NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS AND

MECHANISMS
MODULE 4
ECHOLOCATION
 ECHO: A repeated sound that is caused by the reflection of sound waves
from a surface. The sound is heard more than once because of the time
difference between the initial production of the sound waves and their
return from the reflecting surface. A wave that carries a signal and is
reflected.
 Echolocation is a biological or technological process that involves
emitting sound waves and listening to the echoes that bounce back off of
objects in the environment to determine their location, distance, and
shape.
 In Biology, Bats using echolocation to navigate and find food in the dark.
 In Technology, echolocation can be traced back to the early days of
submarinen warfare. During World War I, the British navy developed a
primitive form of sonar (known then as "ASDIC") to detect submarines.
 Biological Echolocation
 Found in various animals such as bats, dolphins, and some species of
whales.
 Relies on the emission of sound waves, usually in the form of clicks
or vocalizations.
 Animals emit sound waves and listen for the echoes produced when
the sound waves bounce off objects in their environment.
 By analyzing the echoes, animals can determine the location,
distance, and even the shape of objects around them.
 This ability is mainly used for navigation, hunting, and
communication in the animal kingdom.
 Biological echolocation is a natural adaptation that has evolved over
millions of years.
 Technological Echolocation
 Replicates the concept of biological echolocation using technological
devices.
 Utilizes sound waves, typically generated by artificial sources such as
sonar or ultrasonic sensors.
 These devices emit sound waves and analyze the echoes that bounce
back from objects.
 The information from the echoes is processed and interpreted by the
technology to generate useful data, such as distance, location, and
object recognition.
 Technological echolocation has applications in various fields,
including navigation, robotics, obstacle detection, and medical
imaging.
 It is a human-engineered solution inspired by the natural abilities of
animals.
 Principle of Ecolocation
 Both biological and technological echolocation rely on the same
basic principles and have the same underlying purpose: to
determine the location, distance, and shape of objects in the
environment using sound waves and their echoes.
 The principle of echolocation is based on the emission of sound
waves and the interpretation of the echoes that bounce back from
objects in the environment.
 Sound Emission: The echolocating organism, whether biological or
technological, emits sound waves into its surroundings. In biological
echolocation, this is typically achieved through vocalizations or clicks,
while in technological echolocation, it is usually done using artificial
sources such as sonar or ultrasonic sensors.
 Propagation of Sound Waves: The emitted sound waves travel
through the environment, spreading out in all directions.
 Object Interaction: When the sound waves encounter objects in the
environment, such as obstacles or prey, they interact with these objects.
The interaction can involve reflection, scattering, or absorption of the
sound waves.
 Echo Reception: Some of the sound waves that interact with objects
bounce back or echo off them. These echoes carry information about
the objects' distance, shape, composition, and other characteristics.
 Sensory Reception: The echolocating organism, whether biological or
technological, has sensory receptors capable of detecting and processing
the returning echoes. In biological echolocation, this is typically
specialized organs or structures, such as bat ears or dolphin melon, while
in technological echolocation, it is achieved through sensors and
receivers.
 Echo Interpretation: The information contained in the echoes is
analyzed and interpreted by the organism or technology. This
interpretation involves extracting relevant features from the echoes and
making sense of the spatial and temporal patterns present.
 Perception and Response: Based on the interpretation of the echoes, the
organism or technology can perceive and understand the surrounding
environment. This perception enables the organism to navigate, locate
objects, detect obstacles, or perform other relevant tasks.
 Sound Emission
 Biological System
 Biological organisms, such as bats and cetaceans, have specialized
sound emission organs to produce sounds for echolocation.
 Bats emit sounds using their larynx and modify the emitted sounds
using structures like the nose leaf or mouth cavity. Dolphins and
whales emit sounds through their blowholes, producing clicks or
vocalizations.
 Technological System
 Technological systems rely on artificial sound emission devices,
such as speakers or transducers, to generate sound waves for
echolocation. Ultrasonic sensors or sonar systems emit sound waves
through these devices, typically using piezoelectric elements or
transducers.
 Sensory Reception
 Biological System
 Biological organisms possess specialized sensory reception organs
that allow them to detect and interpret the returning echoes.Bats have
