
 CHAPTER FIVE

HOW TO USE FILES AND INTERNET WITH

RASPBERRY PI

Using Files and Internet on Raspberry Pi

You can easily use files and the internet on your Pi. This will allow
you to complete tasks and handle multiple projects on a virtual basis.
Some of the ways to accomplish this are:

1. Port forwarding – the best method of handling this issue

is through port forwarding. You can access the internet
through your router. Arrange for port forwarding feature
on your router. That means you will configure the router
to forward all inbound internet traffic on a particular port
to the local IP address of your system.

Various routers are designed with this feature. But varieties of

routers are available with different configurations, follow the
directions on your router’s user manual to configure it
properly. You may find it difficult to manipulate if you’re your
 Raspberry Pi has more than one router, or it is behind a
firewall.
A significant disadvantage of the port forwarding feature is
that it renders a system port on the personal LAN to the free
internet. It is advisable to manage this feature carefully
because it is a security threat.

2. Third-Party Online Port Forwarding Services – several

alternative solutions for port forwarding are available
through third party services. They can offer various
categories of functionality.

What are the files in Raspberry PI?

In a Raspberry Pi, files are the data or documents you save on your
system for future references. These files are kept in folders for
proper organization and management. A folder may contain several
files or even other folders too.
Raspberry Pi has file management software known as File Manager.
This app is located at the right-part of the browser logo on the
taskbar of the Pi system and represented with a battered filing
cabinet.
If you want to launch the file managing app, click the icon. Various
file and folder lists will appear at the left-part of your window. Click on
any folder to view the files inside. When you click on a folder, the
files will appear on the right part of the window.
You can view the files in a folder by tapping the small triangle beside
the description of the folder. This action will cause the folders to
open and display the folders or files inside, causing the triangle to
point downwards. If you close the folder, the triangle will face the
right beside the folder’s name.
The full lists of folders in a Raspberry Pi are called a directory tree.
This appears like a tree in an upside-down position. It begins to grow
from a root in the folder. This folder has great significance in a Pi,
and it is called a single backslash \ .
This folder incorporates other folders that make using and navigating
through your Raspberry Pi easily. If you check the list of folders on
the window, you will notice one referred to as pi at the upper part of
the list. This one is known as the home folder. Every user on the
Raspberry device has this folder called Pi folder, which is the home
folder. The programmer spends much time at home on the window. It
is located and placed in the directory tree, and you don’t have to
navigate to the main tree before seeing it.
The home folder could be traced in the file manager with a quick
click. Another method to locate the home folder is by scrolling and
clicking many files and buttons before seeing it. This often regarded
as the long way, but you should know the short cut.
Navigating in File Manager
Every file in your Raspberry Pi has an address assigned to them by
the file manager. This appears as a list of folders you need to click
before accessing the file. These addresses are called paths in the
filing system. So, obtaining an address in your system is like strolling
down a path. The pathway could have bends and alleyways before
reaching your destination.

Step-By-Step Method of Accessing a File in a

Raspberry Pi
a. Open the system and click the Home Folder.
b. Tap on the pi folder within the home folder.
c. Continue clicking on various folders and viewing them
until you arrive at the desired folder.
Navigating through the device is easy since the File Manager will
always direct you to the right file and folder.
This is an example of an address that can take you to already
installed apps in your Pi.
/usr/share/raspi-ui-overrides/applications
You can try this address to access files in your Raspberry device.
Scroll down the list of files and folders in the tree to locate your file
within /usr/share, as it contains a lot. By double-clicking on any app
or folder in the file manager, you can launch and open them.

How to manage the file system

Organizing the file system

The terminal in your Raspbian is used for manipulating and
managing files in the system using specific commands. Here are
some of the ways to manage the file system.

How to Create Files

You have several ways of creating a file in the terminal. But the
easiest method of handling this process is by applying the Touch
control. This command is used for creating and updating
timestamps in a file. It involves a very simple syntax. Type only
“touch, ” followed by the filename.
If a document with the description of the specified file does not exist,
the command will quickly create a new file. Create a new file called
textfile.txt in the /home/pi/ directory by following the command.
 pi@new-hostname – $ touch /home/pi/textfile.txt

Deleting Files
Deleting a file is simple using the rm command . To delete the file
you created above, just type rm before the file name on your window,
and the data are removed.
pi@new-hostname – $ rm textfile.txt

How to Copy Files

Copying files is a straightforward commands on the Raspberry Pi
and you can do this using the cp command. Two parameters such
as copy directory and destination directory can help you to handle it.
Now, if you want to copy the /home/pi/textfile.txt to the /tmp/
directory, you can use this command:
pi@new-hostname – $ cp /home/pi/textfile.txt /tmp/
pi@new-hostname – ls /tmp/

How to Show the Content of a File

Contents in a file on your system could be displayed using a text
viewer or text editor. In Raspbian, various programs can help you to
view the contents of your files and folders.
One of them is called less program. It can show the contents of
your files on the screen one after another. It functions using the
syntax ‘less.’ Go to your keyboard and type the command, less,
followed by the title of the document you want to display.
If you want to show the content of the document you created above,
use this command.
pi@new-hostname - $ less /home/pi/textfile.txt
After entering this command, the content will be shown in the less
program window. However, quitting the less program is simple by
pressing the q button on your keyboard.
You can also show the contents of your file by applying the cat
command . Here, the content will be displayed at the terminal
directly. For example:
pi@new-hostname - $ cat textfile.txt
Hello, world!

