BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Rs  C s 
Gs 

ct   c f t   cn t 

c f t  is the forced response or steady state response or particular solution

cn t  is the natural response or homogeneous solution

To solve ct , we can either

i. Solve the differential equation (for particular and homogeneous solutions), or

ii. Take the Inverse Laplace Transform, or
iii. Use the inspection of the poles and zeros of the system in relation to the time response.

(i) and (ii) are time consuming and laborious.

What are POLEs?

i. The values of the Laplace Transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to
become infinite.
ii. Common roots of the numerator and the denominator of the transfer function.

What are ZEROs?

i. The values of the Laplace Transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to
become zero.
ii. Common roots of the numerator and the denominator of the transfer function.

s    j

j

s  plane


Poles and Zeros of a First Order System

unit step
R s   1 s s2 C s 
s5

C s  
s  2  K1  K 2
ss  5 s s  5
25 35
C s   
s s5
2 3
ct    e 5t
5 5
2 3
is the forced response while e 5t is the natural response.
5 5

Observations;
i. A pole at the origin generates a step function at the output (a pole of the input function
generates the form of the forced response).
ii. A pole of the transfer function generates the form of the natural response that is,  5
generated e 5t .
iii. A pole on the real axis generates an exponential response of the form e t where   is the
pole location on the real axis. Thus, the farther to the left a pole is on the negative real axis,
the faster the exponential transient response will decay to zero.

iv. The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes for both the forced and natural responses.

Example: by inspection, write the output c(t) in general terms if the input is a unit step.

10s  4s  6
G s  
s  1s  7 s  8s  10
ct   K1  K 2 e t  K 3e 7t  K 4 e 8t  K 5 e 10t

K1 is the forced response while K 2 e t  K 3e 7t  K 4 e 8t  K 5 e 10t is the natural response.
FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS

a
C s   Rs G s  
ss  a 
ct   c f t   cn t   1  e  at
1
When t  , ct   0.63
a

Note: initial slope = a (students should try to show this)

First-order Systems’ Transient Response Specifications
Time Constant: is the time it takes for the step response to rise to 63% of its final value
1
time constant 
a
Rise Time, Tr : is the time it takes the waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value.
Remember that ct   1  e  at . Therefore the final value is 1.
Now we’ll find the time to reach 0.1 and 0.9.
0.1
ct   0.1  1  e  at0.1  t 0.1 
a
2.3
ct   0.9  1  e  at0.9  t 0 .9 
a
2.2
Tr  t 0.9  t 0.1 
a

Settling Time, Ts : is the time it takes the response to reach and stay within 2% of its final value
(5% settling time can also be defined).
ct   0.98  1  e  aTs
 3.91
Ts 
a
So, what is the effect of a on transient response? Higher a yields faster response note that this
means poles farther from the j  axis.
K
A general first-order system response will look like C s   Rs G s  
ss  a 
K 1
In this case, the final value is and the time constant remains, Tc 
a a
Example: for the unit step response shown, find the transfer function of the system.

c(t) vs. t
0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Final value = 0.3

63% of the final value = 0.189
Therefore from the graph, time constant can be estimated as Tc  0.1 s
1
Tc   a  10
a
K
final value   0. 3  K 3
a
K 3
Therefore G s   
s  a s  10

SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS
 not as simple as first-order systems
 exhibits a wide range of responses
 changes in system parameters may not only change the speed of the response but also the
form of the response.
  a  a 2  4b a a 2  4b
System poles at s1, 2   
2 2 2

a. Overdamped System Response: 2 real system poles, that is a 2  4b

Students should familiarize themselves with obtaining c(t) (here and in the other cases). Note
that second-order systems have zero initial slope (this can be seen from the graph and
dct 
students can also verify this by solving ).
dt t 0

b. Underdamped System Response: 2 complex poles, that is a 2  4b

The cosine function is the source of the oscillation.

The frequency of the exponential decay of the sinusoid’s amplitude is the real part of the
poles,  d . The imaginary part is the frequency of oscillation,  d (damped frequency of
oscillation).

c. Undamped System Response: 2 imaginary poles, that is a  0

d. Critically Damped System Response: multiple real roots, that is a 2  4b

Critically damped responses are the fastest possible without the overshoot that is
characteristic of the underdamped response.