highly sensitive ears designed to detect and analyze ultrasonic
frequencies. Dolphins and some whales also receive echoes through
their lower jaw. The jawbone conducts sound vibrations to the middle
ear, where they are converted into nerve impulses for interpretation
by the brain.
 Technological systems use sensors and receivers to capture and
process the returning echoes.Ultrasonic sensors are commonly
employed, which consist of a transducer that emits sound waves and
receives the echoes.Sonar systems often incorporate hydrophones or
other specialized underwater microphones to detect and interpret the
echoes.
 ULTRASONOGRAPHY
 Ultrasonography is a medical imaging technique that uses high-frequency
sound waves to produce images of the internal organs and tissues of the
body. It is also known as ultrasound imaging or sonography.
 The ultrasound machine emits high-frequency sound waves (usually in the
range of 2 to 18 MHz) that travel through the body and bounce back off of
the internal organs and tissues. The returning echoes are captured by the
ultrasound machine and used to create images of the internal structures.
 Ultrasonography is a non-invasive, safe, and painless imaging method that
can be used to visualize a wide range of structures within the body,
including the organs of the abdomen, pelvis, and chest, as well as the uterus,
fetus, and other soft tissues. It is commonly used in prenatal care to monitor
the growth and development of the fetus and to diagnose any potential
problems.
 Ultrasonography has several advantages over other imaging methods,
including its low cost, ease of use, and lack of ionizing radiation. It is also
portable and can be used in a variety of settings, making it a valuable tool
for medical professionals.
 Working Principle of Ultrasonography
 The working principle of ultrasonography is based on the reflection of high-
frequency sound waves.
 Transducer: An ultrasonography machine consists of a transducer that is
used to emit and receive high-frequency sound waves. The transducer is
placed in direct contact with the skin or inserted into the body through a gel.
 Emission of sound waves: The transducer emits high-frequency sound
waves (usually in the range of 2 to 18 MHz) into the body. These sound
waves travel through the body and encounter different tissues and organs,
which have different acoustic properties.
 Reflection of sound waves: The sound waves encounter
boundaries between different tissues and organs and bounce back,
creating echoes. The strength of the echoes depends on the
acoustic properties of the tissues and organs, such as density and
stiffness.
 Reception of echoes: The transducer in the ultrasonography
machine receives the echoes and sends the information to a
computer, which processes the data to create images.
 Image formation: The computer uses the information from the
echoes to create images of the internal organs and tissues of the
body. The images are displayed on a screen, allowing the operator
to see the structure and movement of the internal organs and
tissues.
 Uses of Ultrasonography
 Ultrasonography is a versatile imaging method that is used in a wide
range of medical applications. Some of the most common uses of
ultrasonography include:
 Obstetrics and gynecology: Ultrasonography is commonly used to
monitor the growth and development of a fetus during pregnancy, as
well as to evaluate the reproductive organs and female pelvic organs for
conditions such as ovarian cysts, fibroids, and endometrial cancer.
 Abdominal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the organs of the
abdomen, such as the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys,
to diagnose conditions such as liver disease, gallstones, pancreatitis, and
kidney stones.
 Musculoskeletal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the
muscles, tendons, and ligaments to diagnose conditions such as muscle
strains, tendonitis, and ligament sprains.
 Vascular imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image blood
vessels, such as the arteries and veins, to diagnose conditions
such as blood clots, blockages, and aneurysms.
 Eye and neck imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the
eyes and neck to diagnose conditions such as cataracts, glaucoma,
and thyroid nodules.
 Emergency medicine: Ultrasonography is often used in
emergency medicine to quickly and accurately diagnose
conditions such as appendicitis, pneumothorax, and fluid buildup
in the abdomen or chest.
 Advantages of Ultrasonography
 Non-invasive: Ultrasonography does not involve any incisions or
injections, making it a safe and convenient imaging method.
 No ionizing radiation: Ultrasonography does not use ionizing radiation,
making it a safer option for patients, especially pregnant women and
children.
 Real-time imaging: Ultrasonography provides real-time images that can
be used to monitor the movement and function of internal organs and
tissues in real-time.
 Portable: Ultrasonography machines are portable and can be used in a
variety of settings, making it a valuable tool for emergency and rural
medicine.
 Cost-effective: Ultrasonography is a cost-effective imaging method