Reading and Writing Files

If you want the output of your program to be readable by humans,
you can present your data in several ways. You can even file the
information for future use.

Ways to Write Values

You can write values through

a. Write ( ) system of file objects. Here, the regular output

document can be referenced as sys.stdout .
b. Expression statements.
c. The print ( ) function.
Most times, you should format your output properly instead of
printing separated values. You can format your output or writings in
two ways such as

1. String slicing and concatenation operations. With this,

you can design any possible layout. It has some
procedures for performing essential services for stuffing
strings to specific column width.
2. Using the str.format ( ) process.
The string element has a template class that provides another way of
alternating value strings. Python program can help you in converting
values to strings and transfer it to the str ( ) function or repr ( )
function.
A string may contain a filename or few characters. This will define
the way (mode) the file may be used. The mode could be ‘r’
indicating data meant to be read while ‘w’ for files that will be written.
It could also be used for data marked for deleting.
‘a’ opens the doc for attaching or appending any info written to the
file. This is added automatically to the end. If you see the codes ‘r+’,
it means the files are available for interpreting and writing.
When docs are opened in text mode, you can read and write
sequences from the file or read and write sequence to the file. These
are preset in a particular encoding. But if the programming is not
specific, the default is dependent on the stage. The code ‘b’ attached
to the method opens the doc in a binary mode. Here, the data will be
written and read like bytes objects. The pattern is suitable for files
without text.
If you are reading in text format, the default will convert the platform-
specific line endings such as (\r\n on Windows, n\ on Unix) to just \n.
If you are writing in text mode, the default will transfer episodes of \n
back to the platform-specific line endings.
These modifications are suitable for text data but can corrupt binary
data such as the JPEG or EXE docs. Be cautious about using binary
modes when reading and writing such files.

What are the differences between the Internet

and Pickling?#
 Internet Connection on Raspberry Pi
The internet is used for accessing the web from a mobile device or
computer. As I mentioned above, you can do this through port
forwarding. This involves changing the configuration of your router to
forward all inbound traffic from the internet on a port to a local IP
address. It could also be done through third party agencies handling
port forwarding.
Pickling is the process of using a module to implement a
fundamental and robust algorithm for serializing and de-serializing a
Python object structure. This involves converting a Python object
hierarchy into a byte stream. Wherefore, unpickling is the inversion
of this operation, causing a byte stream to be reconverted into an
object chain of command.
These two terms, pickling and unpickling, are also referred to as
marshaling, flattening or 1, and serialization. The pickle module
maintains a pathway of the objects already serialized. This will
prevent the serialization of the same objects in future references.
 CHAPTER SIX

HANDLING GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES IN

RASPBERRY

GUIs on Raspberry Pi

Graphical User Interfaces on a Pi is a type of interface that enables

programmers and users to interact with your systems using visual
indicator representations such as TVs and monitors. It was
developed by Xerox Palo Alto in the late 1970s but deployed
commercially by Apple’s Macintosh, including Microsoft windows OS.
GUIs are the model of user-based blueprint in software, as it offers
users the capacity to operate computers and various electronic
gadgets intuitively. This is possible through direct application of
graphical emblems such as buttons, tabs, menus, scroll bars,
mouse, cursors, and windows. Nowadays, graphical user interfaces
come with touch-screen and voice-prompt (command) features and
functionalities.
The best programming language for GUIs includes Java or C#,
Python, C/C++, and HTML5/Javascript.
Various GUI libraries are available for different languages. Some
renowned GUIs include Windows 10 Mobile, BlackBerry OS,
Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu Unity, macOS, Firefox OS for
smartphones, GNOME Shell for desktop setting, Android, Apple’s
iOS, and Palm OS-WebOS.

What is Tkinter Module in Python

Tkinter module in Python is the de-facto library for Python programs.
This module is supported by all platforms such as OS X, Linux, and
Windows. Some widgets you can see in Tkinter include check
button, canvas, frames, text, scrollbars, progress bars, labels,
buttons, and combo boxes.
In Python, Tkinter is a programming package in GUI. It involves a
built-in library providing the TK GUI toolkit. It has a potent object-
oriented interface. Tkinter and Python are the cheapest and easiest
ways to create GUIs on any application.