Natural Frequency & Damping Ratio

Natural frequency,  n , of a second-order system is the frequency of oscillation of the system

without damping (you may want to revise the characteristics of the undamped system response).
exponential decay frequency 1 natural frequency (sec)
Damping Ratio,   
natural frequency (rad/sec) 2 exponential time constant
b
Consider, G s  
s  as  b
2

Without damping, a = 0 (this is to obtain  n )

b
G s   having poles at  j b
s b
2

Therefore  n  b  b   n2
 a2
   a  2n
n n
 n2
 G s   2
s  2n s   n2
 Rs   n2 C s 
s 2  2n s   n2

12
Example: find  and  n if G s  
s  8s  12
2

n2  12  n  2 3
2
2n  8    3
3

Quiz
20
Find  and  n if G s   .
s  6s  144
2

Hint: we only used the denominator of G(s) when formulating  and  n .

For the general case, then, we have

4 2 n2  4 n2
s1, 2  n   n   2 n2   n2
2
s1, 2  n   n  2  1

overdamped :  1
underdampe d : 0  1
undamped :  0
criticallydamped :   1

Variations of damping ratio alone yield the complete range of overdamped, critically damped,
underdamped, and undamped responses.

Underdamped Second-order Systems

Let’s take a closer look at underdamped second-order systems.

Quiz
Show that the unit step response of a general underdamped system with transfer function
 n2
s 2  2n s   n2
is c t   1 
1
1 2
e  tn
cos n 1   2
t   
where   tan
 
1 
 1 2

.

 
The lower the value of  , the more oscillatory the response (and the slower the system).

Other Underdamped Second-order System Parameters (other than  and  n )

Rise Time, Tr : same as under first-order system.

Peak Time, T p : is the time taken to reach the first or maximum peak.

Percentage Overshoot, %OS: is the amount that the waveform overshoots the steady-state or
final value at the peak time, expresses as a percentage of the steady state value.

Settling Time, Ts : is the time required for the transient’s damped oscillations to reach and stay
within ±2% of the steady state value.

Let’s evaluate T p , %OS and Ts as functions of  and  n .

1
R s  
s  n2 C s 
s 2  2n s   n2

To find T p , we’ll set the derivative of ct  to zero. Check the last quiz for ct  .

The easiest way to find the derivative of ct  is via Laplace Transform.

n
n 1   2
 2
 2
1 2
ℒ ct   sC s   n
 n

s  2n s   n s  n    n 1    s  n 2   n2 1   2 
2 2 2 2 2
 n
Taking the Inverse Laplace Transform, ct   e  nt sin  n 1   2 t
1 2

To find T p ,
n
ct  
 nT p
e sin  n 1   2 T p  0
1 2

 n 1   2 T p  n where n  0,1, 2, 3, 
n
Tp 
n 1   2
T p occurs at n = 1. Therefore

Tp 
n 1   2

%OS

c max  c final
%OS   100
c final
     
 
   

c max  cT p   1  e
 2   2
 1 1 

cos  sin    1  e 
 1 2 
c final  1

  
 
 2 
 1
%OS  e 
 100
 In %OS 100

 2  In 2 %OS 100
Ts
This is the time it takes for the amplitude of the decaying sinusoid to reach 0.02.
1
e  nTs  0.02 (assuming the cos term = 1)
1 2

Ts 

 In 0.02 1 -  2 
n
Check the numerator as 0    1 (for underdamped system)
4
Ts 
n
Let’s relate T p , %OS and Ts to pole locations

cos  

 d is the damped frequency of oscillation (imaginary part of the poles) while  d is the
exponential damping frequency (real part of the poles).

 4
Tp  Ts 
d d

LAPLACE TRANSFORM SOLUTION OF STATE EQUATIONS

x t   Ax t   But 
y t   Cxt   Dut 

sXs   x0   AX s   BUs 

sI  A Xs   x0  BUs 

Xs   sI  A  x0   sI  A  BUs 

1 1

adjsI  A 
 x0  BUs 
det sI  A 

The roots of detsI  A  0 are the eigenvalues of the system matrix A and they are also the
poles of the system’s transfer function.

Because, with x0  0 (as expected when finding transfer function)

adjsI  A 
Ys   CXs   DUs   C BUs   DUs 
detsI  A 

Therefore, if the input and output are scalars

 adjsI  A 
Y s   CXs   DU s   C BU s   DU s 
det sI  A 
Y s  adjsI  A 
 CXs   DU s   C BD
U s  det sI  A 
CadjsI  A B  D det sI  A 

det sI  A 
 0 2  0
x t    xt    e t
  3  5 1
Example: y t   1 3xt 
 2
x0    
1
a. Solve for y(t) using state-space and Laplace Transform techniques.
b. Find the eigenvalues and the system poles.