that does not require any special preparation or recovery time.
 Versatile: Ultrasonography can be used to image a wide range of
structures within the body, including the organs of the abdomen,
pelvis, and chest, as well as the uterus, fetus, and other soft tissues.
 Limitations of Ultrasonography
 Limited depth: Ultrasonography has limited depth and is not as
effective at imaging deep structures or those obscured by bones or
gas.
 Operator dependence: The quality of the images produced by
ultrasonography depends heavily on the skills and experience of the
operator.
 Limited resolution: Ultrasonography has limited resolution compared
to other imaging methods, making it less effective at visualizing
small structures or detecting small changes in tissue.
 Limitations in overweight patients: Ultrasonography may have
limited usefulness in overweight patients due to the difficulty in
obtaining clear images through the layers of fat.
 Limitations in detecting some types of cancer: Ultrasonography
may not be as effective at detecting certain types of cancer, such
as pancreatic cancer, due to the lack of characteristic signs on
ultrasound images.
SONARS
 Sonar, which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging, is a
technology that uses sound waves to detect and locate underwater
objects.
 Sonar technology works by emitting a series of sound pulses and
listening for the echoes that bounce back from underwater
objects. The time it takes for the echoes to return is used to
calculate the distance to the objects, and the frequency and pattern
of the echoes are used to determine their size and shape.
 "Sonar" can refer to one of two types of technology:
 passive sonar means listening for the sound made by vessels;
 active sonar means emitting pulses of sounds and listening for
echoes.
 Working Principle of Sonars
 The working principle of sonar technology is based on the reflection
of sound waves.
 Transmitter: A sonar system consists of a transmitter that produces
and emits a series of sound pulses into the water. These sound pulses
are typically in the form of highfrequency,low-power acoustic
signals, known as "ping.“
 Propagation of sound waves: The sound pulses propagate through the
water, traveling to the target object and bouncing back as echoes.
The speed of sound in water is slower than in air, and it depends on
the temperature, pressure, and salinity of the water.
 Receiver: The sonar system also includes a receiver that listens for
the returning echoes. The receiver is typically placed far away from
the transmitter to minimize interference from the transmitted signals.
 Calculation of range: The time it takes for the echoes to return to the
receiver is used to calculate the range to the target object. The range
is simply the product of the speed of sound in water and the time it
takes for the echoes to return.
 Determination of target properties: The frequency and pattern of the
echoes are used to determine the properties of the target object, such
as its size, shape, and composition. For example, a large, solid
object will produce a strong, low-frequency echo, while a small,
porous object will produce a weaker, high-frequency echo.
 Display of results: The results of the sonar measurement are
typically displayed on a screen or other output device, allowing the
operator to visualize the target object and its location.
 Uses of Sonars
 Sonars are commonly used for a variety of purposes, including:
 Naval applications: Sonars are used by naval vessels to detect and locate
other ships, submarines, and underwater obstacles, allowing them to
navigate safely and avoid potential collisions.
 Fishery: Sonars are used in the fishing industry to locate schools of fish
and determine the depth of the water, allowing fishermen to more
efficiently target their catch.
 Oceanography: Sonars are used in oceanography to study the physical and
biological properties of the ocean, including the structure of the ocean floor,
the movement of currents, and the distribution of marine life.
 Environmental monitoring: Sonars are used to monitor the health of marine
ecosystems, track the migration patterns of whales and other marine
mammals, and assess the impact of human activities on the ocean
environment.
 Advantages of Sonar Technology
 Versatility: Sonar technology is versatile and can be used in a variety
of applications, such as underwater navigation, mapping, and imaging,
as well as for military and scientific purposes.
 Cost-effective: Compared to other underwater imaging technologies,
sonar is relatively cost-effective and affordable.
 Non-invasive: Unlike other imaging technologies, such as diving and
remote-operated vehicles, sonar does not physically disturb the
underwater environment, making it an ideal choice for environmental
monitoring and scientific research.
 Real-time imaging: Sonar provides real-time imaging, allowing
operators to quickly and easily assess the underwater environment.
 High resolution: Modern sonar systems have high-resolution
capabilities, allowing for detailed images of underwater objects and
structures.
 Limitations of Sonar Technology