The Approach on How to Use Tkinter

The first step is to import the module, such as Tkinter and functools,
from partial. Then, create the main window. Add the desired amount
of widgets to the basic window, such as labels, buttons, and entry.
At this stage, display the message. Lastly, apply an event prompt on
the widgets.
A brief explanation of the fifteen widgets found in TKinter include

a. Entry widget – for displaying a single-line text ground that

can accept figures from a user.
b. Checkbutton widget – ideal for displaying several options
as checkboxes. With this, the user can choose many
alternatives at a time.
c. Frame widget – it serves as a bottle widget for organizing
other widgets.
d. Button widget – useful for showing buttons in your
application.
 e. Canvas widget – for drawing shapes such as rectangles,
polygons, lines, and ovals within your application.
f. Listbox widget – for providing several options to the user.
g. Menubutton widget – is used for providing different
commands to the user. These commands are within the
Menubutton.
h. Label widget – available for providing a single-line
description for other widgets in the application. It comes
with various images.
i. Text widget – helps you to display text in multiple lines.
j. Spinbox widget – this is a deviation of the Tkinter Entry
widget for choosing from several fixed values.
k. Toplevel widget – for providing a separate window
container.
l. tkMessageBox widget – the module is for displaying
message boxes in your applications.
m. PanedWIndow widget – a container widget with many
panes that are organized vertically and horizontally.
n. LabelFrame widget – this is a simple bottle widget acting
as a container or spacer for compound casement layouts.
o. Scrollbar widget – for scrolling through various widgets
such as listboxes.
p. Scale widget – for providing a slider widget.
q. Radiobutton widget – some options are displayed as
radio buttons using this feature. But the user can choose
and work with only one option at once.
r. Message widget – for showing multiline text fields and
accepting values from the user.

How do Hello World and Temperature Converter

operate in GUI
A proper understanding of the GUI will enhance your knowledge of
how a temperature converter works. This project involves converting
Celsius to Fahrenheit.
Follow this process in the application and copy the codes into your
Python editor for implementation.
introduce Tkinter as tk

# Declare global variables

temp_c = None
temp_f = None

# This function is called whenever the button is pressed

def convert ( ):
global temp_c
global temp_f

# Convert Celsius to Fahrenheit and update label (through

textvariable)
try:
val = temp_c.get( )
temp_f.set((val * 9.8 / 5) + 32)

Call it a name such as tkinter_temp_converter.py before running it.

A new window will show with a part for typing in a number (in lieu of
degrees Celsius). Tap the “Convert button,” and the corresponding
temperature in Fahrenheit will appear. This will be shown in the label
next to degrees Fahrenheit.

Understanding Listbox and Spinbox

The Listbox doodad is for displaying a list of things from which the
user can choose various items.
The Simple Syntax for Creating Listbox
The syntax includes
w = Listbox ( master, selection, … )

The Parameters for Using Listbox

The parameters for using Listbox involves master and options.

1. master – used for the parent window.

2. options – the most frequently used options for Listbox
widget include the following, which are represented as
key-value pairs with commas to separate them.

a. height – this is the rate of lines displaying in the Listbox.

The default number is 10.
b. font – indicates the characters applied for the content in
the Listbox
c. highlightcolor – represents the color appearing on the
focal point highlight when the widget is central.
d. relief – for choosing the 3-dimensional border shading
effects, as the default is sunken.
e. selectmode – for determining the items that could be
selected and how mouse drags can affect your choice.
These options incorporate other features such as single,
extended, multiple, and browse.
f. highlighthickness – displays the thickness of the focus
highlight.
g. Selectbackground – shows the background color for
displaying the chosen text.
h. bd – the size of the border surrounding the indicator.
i. yscrollcommand – with this, the user can scroll the
Listbox vertically. It links your Listbox widget to a
 perpendicular scrollbar.
j. cursor – appears whenever the mouse is placed over the
Listbox.
k. fg - the color of the text within a Listbox.
l. xscrollcommand – helps the user for scrolling the Listbox
horizontally. With this, you can link your Listbox widget to
a horizontal scrollbar.
m. bg – represents the standard background color showing
behind the label with an indicator.

The Methods of Listbox Objects

These methods include

a. delete ( initial, end=None ) – this method eliminates the

lines with key in the first and last ranges. If the
succeeding row is removed, the solo line bearing the
index first is chosen.
b. get (initial, end=None ) – this method returns a tuple with
the text of lines containing keys from first to last. It
replaces the text of the line next to the first line if the
second row is omitted.
c. index ( i ) – tries to position the noticeable element of the
Listbox if possible. This makes the column with the index
i to be at the upper part of the widget.
d. curselection () = this method returns a tuple with the line
figures of the chosen elements/element, starting from 0. It
returns an blank tuple if nothing is selected.
e. Activate ( index ) – helps in selecting lines specified by
the given box.
f. size ( ) – for returning the amount of lines in the Listbox.
g. xview() – makes the Listbox scrollable horizontally. It sets
the command option of the associated horizontal
scrollbar to this format.
h. xview_moveto ( fraction ) – the method scrolls the Listbox
in a way the leftmost part of the width of its longest
 column is outside the left side of the Listbox. The portion
is within the ranges of [0,1].
i. yview() – makes the Listbox vertically scrollable. It sets
the command option of the associated scrollbar to this
method.
j. yview_moveto ( fraction ) – this method scrolls the
Listbox to the upper fraction of the width. If the top line is
outside the left-side of the Listbox. The fraction is within
the ranges of [0,1]
k. see ( index ) – adjusts the location of the Listbox, making
the line referred to by index visible.
l. yview_scroll (number, what ) – helps in scrolling the
Listbox vertically. It uses either unit to scroll by the lines
for what arguments. It uses pages to navigate by pages
by the elevation of the Listbox while the number
argument tells how many to scroll.
m. xview_scroll ( number, what) - this method scrolls the
number horizontally. It uses either unit for scrolling by
characters for what arguments by the breadth of the
Listbox. However, the number argument tells how many
to scroll.
n. nearest ( y ) – it places the noticeable element of the
Listbox in a way the line with i is at the upper part of the
widget.