a. Xs   sI  A x0  sI  A BU s 

1 1

2 
sI  A   
s

 3 s  5
1  s  5 2
sI  A 1   
s 2  5s  6   3 s 
1  s  5 2  2  1  s  5 2  0  1
Xs   2     2   
s  5s  6   3 s  1  s  5s  6   3 s  1  s  1
1  2 s  12  1  2
     
s  2s  3  s  61  s  1s  2s  3  s 
 X s  
Xs    1 
 X 2 s 
2 s  12 2 2 s 2  14s  14
X 1 s    
s  2s  3 s  1s  2s  3 s  1s  2s  3
s6 s 5s 2  4 s  6
X 1 s    
s  2s  3 s  1s  2s  3 s  1s  2s  3
 X s   5s 2  2 s  4
Y s   CXs   DU s   1 3 1   X 1 s   3 X 2 s  
 X 2 s  s  1s  2s  3
0.5 12 17.5
Y s     
s 1 s  2 s  3
yt   0.5e t  12e 2t  17.5e 3t

b. -2, -3
TIME DOMAIN SOLUTION OF STATE EQUATIONS

xt   e At x0    e A t  Bu d

t

0
(*)
 Φt x0    Φt   Bu d
t

Φt  is the state-transition matrix, Φt   e At

First term of (*) is called the zero input response (ZIR)

Second term (convolution integral) is called the zero state response (ZSR)

Please note that these are different from forced and natural responses.

Remember that

Xs   sI  A x0  sI  A BUs 

1 1
(**)

Comparing the first parts of (*) and (**),

ℒ Φt   sI  A
1


ℒ -1 sI  A 
1
  Φt 
 adjsI  A  
 Φt   ℒ -1  
 det sI  A  

 adjsI  A  
 e At  ℒ -1  
 det sI  A  

Example: given the system represented in state-space as

 0 2  0
x t    xt    e  2t
  2  5 1
y t   2 1xt 
1
x0   
 2

a. Solve for Φt 

b. Solve for the state vector using convolution integral.
c. Find the output, y(t)
 
a. Φt   ℒ -1 sI  A1 
2 
sI  A   
s

 2 s  5
1  s  5 2
sI  A 1   
s  1s  4   2 s 
 43 13  23 23  
       

ℒ -1 sI  A 
1
    s 1 s  4 
 2 3
 s 1 s  4  
2 3   13 4 3 
      
 s 1 s  4   s 1 s  4 
  4 t 1  4 t   2 t 2  4 t  
  e  e   e  e  
  3 3  3 3  
Φt  
  2 t 2  4 t   1 t 4  4 t  
  e  e    e  e 
 3 3   3 3 
b. x(t) = ZIR + ZSR
  4 t 1  4 t   2 t 2  4 t  
  e  e   e  e   1
ZIR  Φt x0     3 3  3 3   
  2 t 2  4t   1 t 4  4t   2 
  e  e    e  e 
 3 3   3 3 
  8 t 5  4 t  
  e  e  
3 3
   
  4 t 10  4t  
  e  e 
 3 3 
ZSR   Φt   Bu d
t

  4 t   1  4t     2 t   2  4t    

  e  e   e  e  
  3 3   3 3  
Φt    
  2 t   2  4t     1 t   4  4t    
  e  e   e  e 
 3 3   3 3 
  4 t   1  4t     2 t   2  4t       2 t   2  4t    
  e  e   e  e   0   e  e  
  3 3   3 3     3 3  
Φt   B    
  2 t   2  4t     1 t   4  4t     1    1 t   4  4t    
  e  e   e  e    e  e 
 3 3   3 3   3 3 
  2 t   2  4t       2 t  2  4t 2  
  e  e     e e  e e  
 3 3  3 3
  
Φ t   Bu      e  
 2  
  1 t   4  4t       1 t  4  4t 2  
  e  e    e e  e e 
 3 3   3 3 
   2 t    2 
 1
   2 1 1
  e  e t  1  e  4 t e 2 t  1      e  2 t  e t  e  2 t  e  4 t  
3 3
ZSR        3 3 3 3 
  1 t    1  2 t 1 t 2  2 t 2  4 t  

t

2  4t 2t
 

  e  e 1  e e 1    e  e  e  e  
 3 3    3 3 3 3  
  2 t 1  
  e  e  2t  e  4t  
3 3
   
  1 t  2t 2  4t  
  e  e  e 
 3 3 

  10 t 4 
  e  e 2t  e  4t  
3 3
 xt     
  5 t  2t 8  4t  
  e  e  e 
 3 3 

  10 t 4 
  e  e  2t  e  4t  
3 3
c. y t   2 1xt   2 1     5e t  e  2t
  5 t  2t 8  4t  
  e  e  e 
 3 3 

Quiz
 0 2 
If A    , find e At
  3  5 