 Limited visibility: Sonar imaging is limited by the visibility of the

water, which can be affected by factors such as sediment, algae, and
water temperature. This can make it difficult to obtain clear and
accurate images.
 Interference: Sonar signals can be affected by interference from
other underwater sources, such as ships, submarines, and natural
underwater features, which can lead to false readings and reduced
accuracy.
 Short range: Sonar signals have a limited range, which can make it
difficult to image larger underwater structures or objects that are
located far away from the sonar system.
 Limited depth: The depth to which sonar can effectively penetrate is
limited, making it unsuitable for imaging objects or structures that
are located at great depths.
 Acoustic noise: The use of sonar technology can also generate
acoustic noise, which can disturb marine life and harm marine
ecosystems. This is particularly a concern for highpower,
military-grade sonar systems, which have the potential to cause
serious harm to marine life.
 Complex technology: Sonar technology can be complex,
requiring specialized skills and equipment to operate and
maintain. This can limit its accessibility and increase the cost of
implementation.
 Inaccurate readings: Sonar readings can be inaccurate due to
factors such as reflection, refraction, and absorption of sound
waves, which can result in incorrect measurements and false
readings.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis.
 The process is carried out by plants, algae, and some types of
bacteria, which capture energy from sunlight to produce oxygen
(O2) and chemical energy stored in glucose (a sugar).
 Herbivores then obtain this energy by eating plants, and carnivores
obtain it by eating herbivores.
 Photosynthesis is a process by which phototrophs convert light
energy into chemical energy, which is later used to fuel cellular
activities. The chemical energy is stored in the form of sugars,
which are created from water and carbon dioxide.
 The process exclusively takes place in the chloroplasts
through photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b, carotene and xanthophyll, present in the
thylakoids . All green plants and a few other autotrophic
organisms utilize photosynthesis to synthesize nutrients by
using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. The by-product
of the photosynthesis process is oxygen.
 Photosynthesis also applies to other organisms besides
green plants. These include several prokaryotes such as
cyanobacteria, purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria.
These organisms exhibit photosynthesis just like green
plants.
 The glucose produced during photosynthesis is then used to
fuel various cellular activities. The by-product of this physio-
chemical process is oxygen.

 Photosynthesis is also used by algae .

 Photosynthesis occurs when plants use light energy to convert

carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. Leaves
contain microscopic cellular organelles known as chloroplasts.
 Each chloroplast contains a green-coloured pigment called
chlorophyll. Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll
molecules whereas carbon dioxide and oxygen enter through
the tiny pores of stomata located in the epidermis of leaves.
 Another by-product of photosynthesis is sugars such as
glucose and fructose.
 These sugars are then sent to the roots, stems, leaves,
fruits, flowers and seeds.
 These sugars are used by the plants as an energy source,
which helps them to grow. These sugar molecules then
combine with each other to form more complex
carbohydrates like cellulose and starch. The cellulose is
considered as the structural material that is used in plant
cell walls.
 “Photosynthesis Steps:”
 During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide enters
through the stomata, water is absorbed by the root hairs
from the soil and is carried to the leaves through the xylem
vessels. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy from the sun to
split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
 The hydrogen from water molecules and carbon dioxide
absorbed from the air are used in the production of glucose.
Furthermore, oxygen is liberated out into the atmosphere
through the leaves as a waste product.
 Glucose is a source of food for plants that provide energy for
growth and development, while the rest is stored in the
roots, leaves and fruits, for their later use.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

 A photovoltaic (PV) cell, commonly called a solar cell, is a

nonmechanical device that converts sunlight directly into
electricity. Some PV cells can convert artificial light into
electricity. Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles
of solar energy.
 Photovoltaic cells consist of two or more layers
of semiconductors with one layer containing positive
charge and the other negative charge lined adjacent to
each other.
 Sunlight, consisting of small packets of energy termed as
photons, strikes the cell, where it is either reflected,
transmitted or absorbed.
 When the photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the
photovoltaic cell, the energy of the photon gets transferred to
an electron in an atom of the cell.
 With the increase in energy, the electron escapes the outer
shell of the atom. The freed electron naturally migrates to
the positive layer creating a potential difference between the
positive and the negative layer. When the two layers are
connected to an external circuit, the electron flows through
the circuit, creating a current.
 Photovoltaic cell can be manufactured in a variety of ways
and from many different materials. The most common
material for commercial solar cell construction is Silicon
(Si), but others include Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Cadmium
Telluride (CdTe) and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide
(CIGS). Solar cells can be constructed from brittle
crystalline structures (Si, GaAs) or as flexible thin-film
cells (Si, CdTe, CIGS). Crystalline solar cells can be further
classified into two categories—monocrystalline and
polycrystalline
BIONIC LEAF
 The Bionic Leaf is a biomimetic system that gathers solar
energy via photovoltaic cells that can be stored or used in
a number of different functions. Bionic leaves can be
composed of both synthetic (metals, ceramics, polymers,
etc.) and organic materials (bacteria), or solely made of
synthetic materials.
 The Bionic Leaf has the potential to be implemented in
communities, such as urbanized areas to provide clean air
as well as providing needed clean energy.
 Using a catalyst, the Bionic Leaf can remove excess carbon
dioxide in the air and convert that to use alcohol fuels, like
isopropanol and isobutanol.
 When the catalysts of the Bionic Leaf are coupled with the bacterium Ralstonia
eutropha, this results in a hybrid system capable of carbon dioxide fixation.
 Catalyst
 nickel-molybdenum-zinc (NiMoZn) alloy
 cobalt-phosphorus (Co-P) alloy