The Spinbox
This is an alternative of the usual Tkinter Entry widget used for
selecting a fixed number of elements.
The Syntax of Spinbox
The simple syntax for creating this widget involves
W = Spinbox( master, selection, … )
The Parameters for Spinbox include

a. master – representing the parent window.

b. options – containing the list of commonly used alternative
for this widget. The options are applied as key-value pairs
and separated by commas.
Detailed analysis of these options includes
 CHAPTER SEVEN

HARDWARE INTERFACES IN RASPBERRY

This device is designed with hardware interfaces for proper

functionality. This is a low-cost single-board computer device for
learning. The Raspberry Pi Foundation, a non-profit organization
built this system.
This device has different models from Raspberry Pi Zero to
Raspberry Pi 3 is made with a 40-pin heard connector. They offer
entrance to the GPIO pins with some other functionality. The header
offers accessibility to 26 GPIO pins with 5 volts and 3.3 volts,
including other individual pins for an ID EEPROM function.

Pin Connections in GPIO

These 26 GPIO pins could be configured especially as input pins or

output pins. The system uses 3.3 volts, which is the nominal volt.
Higher voltage, such as 5 volts, is dangerous to your device.
Unconnected pins come with undefined levels of logic, but you can
force separate pins to high or low level using pullup or pulldown
resistors.
This exercise is carried out in hardware with external resistors, but
you can apply it to the software too. GPIO pins and GPIO3 pins are
designed with permanent pull-up resistors on the board. However,
other GPIO pins are configured in the software for providing a pull-up
or pull-down resistor. In most cases, they offer no resistance at all.
Functions of Pins
The general purpose input and output (GPIO) pins are configured to
provide various functions even beyond the primary digital input and
output. All pins display similar functions, but some have unique
features and services. These pins can help a programmer to design
various projects such as robots, retro games, weather stations, and
other mighty machines with a Pi.
These pins make it possible to use motors, lights, sensors, and other
peripherals. You can connect these pins to your system through the
SoC located within the Raspberry Pi. This will facilitate secure
collaboration between your system and external components.
It has about 40 pins, including UART, 12C, and SPI connections for
the newer models.
Let’s look at some of the functions of pins in a Raspberry Pi.
1.GPIO (General Purpose Input Output) pins – these are digital pins
that can send or receive current, and you can regulate their state
using Python, node-Red, Python, and other programming languages.
It operates with a voltage of 3.3 volts and draws about 16 mA of
current.
These pins interface with various devices using SPI, UART, and 12C
protocols. GPIO3 use SCL and SDA 12C pins to connect to systems
through 12C protocols. Before using these pins, you should enable
the interfaces that can function with them by configuring your system
using the Raspbian operating system.
12C Pins
This is a serial protocol with low speed for connecting devices
through the 1C standard. These devices operate on a master-slave
relationship basis. They function through addresses given by the
manufacturers using Linux commands such as 12C detect.
These pins function with two connections, such as SDA and SCL,
and send data to or from the SDA connectivity with its speed
regulated by the SCL pin. 12C pins enable you to add temperature
sensors, analog, digital converters, OLED, and LCD screens to your
projects.
Universal Asynchronous Receiver or Transmitter (UART) Pins
These pins send GPIO14 and receive GPIO15 with a console or
terminal login headless setup. It links your PI device without a mouse
or keyboard. This is possible through a network or direct USB
connection. It can also be regulated using a serial cable or USB to
serial board from a computer operating a terminal console.
This pin is reliable and offers instant right to use your Pi without extra
tools. You must enable this function by configuring the serial console
in your Pi device.

Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) pins

These pins help you to connect well-matched devices to your Pi. It
functions through a master-slave relationship with devices just like
the 12C pins.
SPI pins are used for sending info over short ranges between
microcontrollers and other components such as sensors, SD cards,
and shift registers. The data is synchronized using a clock such as
SCLK at GPIO11 from the master, which is the Pi. This is transmitted
from the device to the SPI component through the MOSI pin, which
include GPIO GPIO10 pins.
MOSI means Master Out Slave In. This component replies to Pi by
sending back data through the Master In Slave Out - MISO pin
(GPIO9).
3.3V Pins
3V pins provide a stable power supply to your electrical components
and enable you to test LEDs. You can connect the anode, and the
long leg of the LED to the 3.3V pin through a resistor while the
shorter leg and cathode are connected to the GND pins. This
connection will enable your lights to shine for you to build your
projects.
Ground (GND) Pins
This is also called GND or gnd. All voltages are measured from this
pin, and it completes an electric circuit. It refers to a zero point and
connects LED to a source of power, making the GND part of the
circuit system. The current can flow through this LED to produce
light.
A Pi is designed with 8 gnd connections through the GPIO
connecting to a single ground connection.
5V Pins
These pins enable direct access to the supply of 5 volts from the
mains adaptor ensuring less power required by the Pi. It powers your
unit directly but ensures a stable and moderate voltage before
connecting your system.
5V pins can bypass safety features such as fuse and voltage
regulator. They could avoid these regulators from damaging your
device.
Other functionalities of these Pins include

a. Pins GPIO12, GPIO13, GPIO18, GPIO19 supports pulse

width modulation (PWM) on the hardware of Raspberry
Pi. The software of any pin can also support this
functionality.
b. GPIO2 and GPIO3 pins support the 12 C interface.
c. The serial interface of GPIO14 and GPIO15 pins can be
used as a serialized console.
d. GPIO8, GPIO7, GPIO10, GPIO9,GPIO11, GPIO17,
GPIO18, GPIO1, GPIO21, GPIO20 pins provides serial
peripheral interface (SPI) ports.
Pins in Serial Interface
As I stated above, the pins in the serial interface include GPIO8,
GPIO7, GPIO10, GPIO9, GPIO11, GPIO17, GPIO18, GPIO1,
GPIO21, and GPIO20.

Prototyping Boards in Raspberry

Prototyping boards are used for attaching some electronic
components and sensors to a Raspberry Pi. Examples of prototyping
boards in a Raspberry Pi include PiBreak Plus. This board provides
labeled escaping pins for all GPIOs. It is a huge prototyping surface
with solder pads and power bar for a secure connection to a power
source. This board is well-suited with all models of Raspberry Pi and
other boards with a 40-pin extension header such as Raspberry Pi
Model A+, Raspberry Pi Model B+, and Raspberry Pi Model 2.

Features of Prototyping Boards in Raspberry Pi

The features of these boards include

1. It comes with a large prototyping surface to connect your

parts.
2. The board has pinout markings on the top and bottom.
3. It has bolts, nuts, washers, and spacers for proper
mounting.
4. There are 3.3volts and GND power rails.
5. The board is gold-plated (PCIB) ENIG for durability.
 CHAPTER EIGHT

LEAD FADER AND PROTOTYPING PROJECTS

The Pi is a microcomputer and also regarded as a single-board

computer (SBC). It can function with Linux operating system and
other applications. This device is useful for various digital projects,
such as lead fader projects and prototyping projects.
A fader is a necessary component required for mixing console. It
helps you to control your source through the movement of a fader.
You can use pushbuttons in your projects by hacking the keyboard
and mouse. It could also be done through gainer, Arduino, and MCK.
This offers an alternative means of using faders with audio input and
output.
Lead fader provides efficient sampling resolution and frequency than
16bit to 8-10bit, including 44.1KHz to 1KHz.

Requirements for Lead Fader Projects

The requirements for lead fader projects are fader, software, and
soldering. Others include 1 heat shrink tube, 1 twin cable, 2 3.5mm
Mono plug, wire strippers, nippers, solder-sucker, multimeter, clipped
cables, and helping hands.
These requirements can function only on variable resistor type
faders but not on the optical type.
Now, a Fader is sourced from a broken mixing console and
electronic components store. Some local electronic component
stores include Digi-Key, RSin, Maplin, Tokyu-Hands, and
RadioShack.

How to Assemble the Hardware

Get a fader with three or more connectors and modify its resistance
using the arrangement of the fader, which is a changeable type of
resistor. Most mixing consoles come with optical fader, especially for
DJ crossfader.
The 2 3.5mm mono plug is for acoustic input and output, and one
twin cable is used as the loudspeaker cable. You can make the
length according to your choice. Get one heat shrink tube for
connecting the fader.
Get two pairs of cables and strip the ends. Check the connector of
the fader before soldering. Some faders have three connectors. Two
functions as resistors and the other one for the ground pin. By
changing the resistance with a multimeter, you can find a proper
connector.
Solder the fader to the cables. Each side of the two wires should be
soldered to each resistor side of the connector. Use the side of the
resistor with one marker for one side. Add your heat shrink tube
before soldering to make it firm.
Twist the cutting side of the cable to avoid expansion. Cover the
connector with heat shrink tube after soldering.
After this, solder the ground side, but ensure that each cutting side of
the cables is twisted to prevent expansion. Attach your heat shrink
tube.
Solder the plugs to the last part of each cable but install the plug
cover. The cutting side of the cable should be twisted to prevent
expansion. Attach the cover of the plugs after soldering.
Use a multimeter on the resistance between the plugs. The upper
side should be modified with the location of the fader. The gnd (lower
side) should be zero. Now, you have a set of switch, a cable, and
two plugs.
Connect the acoustic input and output to make complete working
hardware.

Running the Software

Open the window or environment of the program in your Raspberry
Pi. That could be Flash, Pure Data, MaxMSP, and SuperCollider.
Anyone that can handle the audio input and output is needed.
You should assign an audio signal such as a 10000Hertz sine wave
for audio output. Set the volume calculator for audio input. Peakamp
object is needed for this project.
Add a receiver for the calculator such as a multislider object.
Begin the audio, move the fader to receive the connection. With this,
you are set to use a fader with your projects. Use a sine wave
oscillator for the acoustic input and output.

Requirements for Prototyping Project

The requirements for this project include power, 555 astable,
Cd4029 decade counting, diode, capacitor, and 9-Volt battery.

How to Assemble Prototyping Hardware

The first thing here is using the ground rails and hooking up to the
power stage. This will feed the circuit with power from the power
source. The diode prevents reverse polarity to the system while the
capacitor is used to even out the current. The circuit can be
connected using a brick wall through a 9-V battery.
After this setup, the astable 555 timer stage sends a regular pulse to
the CD4029 from pin3. This is connected to the capacitor and
Potentiometer and attached to the 7,2, and 6 pins. These multiply
the pulses coming from pin 3.
The Potentiometer helps in charging the capacitor more or less
quickly. If the capacitor voltage is at 1/3 of the main charge and the
main charge is that of the battery. This can set pin 3 high. When pin
6 gets 2/3 charge, it causes pin 3 to be low making the capacitor to
reduce low through pin 7. With this, the charge can dissipate.
If the capacitor voltage is at 1/3 of the base charge, it regulates the
pin 3 to high. In this way, the process is repeated.

Running the Software

The NE555 Timer controls a regular pulse towards the CD4029 from
pin 3 connected to the 15 pins of the device. The vibration begins
from pin 2 and measures 1/3 of the base voltage, which is 3volt. The
vibration stops when the pin detects 2/3 base voltage, which is 6
volts.
The counter stage functions in binary mode and produces 4bit binary
numbers between 0 and 15. Each bit is transferred to one of the Q
pins. A 1 turns on a LED since A turns it off.
They can cause the LED to fade in and out rather than blinking on
and off. This causes the 10k resistors to delay in charging and
discharging of the capacitors and LEDs.

What are in Phase Two of the Prototyping

Project?
The second phase is a quick design or preliminary design. This
helps to create a simple model of the system, but not a complete
design. However, the user will get an idea of the project. This phase
requires a quick design, building a prototype, user evaluation,
refining prototype, and product implementation and maintenance.
There are four types of prototyping project models, such as
evolutionary prototype, extreme prototype, incremental prototype,
and rapid throwaway prototype.
 CHAPTER NINE

PROJECTS IN RASPBERRY PI

Raspberry is a pocket-size device used in unimaginable ways. You

can design various projects such as electronic projects, full-fledged
arcade machines, and other digital programs.
One of these projects includes a weather station. Let us see how to
construct a weather station.

How to Construct a Weather Station

This project demands that you use a choice Pi board with a built-in
wireless support. You can also use a Wi-Fi dongle for this project.
Another essential hardware choice for this project is the BME280
sensor. This device can help you to analyze pressure, humidity,
temperature, anemometer, wind vane, and rain gauge.
You also need other common prototyping tools, including a 3D
printer for crafting purposes. The Oracle Raspberry Pi Weather
Station Software could be used for leveraging various Python API in
the system.
Beginners find this project an interesting one, as it helps them in
collecting and analyzing atmospheric data. Also, this will boost your
experience in using Pi projects. Apply sensors and Python libraries
of choice to control their functions.
Building a Bot
A Bot is a web software developed and designed on a Pi board. Go
to the Twitter APIs and register a twitter application. Then, install and
write the bot on your device using the programming language. Using
the Twython documentation is recommended for the best
performance and efficiency for the API bit.
After this, automate the bot. This process will cause it to upload the
CPU temperature of your Pi if it spreads to a certain temperature
threshold.
If you are an open-source enthusiast, this project can help you to
explore the Twitter API. You can use this method to build a personal
twitter bot. This is the recommended Raspberry Pi projects.

How to Craft a Security System

With this device, you can design a motion capture security device. It
is an HD surveillance camera system that can capture live videos
and imageries if people or objects cross the monitored environment.
A standard camera is used for time-lapse projects, or any other one
could be used for this project. Most persons build this security
apparatus for monitoring their driveways or checkmating on their
dogs while they are away.
Do a live stream of the videos using any mobile devices or from a
browser. This camera can record motions and images into a video
doc automatically or on-demand. However, you should operate the
camera through the Pi camera module.
Motion detection software could be used for configuring the system
through the motion capture functionality.
Some programmers configure their devices to send notifications to
them whenever suspicious images are captured or recorded for
examination.
 CHAPTER TEN

HOW TO PROGRAM GAMES

As a programmer, Raspberry Pi offers you an opportunity of learning

the methods to program games. This is open-source software for
kids and Pythoneers for creating fun games on the device. This
project begins with the LÖVE game engine using Lua, a scripting
language.
This is often regarded as hackable fun on a cheap computer device
made for learners of all ages. LÖVE is renowned for modern game
programming. If you must produce video games, you should learn
the Lua language requested in major game studios all over the
globe. It is a complimentary resource in the proprietary Unity and
Unreal game engines. This is evident in different places in the world.
LÖVE engine functions as the pygame framework in terms of
features, since it has no IDE. This game engine is lightweight and
not complicated like Godot. The program can work on any platform
containing the Lua language. Platforms functioning with Linux, Mac,
Windows, Android, and iOS can work with LÖVE programs.

Step-by-step Process of Games Programming in

Raspberry PI

Let us learn the systematic processes of game programming in

Raspberry Pi.

a. Install the LÖVE Program – the first step is to install the

LÖVE program following an easy command on the
device.
$ sudo apt install love2d
If you are running Fedora on your Pi, you can use dnf instead of
LÖVE software
$ sudo dnf install love2d

However, by installing either of these applications, you have

introduces Lua, SDL, or other apps that LÖVE needs to run on your
device.
Begin with Hello, World! Program
The LÖVE engine exists as a framework enabling you to use any
text editor of your choice in programming your games. Begin with the
“hello world!” program. Ensure this program launches on your device
and introduces the basic syntax of both the LÖVE framework and the
Lua language.
Go to your system, open a text editor, and enter this text:

Cwide = 520
Chigh = 333

love.window.setTitle(‘ Hello World ‘)

love.window.setMode(cwide, chigh)

function love.load( )
love.graphics.setBackgroundColor(177, 106, 248)
-- font = love.graphics.setNewFont(“SkirtGirl.ttf” , 72)
end
function love.draw( )
love.graphics.setColor(255, 33, 78)
 love.graphics.print(“Hello World”, cwide/4, chigh/3.33)
end

Save those entries above as main.lua

A standard zip file with .love extension is a distributable LÖVE
package. The main file should be labeled as main.lua, and it should
be on top of the zip file. You can create it in this form:
$ zip hello.love main.lua

Then, launch the app after creating the extension. This should be
like this:
$ love ./hello.love
This will give you an out, such as:
“HELLO, WORLD!”
This is an understandable code. The cwide and chigh variables are
universal and could be seen in the whole script.
The first block of code is called a function that sets the background
shade of the program. The second block of code gets the “hello
world!” printed on the screen.
The line containing two dashes (--) is the comment section. It also
includes a .ttf in the .love package . This leads to the new line text
setNewFont with no comment. In this case, you should not use the
Skirt Girl font. Get a font from FontLibrary.org . This will enable you
to adjust the codes accordingly. You will now have codes such as:
$ zip hello.love main.lua SkirtGirl.ttf

Then, launch this program.

$ love ./hello.love
Types of Games in Raspberry PI
You can install and play various games on your system. These
include

a. Minetest
b. Widelands
c. Duke Nukem 3D
d. Beneath a Steel Sky
e. Micropolis
f. Freeciv
g. Which-Way-Is-Up?
h. Openrena
i. Quake III Arena.
j. Star Wars by Jedi Knight
k. Battle for Wesnoth.
l. Funny Boat
m. Littlecrane
n. Flight of the Amazon Queen.
o. Abuse
p. SuperTux
q. Angry Drunken Dwarves.
r. RailWorld
s. PyDance
t. OpenTTD
u. Simutrans
v. Quake 3 “other”
w. Monsterz
x. PrBOOM, and more.
Pygame and Hello pygame
Pygame means a Primer on Game. This is game programming in
Python. If you understand the pygame as a programmer, use it in
writing games on every platform and language quickly.
This is a Python covering for SDL library. It means Simple
DirectMedia Layer, which provides cross-platform accessibility for
your Pi’s system underlying multimedia hardware components.
These components include a keyboard, joystick, video, sound, and
mouse.
Pygame began as a substitute for the PySDL project. This program
comes with a cross-platform nature convenient for pygame and SDL.
In other words, you can write games and other python programs on
any platform that supports these applications.
Hello, pygame is another version of pygame.

What are the coordinates?

Coordinates serve as Raspberry Pi location tracker. It functions
without GPS and can be attached to any vehicle. It is connected to
Google Maps, making it easier for you to track and know the location
of your car or other moving objects anywhere and anytime.
Vehicle tracking or location tracking using this RPi is done using a
sim card cell tower location.
All you need for this feature to work in your Raspberry Pi are the
hardware and software.
Hardware

Sim card with a data connection.

USB dongle or USB power bank.
Ubuntu or Raspberry Pi.
Raspberry Pi with memory card for installing an
Operating System.
5 volts or 1 A powerpoint from a moving vehicle.

Software

Google Maps Geolocation API private key.

Supported OS or Raspbian installed onto a Raspberry Pi.
 weaved.com account for regulating Raspberry Pi on the
internet.
Knowledge of computer programming for handling Python
codes, HTML, and JavaScript codes.
The private key for uploading coordinates onto online
storage platforms.

Using One Raspberry

Do you know that you can apply one Raspberry Pi device as a multi-
tool? Instead of using two Raspberry Pi devices, this feature helps
you to manage different projects on one device.
This is possible by installing the balena cloud in your system. The
software can combine different projects and run them on one device.
This feature enables you to accomplish more with your Pi.

How to follow the Mouse

You can move the mouse on a Raspberry Pi with the arrow keys on
your keyboard.
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

WHAT IS RASPBERRY PI ROBOT?

Raspberry Pi Robots

Raspberry Pi robot is a programmable robot kit that is done using a

Pi. An example of Raspberry Pi robots is an Arduino robot.
Raspberry Pi devices function like a desktop computer system but
smaller and cheaper. Experienced programmers, students,
hobbyists, and other enthusiasts can use it for building robots.

Requirements for Raspberry PI Robot

The requirements for building a Raspberry Pi robot include

a. 2 five-volt DC motors.
b. 6 AA batteries in a holder – for powering the motors.
 c. Small breadboard – a device for building simple circuits
without soldering.
d. Sticky tack adhesive.
e. Chassis - a flat and squared material measuring 6 inches,
such as laser-cut plastic, legos, and cardboard.
Additional two feet are needed for stabilizing the droid.
f. L293D motor controller.
g. Two wheels with grippy rubber tires – these tires snap
onto the motor shafts.
h. 5-volt USB mobile phone battery pack – for powering the
Pi device.
i. Jumper wires for connecting all the equipment.
j. microSD card – for loading the BOT’s software before it
can function.

The Methods for Setting up a Raspberry Pi Robot

Connect the Wires
After mounting your device and the breadboard on top of the
chassis, you can use an adhesive like a Sticky Tack to hold them
together. Fix the L293D motor controller in the breadboard. Connect
the jumper circuit to the right pins on your Raspberry device,
including the breadboard.
Then, attach both wires on each DC motor to the output pins of the
motor controller.

Connect your System to the Power Source

Install the motors, wheels, and battery box to your robot’s underside.
Connect the power cables and run them up to your breadboard.
Then, connect them to the motor power input of the L293D. Attach
the 5-volts battery pack and plug it into the Raspberry Pi.
Download the Software
You need to prepare the card by downloading the software that can
help you to control your robot through the Pi. The software for
running and powering your Pi is NOOBS . Go to the website and
down it.
Unzip and copy the OS of NOOBS into the microSD card. After this,
slot in the card into your Pi. Connect your mouse, keyboard, and
monitor to the Raspberry Pi. Follow the system prompts and install
the Raspbian software to your system.
Hook up to the Internet
If your system does not have Wi-FI, you can hook up to the internet
with an Ethernet cable. Then, type this command into the terminal
git clone https://github.com/the-raspberry-Pi-guy/wired

After that, you can type in

cd wired

You can also view at the simple 10-line Python program in the
terminal with this command:
nano first_move.py
This command will open the code in Nano, which is Pi’s native text
editor.

Run the Python Program

At this stage, it is time to install the program and make your new
robot move around. You should use this command to execute the
code.
Python3 first_move.py
After entering the code, your robot will begin to move around in a
square. Return to the program using Nano editor. Change the time
delays and change the commands for backward, forward, right, and
left to create your desired movements, actions, and responses in the
robot.
Add Sensors and Write New Code
It is time to grow your robot’s potentials by adding sensors and
writing new codes. That’s the essence of using the Pi platform for
controlling your robot.
Attach an infrared sensor to the robot’s nose. Program the bot to trail
a black line on the floor. You can also add a camera with an
integrated computer-vision code. This will help to get the droid in
chasing after a ball or any other object you desire.

How to Handle Autonomous Rover

You can build an autonomous rover that can function with your
system. This device is useful for competitions and various activities.
You can create this device by following simple rules and approaches.

How to Assemble the Hardware

The equipment needed for this project includes Raspberry Pi 3, Pi
camera V2, Arduino Mega 2560, and Tensorflow object detection
API. Others are custom 3D chassis model, voltage regulators, pickup
servo motors, custom Mr. W stepper motor controller, and batteries
such as custom-made 4x Lithium 18650 rechargeable cell that can
generate 21 volts.

Running the Software

The device is designed with software for processing and controlling
all the movements of the rover. This software functions as the
intelligence unit of the robot. It contains specific movement
instructions and communicates with the Arduino. The motions could
be like the move left thirty degrees or go to the right twenty inches.
The mobility of your robot depends on its serial communication.
 CONCLUSION

If you are a Pythonista or Pythoneer, this book provides an incredible

opportunity for you to understand how to navigate a Raspberry Pi
platform successfully. You can play games and control technological
devices such as robots, drones, and other machines easily with your
Pi.
The revolution in technology has enhanced the development of this
pocket-size computer that can function like your desktop or laptop
computers. However, it is cheaper and smaller in size.
The Raspbian is its operating system and works with Linux OS. All
you need to use this device properly is the right equipment such as a
screen like monitor, HDMI, power source, adaptor, mouse, keyboard,
internet connection, a television, and the Raspberry Pi itself. You
also need knowledge of how to interconnect them for effective
performance.
The Raspberry Pi can operate all your smart home appliances. You
should upgrade your IT skills by reading this book extensively and
mastering the information loaded inside. With this, you can become
a programmer capable of handling a microcomputer device and
performing multiple assignments and technological projects.